Unit 2 APUSH Notes
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The French and Indian War (1754-63)
The Final Colonial War
England vs. France
Both sought control of Europe + commercial supremacy
Colonial wars part of larger conflicts in Europe
Fought mainly at sea & in colonies
Ohio Valley - main area of conflict
Ohio Valley Claims
English, French, & Indians had competing land claims in lands west of Appalachians
VA formed Ohio Co. & speculated in land & fur trade
– Competing w/ France for Indian fur trade
French built chain of forts to halt English expansion - extended into PA territory
French and Indian War
VA colonial militia under Col. George Washington sent to evict French forces (1754)
Built Fort Necessity near strategic French Fort Duquesne (Pittsburgh)
Washington forced to abandon Necessity facing superior French troops (7/4/1754)
Indian support faded w/ loss
Albany Conference of 1754
Delegates of 7 colonies met w/ Iroquois chiefs to discuss mutual defense
Plan of colonial union proposed by Franklin
A Grand Council would oversee defense, Indian relations, trade, taxation & westward
expansion
Would have a royally appointed executive with veto power
Albany Plan cont.
1st plan of Inter-Colonial Union
Albany Plan rejected by colonies & Parliament
England feared colonies would become too strong
Colonies refused to surrender control over own taxation
Even in face of real danger
Early British Failures
Braddock underestimated French & unfamiliar w/ wilderness warfare
1755 - French & Indians ambushed Braddock’s force of British & Colonial soldiers
near Ft. Duquesne
900 incl. Braddock die vs. 23 French - Washington leads survivors home
1756 - Montcalm (FR) invades NY
British Failures cont.
Most British regulars committed to European fighting
Bulk of early fighting done by colonial militia
Poorly coordinated - gave French & Indian allies an early advantage
Only early British victory was in Nova Scotia (1755) - expelled the Acadians
French Advantage
Anglo-Americans outnumbered French forces 20:1 but were ill-trained
Colonies resisted providing more troops
Most enlisted for short time
French well-trained & led
Fought hard
Canadians recruited in large numbers
The Tide Turns
1757 - English Prime Minister William Pitt took control of fighting forces
Sent troops, able leaders & supplies
Greater support for war in England & colonies
Raised # of colonial troops by promising that England would pay for the war
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21K colonial troops in 1758
British Offensives
• Led by British generals Jeffrey Amherst & James Wolfe
• Amherst took Ft. Duquesne & Louisbourg in 1758
– Louisbourg guards entrance to St. Lawrence River
• Drive French from northern NY & Lake Ontario region in 1759
British-American invasion of Canada
• Turning point of the war
• 1759 - Wolfe captured Quebec -Capital of New France & a military stronghold
– Decisive battle of the war
– Montcalm & Wolfe killed
• 1760 - Montreal fell, effectively ending French resistance
Treaty of Paris of 1763
• France cedes Canada to England
• England gave French back the islands of Guadaloupe & Martinique + 1/2 of
Hispanola
• France gave Spain New Orleans & all land west of Miss. River
• England kept Florida
• Havana & Manila returned to Spain
• England took India
Results and Consequences of the War
For England:
England dominant in N. Am.
National debt in England doubled as a result of the war
Parliament looked to the colonies for additional money
Would begin to tax colonies for the purpose of raising $
Wanted Americans to pay 1/3 of cost of their defense
Results & Consequences
For the Colonies:
French threat removed
Colonists less dependent on England for defense
Valuable military experience for soldiers
Learned importance of unity & cooperation
Colonials resent change in economic & trade policy
English ideas, language, & institutions survive
Residual Friction
Colonists resented lack of credit given to militias
British officers complained about quality of militia men & lack of civilian support
e.g. supplying food & shelter
Colonist resented arrogance of British officers
British citizens resented higher taxes to pay for war
Pitt promised to cover cost
Residual Friction
Colonial expansion into west angered Indians
Some (e.g. Pontiac) led anti-British movements
Attacked frontier forts
Fighting cost England $
Indians eventually make peace
Brit govt. issued Proclamation of 1763 to appease Indians
Proclamation of 1763
England took control of western lands
Settlement, trade, etc
Goal - organize expansion
Recognized Indian claims west of proclamation line
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Colonist thought they needed western land to prosper
Saw British troops who enforced Proc. Line as hindering needed expansion
Mercantilism & the Grenville Program
Doctrine of Mercantilism
England sought to become self-sufficient
Wanted favorable balance of trade (more exports than imports)
Protect home industries from foreign competition
Draw inexpensive raw materials from colonies
Mercantilism cont.
Create captive market for British goods
System meant to enrich mother country
Required govt. regulation to work properly
Also needed large merchant & battle fleet to operate profitably & safely
Trade & Navigation Acts (1651-63)
• Meant to help England in its commercial competition w/ Holland
– Benefiting British merchants & manufacturers and shipbuilders
• Colonial trade only in English or Colonial ships
• Certain enumerated goods to be sold only to England by colonies
– Sugar, tobacco, Naval supplies, furs
Navigation Acts cont.
• Most foreign goods imported into colonies went thru England 1st
– Had to pay an import tax there
• Laws passed to restrict colonial manufacturing
– Items that competed w/ English products incl. wool, hats, iron, etc.
• bounties paid to manufacture some items
Effects on Colonies
• Board of Trade created in 1696 - brought some efficiency to enforcement
• Unfavorable balance of trade for colonies
• Helped New England shipbuilders
• Hurt plantation colonies
• Little serious effort to enforce the acts
• Colonists ignored laws and smuggled
New Imperial Policy
After F & I War, British colonial policy changed
Stricter enforcement & new laws
Parliament wished to raise revenue in colonies to offset imperial expenses
1763 - new P.M. George Grenville
George Grenville
Increased # of customs collectors, royal inspectors & naval patrols
Export of finished goods restricted
Writs of Assistance (search warrants) issued to curtail smuggling
– No probable cause needed - could search anywhere to locate illegal shipments
Reaction to Writs of Assistance
James Otis (Boston Lawyer) challenged legality of Writs in court
Claimed they violated fundamental rights of Englishmen (tyranny)
Court ruled Writs were legal
Otis’ arguments rallied public opinion against Writs - protests continued
Revenue Acts
Sugar Act (1764)
• Raised duties on foreign sugar, textiles & other goods
• Lowered duty on molasses to discourage smuggling
• Charges of smuggling to be decided in admiralty courts (no jury trial)
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Reaction to Sugar Act
New England & Middle Colony merchants defied law - believed act would ruin
colonial economy
– continued smuggling & illegal foreign trade
Strong objections to trying cases in admiralty courts - violation of rights
Quartering Act of 1765
• An attempt to reduce cost of military presence in colonies
• Colonists must provide lodging and supplies for British troops
• Colonists opposed supporting a standing British army in times of peace - also
intimidating
Stamp Act of 1765
• Required a tax stamp on most printed material & legal documents
• 1st internal tax levied on colonies
• Alienated influential colonial leaders such as lawyers, merchants, printers
• Parliament generally seen as circumventing colonial assemblies’ control of taxation &
threatening rights
Reaction to Stamp Act
• Patriotic societies (Sons of Liberty) formed to organize resistance to tax
• Stamp collectors harassed & assaulted - stamps destroyed
• Non-importation & non-consumption agreements formed to force repeal
• Otis argued that colonists could not be taxed without their consent
Reaction to Stamp Act cont.
• Grenville argued that colonies had “virtual representation” - all members of Parliament
represented the interests of the empire
• “No taxation without (actual) representation” was the reply
• Distribution & sale of stamps effectively halted thru various forms of protest
Stamp Act Congress (NY - 1765)
• Delegates from 9 colonies
• Demand repeal of stamp tax based on rights & consent
• Petition King George III for relief
• Acknowledge Parliament’s authority to pass regulatory laws but reject internal
taxation without representation
A Uniting Factor
Reaction to Grenville’s policies served to unite various elements of the colonies into a
common cause against English rule.
Repeal of Stamp Act (1766)
• Change of ministers in London brings about repeal
• William Pitt, Edmund Burke spoke in support of colonists’ arguments
• Protests a factor but main reason for repeal is the sharp decline in colonial trade due to
non-importation & consumption agreements
Declaratory Act (1766)
• Passed at same time as repeal of Stamp Act
• Affirmed Parliament’s power to pass laws affecting the colonies “in all cases
whatsoever”
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The Road To Revolution
Actions & Reactions
The road to the revolution was paved with a series of actions and reactions by both the
English Government and the Colonials.
Charles Townshend
• New Finance Minister of Britain - 1766
• Responsible for passage Townshend Duties of 1767
• External taxes on colonial imports
– Glass, paint, lead, paper & tea
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$ raised would pay governors & other British officials, making them independent of
colonial legislatures
Renewed Colonial Protests
• John Dickinson’s Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania - 12/1767
– Argued that Parliament had no right to tax commerce for purpose of raising $
– Legality of external tax depended on intent - no tax if elected reps did not vote for
it
• 1768 - Sam Adams to drafts “circular letter” of protest
Circular Letters
• Condemned taxation w/out rep & threat to self-government - called for resistance
• Sent to other legislatures
• VA sent out own circular letter calling for opposition to policies - more radical
• Brit. Sec. of State threatened colonial legislatures if they endorsed the circular letters
Circular Letters cont.
• Colonial governors dissolved legislatures for not disowning the letter
• Move resulted in even sharper opposition
• Sons (& Daughters) of Liberty led new protests & enforced boycotts on British
products
• Growing mob actions divided colonial opinion & led to more troops (1768)
Repeal of Townshend Duties
• April 1770 - under PM Lord North
• Hastened by widening boycotts
• Parl. retains tax on tea to under-score its authority
• 2nd time in 3 years that colonial pressure led to changes
• Tea duty was a nagging reminder of Parliamentary power
Boston Massacre (3/1770)
• Boston mobs threatened customs officials - leading to more troops
• Friction between troops & citizens high
• March 5 - a mob led by Crispus Attucks confronted Red Coats w/ insults & snowballs
• Troops fired into the crowd, killing 5
• Became a spark for colonial radicals
Committees of Correspondence
• 1772 - Samuel Adams called for formation of Committees of Correspondence between
Mass. towns
• For exchanging information & planning measures to defend colonial rights
• Idea eventually spread to other colonies & later served as a link between colonies
• By 1774 - colonial leaders linked by C of C’s
Tea Act of 1773
• Designed to bail out East India Co.
• Company given monopoly on tea in America - only co. agents could sell tea
• Taxes reduced as incentive to buy
• Undercut colonial merchants & made taxed tea competitive w/ smuggled tea
• C of C’s call for non- violent consumer boycott
Boston Tea Party - 12/16/1773
• Colonies resisted allowing tea to be unloaded
• In Boston, 150 men disguised as Mohawk Indians boarded 3 EIC ships
• Dumped 45 tons of tea in harbor
• No one hurt & no property damaged except the tea
The Coercive (Intolerable) Acts
• Passed by Parliament in 1774
– Reaction to Boston Tea Party
• Boston Port Bill closed Boston Harbor to commerce until tea was paid for
• Mass. Govt. Act suspended the colonial charter of 1691
– All colonial officials appointees of crown
– Town meetings forbidden w/out permission of governor
Coercive Acts cont.
• Administration of Justice Act permitted trials of British officials to be held in England
or other colonies
• A new Quartering Act ordered Mass. to provide lodging & food to troops there
• General Thomas Gage made Gov. of Mass. - gave appearance of military rule
Quebec Act of 1774
• Passed along w/ Coercive Acts
• Granted land west of Alleghenies & north of Ohio R. to Quebec
• To be governed by British officials
• Special privileges given to Roman Catholic Church
Response to Intolerable Acts
• Pushed colonies toward brink of revolution
• Repeal became a non-negotiable demand
• 6 of 27 reasons given in Dec. of Ind. for breaking from England related to I.A.’s
• Reps from all colonies but GA sent delegates to Phila. in Sept. 1774
• Known as First Continental Congress
First Continental Congress
• 56 delegates - prominent colonial leaders (Adams, Jay, Lee, Washington, etc.)
• Initially endorsed Suffolk Resolves which declared Intolerable Acts unconstitutional
– Originally drafted by Mass. Legislature
• Formed Continental Association to coordinate boycotts of British goods
• Committees formed locally to enforce boycotts
First Continental Congress cont.
• Issued Declaration of Rights & Grievances to King George III
• Declaration demanded repeal of Parliamentary measures that produced their
grievances since 1763
– It conceded to Parliament’s right to regulate commerce but not tax, disband
assemblies, etc.
• Addressed King, hoping he would dismiss ministers responsible for Coercive Acts
First Continental Congress cont.
The delegates at the C.C. agreed to meet again in the Spring of 1775 if the issues had
not been solved.
As scheduled, the Second Continental Congress met the next year.
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The Declaration of Independence
The First Shots Precede Independence
◗ Citizens of Mass. anticipated war - formed militia units called Minutemen
• Drilled regularly in open defiance of British
◗ Mass. Assembly prepared for war
◗ Gage sent troops to capture rebel leaders (Hancock & Adams) & weapons at Concord
Shot Heard Around the World
◗ British planned secret march to Concord but Paul Revere & others spread alarm
◗ April 19, 1775 - Redcoats clashed w/ militia at Lexington - 8 minutemen dead
◗ Militiamen from throughout Mass. rallied to repel the British
Colonial victory at Concord
◗ British moved on to Concord - clashed w/ an organized group of minutemen
◗ British retreated from Concord - suffer heavy losses from snipers
◗ Unaccustomed to “unfair” fighting
◗ May 1775 - Ft. Ticonderoga (NY) captured by Allen & Arnold - cannon taken to
Boston for siege
Second Continental Congress
◗ Met in Philadelphia in May 1775
◗ Mass. appealed for help - delegates decide to resist British
◗ Formed Continental Army w/ G. Washington as leader
◗ Issued call to colonies to raise troops & money for war effort
◗ At same time sent “Olive Branch” petition to king, hoping to avert war
2nd Continental Congress cont.
George III rejected “Olive Branch” & declared colonies in rebellion
Sent more troops - approx. 40K sent to colonies
Colonists pushed closer to ind. - responding to British force & colonial battle victories
Many reluctant to break away - preferred autonomy w/ ties
Reasons for Reluctance
◗ Sentimental attachment
◗ Fear of anarchy & despotism
◗ Hope for a change in British ministry & policies
◗ Reluctance of merchants to give up trade privileges under British flag
◗ Lack of clear consensus for separation
Incentives for Separation
◗ British actions angered many who were “on the fence”
◗ Hiring of Hessian mercenaries
◗ Inciting Indians against settlers
◗ Gov. of VA Lord Dunmore’s offer of freedom to slaves who joined the British Army
◗ Closing of colonial ports to trade
Common Sense - January 1776
◗ Published by Thomas Paine
◗ Stated that common sense forbade a continent from being ruled by an island
◗ Argued that colonists were exploited by Britain & should separate from it
◗ Made the king out to be a villain to be hated
Common Sense cont.
◗ Written in plain style to reach wide audience
◗ 100K copies sold in 3 months
◗ Thousands convinced by Paine’s pamphlet that independence was the only sensible
goal
2nd Continental Congress Acts
◗ Began operating as a centralized govt.
◗ Established intercolonial post office
◗ Sought foreign aide & recognition
◗ Organized a navy & authorized attacks on British ships
◗ Proclaimed colonial ports open to all but Britain
Richard Henry Lee’s Resolution
◗ May 1776 - CC urged colonies to form their own governments
◗ June 7- Richard Henry Lee of VA proposed a 3-part resolution
• to declare independence
• to form foreign alliances
• to prepare a plan of confederation
Preparation of the Dec. of Ind.
◗ June 11 - committee chosen to prepare a dec. of independence
• Franklin, Adams, Robert Livingston (NY), Roger Sherman (CT) & Jefferson
◗ Jefferson authored most of it
◗ June 28 - draft sent to Congress
• Amendments made, including the removal of references to slave trade
Declaration of Independence
◗ July 2, after prolonged debate, Lee’s resolution was passed
◗ July 4, Declaration of Independence adopted & signed by most delegates
◗ Copies sent to the colonies to be read to the people
Declaration of Independence
◗ Preamble stated a philosophy of government shaped by Enlightenment thinking
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◗ Recognized natural (inalienable) rights (“life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness”)
◗ Embraced the compact theory (consent of the governed)
◗ Right of revolution against tyrannical governments
Declaration of Independence
Contained a list of 27 grievances aimed at King George III
• Instead of Parliament because he was sovereign under British law
◗ Presented as evidence & justification for separation
◗ Jefferson concluded by stating that the united colonies ought to be “free and
independent states”
Effect of the Declaration
◗ Served as an announcement & explanation to the world
◗ Stated clear purpose, objective & justification for revolution
◗ Served to convince undecided to join the patriot cause
◗ United States of America born
◗ Inspired later revolutions
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The Revolutionary War
The Americans Break Free
Start of the War
 The American Rev. began before writing of the Dec. of Indep.
 Lexington & Concord - Apr.1775
 Ticonderoga & Crown Point - May 1775
 Bunker (Breeds) Hill - June 1775
 Siege & evacuation of Boston - March 1776
Organizing The War Effort
 Obtaining weapons, supplies, etc a major obstacle for Congress
 Lacking hard currency, Congress issued paper $ (Continentals) backed only by
promise to pay
 Rapid inflation (loss of $ value)
 States ignored Cong. calls for $
 War effort could not have been sustained w/out foreign aid
Organizing the Military
 Early victories = overconfidence
 Harder to raise a regular army
 Washington created the 1st national army - Continental Army
 Regular army backed by militia
 Troops inexperienced & poorly trained
 Militia least reliable but effective in containing loyalists
The American Navy
 Americans had a tiny navy
 2000 privateers & 34 ships made up the navy in the early years
 Harassed British merchant shipping
 Picked away at British blockade
 John Paul Jones attacked British naval ships in their home waters
 Later French naval assistance was crucial to victory
The Loyalists (Tories)
 1/5 of Colonists were Loyalists - completely loyal to Britain
 Never fully organized by British
 Tended to be wealthy landowners & officeholders + recent arrivals
 Most fled to Canada & England to escape wrath of Patriots
 Some fought in British armies
 A civil war within the Revolution
Key Encounters of 1776
 British evacuate Boston & move on to New York (Led by Howe)
 8/26/76 - British defeat part of Washington’s forces at Brooklyn Heights (NY) - the
Americans escape
 Howe failed to pursue Washington & destroy his army
 GW retreats thru NJ to PA
Key Encounters of 1776
 12/25/76 - GW’s surprise attack on Hessians at Trenton NJ
 GW follows Trenton victory w/ a surprise attack at Princeton
 Trenton & Princeton were minor victories but demonstrated that “superior” British
army was vulnerable
British Plan to Divide the Colonies
 Capture New York & split the colonies
 Planned a 3-pronged attack on Albany NY
 Strategy failed
 St. Leger forced to retreat to Canada
 Howe pursued GW to PA
 Burgoyne defeated at Saratoga
Capture of Philadelphia
 Howe marched on Phila.
 GW tried to stop the British but lost Battle of Brandywine (Sept. 1777)
 Congress forced to flee
 9/26/77 - Howe captured Phila.
 GW attacked - major loss at Battle of Germantown (10/4/77)
 Howe failed to pursue GW again
 GW pulled back to Valley Forge
Foreign Assistance
 During the war, GW received valuable help from foreign volunteers
 Many provided experienced leadership for the untrained & undisciplined colonials
 At Valley Forge, Prussian officer Baron Frederick von Steuben reorganized & trained
GW’s forces
 “Drillmaster of the Revolution”
Saratoga - The Turning Point
 British Gen. Burgoyne’s troops marched south from Canada into NY - recaptured Ft.
Ticonderoga
 St. Leger & Howe did not meet him (3-prong plan)
 Burgoyne’s forces were cut off from reinforcements & supplies
 Militia harassed & slaughtered them
Saratoga cont.
 British surrounded at Saratoga NY by Colonials under Gates
 10/17/77 - Burgoyne surrendered
 Colonial victory ruined British divide & conquer plan
 Boosted American morale
 Convinced French to enter into an alliance w/ Americans
 Previously provided secret aid
War in the West
 After Saratoga - war stalled in North
 Focus shifted to West & South
 George Rogers Clark led militia & French volunteers against British forts in West
 British were inciting Indians to attack American settlements
 Clark gained control of NW Terr.
War in the South
 Georgia occupied by British in 1778
 Took Charleston SC in 1780
 British held seaports but could not control interior
 Most vicious fighting of the war
 Constant guerilla fighting drove Cornwallis to withdraw north for supplies &
reinforcements
Yorktown
 Cornwallis pulled back to Yorktown, VA
 Washington planned to trap C using American & French forces
 French Admiral De Grasse sealed Chesapeake Bay
 No British help from the sea
 GW & Rochambeau laid siege to Yorktown
British Surrender
 After weeks of desperate fighting, Cornwallis surrendered 10/19/81
 Last major battle of the war
 With pressure at home & from foreign enemies - Britain sought peace
 Hoped to restore colonial relationship but Americans insisted on independence
Treaty of Paris - 9/3/1783
 American delegation - Franklin, John Jay, John Adams
 Britain recognized U.S. independence
 Agreed to U.S. claim to land west to the Miss. & from Canada to Florida (Florida
given to Spain)
 U.S. given fishing rights off Newfoundland
Treaty of Paris cont.
 U.S. promised to allow British creditors to collect U.S. debts
 Pledged to restore Loyalist property
 neither promise fulfilled
 Navigation of Miss. would be open to both U.S. & Britain
The Articles of Confederation
The Critical Period
1781 - 1789
The First State Governments
1776 - Congress recommended colonies form state govts.
By 1780 - all 13 had written constitutions
Most contained bills of rights
All based on popular consent
Legislatures given more power than executive (PA & GA had no executive)
Suffrage limited to male land owners but requirements lowered
Economic Problems
• American merchants faced reduced trade - British ports closed to U.S.
• Decline in agricultural demand after war hurts farmers (prices lower)
• Increased unemployment in cities
• Soldiers unpaid for service
• Lack of uniform currency among states
Political Disunion
• Delegates of the Cont. Cong. knew in 1776 that they needed a constitution to bind all
of the states together
• 1st U.S. constitution known as the Articles of Confederation
– Adopted 1777 & ratified 1781 (delayed because of western land disputes)
– Drafted by John Dickinson (PA)
• Created loose alliance of states
Articles of Confederation
• Each state delegation given one vote in a one house Congress
• Important legislation required 2/3 vote of states - unanimous for amendments
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• National government given specific and limited powers over the states
Weaknesses of the Confederation
• Power resided in the individual members, not the central government
• Passage of laws difficult due to 2/3 requirement
• Delegates of more than 10 states rarely present at one time
• Amendment required unanimous vote
• No chief executive - enforcement of laws left to states
Weaknesses of the Confederation
• No central courts to settle issues between citizens of different states
• No national power to levy taxes - only to request - 75% of requests denied
• Congress could issue $ but could not prevent states from making their own
• Congress could not control interstate commerce - states aggressively competed using
taxes, tariffs, etc
Weaknesses of the Confederation
• Congress could not control foreign trade
• Congress commanded little respect abroad & had difficulty in diplomacy
– British violated Treaty of Paris by maintaining military & trading posts on U.S. soil
- no effort made to remove them
– Britain closed West Indies ports to U.S. to protect their merchants
– Spain closed port of New Orleans to U.S. - preventing movement of ag. products
Weaknesses of the Confederation
• Congress had no power to raise an army - could only request troops from states
– States rarely provided men
– Shays’ Rebellion highlights this problem
– How could the central govt. protect the country if it could not raise an army?
Shays’ Rebellion
• 1786-87 - armed uprising of Mass. farmers led by Daniel Shays
• Wanted relief from debt and farm foreclosure
• Seized courthouses & tried to take a U.S. arsenal
• Central govt. helpless to stop it
• Had to be put down by Mass. state militia
Achievements of the Confederation Government
• Revolution brought to an end by Confed. govt.
• Treaty of Paris (1783) signed by Confed. govt.
• States united (at least in name) during the “Critical Period”
• Passed Land Ordinance (1785) and Northwest Ordinance (1787)
Land Ordinance
• Surveyed & divided land to be sold to pay natl. debt
• Divided territory into townships (6 miles sq) & subdivided into 36 one sq. mile
sections
• Sale of sections supported schools
• Orderly way to divide & sell land
Northwest Ordinance
• Orderly formation of new states
• Gradual progression from territory to state based on population growth
• A bill of rights protected citizens
• Slavery outlawed in NW Territory
Reconsidering the A of C
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Advocates of a stronger central govt. recognized that the A of C was a weak tool for
governing the U.S.
Delegates at the Annapolis (MD) Convention (1786) to improve trade relations
between states petitioned Congress to fix weakness of the A of C
– Delegates inc. Dickinson, Madison, Hamilton
Congress called for a convention in Phila. to revise the A of C
The Constitutional Convention
 The flaws of the A of C led the Founding Fathers to meet for the “sole and express
purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation”
 Constitutional Convention, held in Philadelphia, began in May 1787 with
Washington elected as president of the convention
 55 delegates from 12 states (RI did not attend)
 "The well-bred, the well-fed, the well-read, and the well-wed"
 Including Franklin, Madison, Hamilton, Sherman, etc.
 Prominent absentees incl. S. Adams, Hancock, Patrick Henry
 Jefferson and John Adams served overseas as diplomats
 Lasted 4 months - delegates chose to abolish the Articles of Confederation and
reinvent the govt. Some feared charges of treason.
 The framers' positions on the strength of govt. varied.
 Wanted a stronger central govt. but feared giving too much power to it. Power
should be with the people.
 But majority should not tyrannize the minority.
 Some were more comfortable with popular rule than others.
 Hamilton called the people "a great beast."
 Another concern - how much power would the states lose?
 Two plans for the new govt. were suggested.
 James Madison drafted the Virginia Plan (Large State Plan)
 Called for a bicameral (two-house) legislature
 Membership in both houses to be determined by pop.
 Members of lower house to be elected by people
 Members of upper house to be elected by lower house
 Both houses to vote for a natl. executive and judiciary
 Each branch would check and balance each other
 The alternate plan - the New Jersey Plan (Small State Plan)
 Proposed to keep the one-house Congress of A of C
 Congress to appoint a multi-person executive branch and a judiciary
branch
 Each state to have one vote in Congress
 The federal govt. to have power to tax and control commerce - A of C
did not give this to the central govt.
 Laws passed by Congress would be the supreme laws of the land would unite states under one set of laws.
 Debate lasted through the summer - compromises were needed
 Key issues: representation and slavery
 Representation issue settled by the Great Compromise (AKA Conn.
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Compromise), proposed by Roger Sherman (CT)
 The delegates agreed to a two-house legislature
 House of Representatives - the lower house
 Senate - the upper house
 House representation based on population - 1rep. for every 30K
people
 Senate representation by state - 2 senators each
 House members elected by people
 Gave the public power and a stake in the govt.
 Senators would be elected by state legislatures
 Changed by 17th Amend. to public election
 Slavery issue was "settled" by the Three-Fifths Compromise
 North & South divided over who was counted in pop.
 North argued that South considered slaves as property and therefore
could not be represented
 South argued that slaves should be counted for rep.
 According to the compromise, slaves would be counted as 3/5 of a
person
 Used phrase "all other persons" instead of “slaves”
 In addition to the 3/5 Comp., the delegates agreed to the Commerce
Compromise (“Slave Trade Compromise”)
 Congress was given the power to regulate interstate trade and foreign
commerce but it could not take any action to control the slave trade (a
form of foreign commerce) until 1808.
 Southern states agreed to pay taxes on slave trade
With the main points of contention “settled”, the document was signed & sent to the
states for ratification on 9/17/87 (2/3 of states needed)
 Those who supported ratification were Federalists
 Those opposed were anti-Federalists (see OH for main arguments)
Federalists wrote a series of 85 essays arguing for ratification
 Known as the Federalist Papers – appeared in NY newspapers
 Stressed the advantages of the new government
Anti-Federalists stressed democratic reliance on state & local govts.
 Wanted a Bill of Rights added to protect individual rights – Federalists promised
to add one after adoption of the Constitution
 B of R added in 1791
June, 1788, NH became the 9th state needed for ratification
 NY (hardest fought) the 11th & RI was the last to ratify (1790)
 Took 3 years (1787-90) to gain full ratification
Principles & Structure of the U.S. Constitution
 Ideas within the Constitution largely drawn from Enlightenment philosophy of Locke
(checks & balances, natural rights), Rousseau (social contract) & Montesquieu (sep.
of powers)
 Checks and Balances - powers of one branch of government check or balance
those of the other branches
 Social Contract – govt. power granted by the people
 Separation of Powers - power is divided among the executive, judicial, and
legislative branches
 Constitution divides power between national & state govts.
 A system known as Federalism
 Powers given to national govt. called delegated powers – including:
 Powers not delegated to fed govt. granted to states
ϖ
ϖ
ϖ
ϖ
ϖ
ϖ
Levy & collect taxes
Borrow & make money
Establish post offices
Regulate interstate &
foreign commerce
Declare war
Make treaties w/ foreign
nations
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Raise & support a military
force
Establish rules for
citizenship
Make all laws “necessary
and proper” for carrying
out the powers of the
govt. (the Elastic Clause)
 Powers denied to the fed govt. include levying taxes on exports, favoring one
state over another, and suspending the right to a writ of habeas corpus (a person’s
protection against arbitrary & unlawful arrest)
 Powers kept by the states called reserved powers – include:
ϖ
ϖ
ϖ
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Provide an education
system
Establish family laws
Establish voting
qualifications
Provide for local govt.
ϖ
ϖ
ϖ
Pass local health & safety
laws
Punish crimes within the
state
Construct public works
 Powers denied to the states include taxing imports or exports, coining money,
making foreign treaties, engaging in war unless invaded, and maintaining a
standing army (besides militia) in times of peace.
 Some powers are concurrent – both can exercise them
 The delegates separated the national govt. into three parts
 Legislative Branch – makes laws
 Made up of 2-house Congress (Senate & H. of Reps.)
 Senate has 2 members from each state
 House membership based on population
 Executive Branch - enforces laws
 Made up of President, Vice Pres., + Executive Departments
 Heads of executive departments make up Cabinet
 Some debate over having several leaders, but delegates decided on just one called the President.
 An elected official - indirectly by the people
 Elected by Electoral College - each state has as many electoral votes as
it has Senators and Representatives
 Electoral College a compromise between public election and
appointment of a leader
 If no candidate receives a majority of electoral votes, the House of
Representatives elects the President from the top three candidates
 Judicial Branch – interprets laws
 A Supreme Court + lower courts set up by Congress
 The Framers set up a system of checks and balances to prevent any one branch from
becoming too powerful
 See basic powers and checks (OH or handout)
 Delegates to the convention provided a way to change the Constitution if necessary.
 Amendments could be made by a 2/3 vote of Congress or by a new Constitutional
Convention
 Required the ratification (approval) by state conventions in 3/4 of the states
 Needed 9 of 13 states to ratify it.
 Would need 38 states today
Plotting the Course of the New Government:
The Washington Administration
The First Congress
 Convened March 4, 1789 in NYC
 Only 8 Sens. & 13 Reps. showed
 Took a month before there was a quorum (minimum to conduct business of Congress
- a majority)
President Washington
 Unanimous electoral vote
 Took office April 30,1789 in NY
 John Adams elected as VP
 10 states voted (RI & NC had not ratified the Const. yet & NY didn’t have electors
selected in time)
 Made triumphant 8-day journey to NY from Mount Vernon
Washington
 57 at time of election
 6’2”
 Wore dentures of varying types
 Quiet, dignified
 A poor & nervous speaker
 Distant relative to Queen Elizabeth II, Robert E. Lee, & Winston Churchill
Washington
 People universally confident in him
 He felt burdened with the job - bore the weight of expectation
 “I face an ocean of difficulties, without the competency of political skill, abilities, and
inclinations which is necessary to manage the helm.” - Washington
Washington
 Created presidency as he went
 Each move set a precedent
 Stressed symbolic ceremony to bring dignity & respect to the office
 1789 - Congress created executive departments & GW made cabinet appointments
The Departments & Leadership
 Department of State
 Sec. of State - T. Jefferson
 Department of Treasury
 Sec. of Treasury - A. Hamilton
 War Department
 Sec. of War - Henry Knox
 Attorney General Edmund Randolph
The Cabinet
 Secretaries of these departments were the origin of the presidential cabinet
 Cabinet an advisory body - not mentioned in the Constitution
 Const. did provide for heads of departments
 GW relied heavily upon his Cabinet
Office of the Vice President
 Washington minimized role of VP
 Adams played little role in the running of the govt.
 Adams referred to his position as “the most insignificant office” ever created
Some problems to start with...
 No bureaucracy to do the work of government
 Foreign office consisted of 3 men
 National treasury had little $ and a high debt
 Army had only 692 men & no real navy
The Courts
 Congress created effective courts under the Judiciary Act of 1789
 JA organized the Supreme Court with a chief justice & 5 associates
 Established federal district & circuit courts
 Created office of Attorney General
1st Chief Justice
 New Yorker John Jay
 Collaborated w/ Madison on Federalist Papers
 A seasoned diplomat
 Served as CJ until 1795
National Revenue Problems
 Revenue the govt’s biggest need
 Congress enacted a tariff intended to raise $ and protect domestic manufacturers from
foreign competition
 Tariffs were to get country on a sound financial basis
Hamilton
 Washington’s Sec. of Treasury - he seized the initiative to take control of the nation’s
finances
 Ambitious, quick-witted, energetic, and determined
 A born leader - recklessly fearless
 Charming but vain & quick-tempered
 Reluctant to forgive, impatient w/ critics & intolerant of error
Hamilton
 Country needed his drive & brains
 Submitted series of reports to Congress from 1/1790 - 12/1791 outlining his programs
for finance and economic development
 Most of his programs adopted
Hamilton’s Financial Program
 Payment of the Foreign Debt
 To restore credit abroad
 Payment of Domestic Debt
 Pay off bonds at face value with new govt. securities
 Fed. govt. to assume all state debts
Hamilton’s Financial Program
 Fed govt. would pay domestic debts “at par” = face value + accumulated interest
 Many (soldiers, farmers) had sold original bonds for fraction of value to speculators
to get quick $
 Current holders would make a profit at expense of original holder
Criticism of funding the debt
 Advocates for original holders argued for reimbursement of loss
 Hamilton argued that speculators paid what market allowed at the time, risking their
own loss. They should reap the benefit.
 H said plan was necessary to restore govt. credit - Congress passed it
Assumption of State Debt
 Most states borrowed to finance the war - therefore a national debt
 H thought it would strengthen ties of states to Fed govt.
 Would shift attachment of wealthy creditors from states to Fed govt.
 H wanted support of rich
Assumption of State Debt
 Congress passed the measure with a deal
 Southern states opposed the plan because they had already paid debts - called others
irresponsible
 Congress agreed to locate the new federal capitol in the South in return for passage of
the plan
Establishment of a National Bank
 Bank would hold govt. funds
 Circulate uniform natl. currency
 Lend $ to the govt.
 To be privately owned & managed
 U.S. would have 20% ownership
 Wealthy biz interests - 80%
 Proposal caused huge debate
Bank of the U.S.
 Jefferson opposed the bank
 Not authorized in the Const.
 Powers not granted to Fed reserved for states (soon-to-be 10th Amendment)
 States should charter banks
 A strict interpretation of the Constitution
Bank of the U.S.
 Hamilton invoked “necessary & proper” clause which allowed Fed to pass laws
necessary for running govt. (Article 1, Sec. 8, par. 18)
 A loose interpretation
 GW accepted H’s argument and signed the measure into law
 Becomes a sectional rift - N vs. S
Taxes
 Congress approved the proposal of an excise tax on whiskey
 An internal tax on production & consumption
 Falls hardest on Western PA farmers - distilled grain easier & cheaper to ship brought in better $
 Leads to a rebellion by PA farmers
Whiskey Rebellion
 Tax viewed as an undue burden & would benefit the wealthy
 Farmers refused to pay & threatened collectors
 8/7/1794 - GW ordered the “rebels” to disperse & later ordered troops to PA
Whiskey Rebellion
 Organized rebellion evaporated w/ federal show of force - bloodless
 Several leaders arrested but pardoned to mend fences
 Demonstrated federal authority & defense of law
 Politically costly - Westerners throw support to Jeffersonian opposition
Effects of Hamilton’s Policies
 Nation’s credit firmly established
 Government revenue needs met
 Commerce & industry stimulated
 Govt. won support of influential bizmen & respect of the people
 Growing sectionalism
 Growing political division
 Federalists vs. Jeffersonian Repubs.
The Bill of Rights
Fulfillment of a Promise
Passage of the Bill of Rights
 Federalists had to promise to add a B of R’s to the Constitution in order to win over
opponents of ratification
 When the 1st Congress met, the House of Reps (with Madison as main author) made
the B of R the first order of biz
 Lack of protection for individual rights was a key anti-Federalist fear
The Bill of Rights
 Madison drew up the first 8 amendments (based on VA’s B of R’s)
 Sept. 25,1789 - 12 of over 100 proposed amendments were approved & referred to
the states for ratification
 10 of 12 were ratified & in force on 12/15/1791
The Bill of Rights
 The intention of the amendments was to guarantee freedoms not listed in the original
Constitution
 The following are the rights guaranteed by the Bill of Rights:
 1st Amendment - separation of church & state, freedom of speech & the press, right
to assemble & petition for changes
The Bill of Rights
 2nd Amendment - Right to bear arms
 Gun control issue hinges on interpretation
 Gun control advocates point to “well-regulated” in terminology
 Gun ownership advocates focus on literal wording
The Bill of Rights
 3rd Amendment - Protection from quartering of troops in private homes
 4th Amendment - Freedom from unreasonable search & seizure
 Focus of criminal rights vs. police powers
 5th Amendment - Protects rights of the accused in crimes (self-incrimination, double
jeopardy, etc.)
The Bill of Rights
 6th Amendment - Protects right to speedy trial, right to an attorney, etc.
 7th Amendment - Guarantees trial by jury
 8th Amendment - Prohibits cruel & unusual punishment (at core of death penalty
debate)
 9th Amendment - Specifically states that the people are the source of power
The Bill of Rights
 10th Amendment - All powers not given to the federal government & not specifically
denied the states are reserved for the states & the people.
 Jefferson’s argument against the Bank of the United States was based on this idea
Undemocratic features of the Constitution
 The B of R’s was not a cure-all
 There were undemocratic features that remained in the Constitution
 Among them:
 President elected indirectly by electoral college
 Senators originally elected by state legislatures - not the people
Undemocratic features of the Constitution
 States determined qualifications for voting
 No provisions outlawed property or religious qualifications & no guarantees gave
women the vote
 Slavery was preserved by the Const. through the 3/5 Compromise, the Slave Trade
Compromise, & fugitive slave laws (Art. 4, Sec. 2, Clause 3)
The Rise of Political Parties
Bane or Blessing
■ The Founding Fathers never envisioned the rise of political parties
■ Parties seen as sinister
■ There was never a plan for a two-party system
■ Washington opposed parties but ultimately came to be identified as a Federalist
Why Did it Happen?
■ Hamilton’s financial plans were successful but came with a price
■ Assumption, the whiskey excise tax, the Bank of the U.S., & suppression of the
Whiskey Rebellion viewed by some as encroaching on states’ rights
■ The personal feud between Hamilton and Jefferson blew up into a political rivalry
Federalists vs. Republicans
■ Those who favored Hamilton’s policies formed the Federalist Party
– Backed by well-to-do merchants, bankers, and manufacturers
– Strong in New England
■ Led by Hamilton & John Adams
■ Ancestor of today’s Republican Party
Federalists vs. Republicans
■ Those who opposed Hamilton united under Jefferson to form the DemocraticRepublican (or Republican) party
– Forerunner to today’s Democratic party
– Supported by small farmers, frontiersmen, tradesmen & laborers
– Strong in South & West
■ Led by Jefferson & Madison (once a Federalist himself)
Another Precedent Set
■ Opposing sides of this first political split soon viciously attacked each other
■ Partisan newspapers were used to take their arguments to the people
■ The Two-Party system has existed in the U.S. since that time
Washington’s Foreign Policy
 1792 – Washington won unanimous reelection
 Second term met with foreign relations troubles
 French Revolution (1789)
• Americans initially approved of the French Revolution
♦ Attitudes soured with execution of Louis XVI & Marie Antoinette and
the start of the Terror (1793-94)
♦ Britain went to war with France – war lasted 22 years
 According to the Treaty of 1778 – U.S. alliance with France was to
have been “forever”
 U.S. obligated to defend French West Indies but the American
economy relied on trade with Britain
 If U.S. entered the war, Britain would have cut trade with both
Britain and the French West Indies
• American public opinion became divided
♦ Democratic Republicans tended to support France
 Believed U.S. owed France for helping w/ American Rev.
♦ Federalists deplored the Reign of Terror & sympathized w/ England
• GW deplored the division of U.S. public opinion over the war
♦ He also feared that France would press the U.S. to honor the Treaty of
1778
 Would be suicidal for the young nation to get into a war
 Hamilton & Jefferson agreed
 GW issued Neutrality Proclamation of 1793
• Stated that the U.S. was officially neutral in the conflict and strongly
urged impartiality by U.S. citizens
♦ The beginning of U.S. isolationist tradition
 Shortly after the start of war between Britain & France (1793), France sent
diplomat Edmond Genet to the U.S. to seek support
• Jefferson convinced GW to recognize the new French govt. & receive
“Citizen” Genet
• Genet entered the U.S. in South Carolina, avoiding a formal meeting w/
U.S. officials
♦ He actively recruited American support despite neutrality
 Successfully hired privateers to attack British shipping
 Also “Foreign Legion” soldiers to invade Spanish Florida &
Louisiana and British Canada
The Genet Affair was an embarrassment to Jefferson and underscored the
sharp policy divisions within the administration
♦ GW demanded that France recall Genet from the U.S. when he
threatened to appeal to the voters over “Old Washington”
 Disputes with Britain strained the neutrality policy
• The British still maintained forts and trading posts on U.S. soil in defiance
of the Treaty of Paris
♦ Armed Indians & incited them to attack U.S. settlers
♦ U.S. General “Mad Anthony” Wayne sent to Northwest Territory to
solve frontier conflict
 Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794) – Wayne defeats Indian tribes,
forcing them to sign the Treaty of Greenville (1795)
 Indians give up large areas North of the Ohio River
• To halt supplies to France, British ships seized neutral U.S. ships trading
with France & French West Indies
♦ Also forced U.S. sailors into service w/ the British Navy
 U.S. protested but England ignored complaints
 1794 – Chief Justice John Jay sent to England to settle disputes
• England made few concessions, expecting the U.S. to deal
♦ England agreed to withdraw from U.S. soil & pay compensation for
seized ships by the British
• Treaty criticized in the U.S. – seen as giving in to England
♦ England refused to stop impressment of sailors or the seizing of ships
bound for French territory
• GW urged ratification – would at least postpone war w/ England
♦ Senate passed it
 In 1795 – Thomas Pinckney sent to Spain to settle disputes over Louisiana &
Florida
• Spain, fearing a U.S./British alliance, agreed to allow navigation rights on
the Miss. River and settled the disputed border between Georgia and
Florida
♦ Pinckney’s Treaty was GW’s greatest diplomatic success
 Weary from his time in office, GW refused to run for a 3rd term
 Wrote his Farewell Address to the American people in 1796
• Document influenced U.S. policy for years to come
 Cautioned against sectionalism, political parties, permanent foreign alliances,
& involvement in European affairs
 Encouraged a strong union & a strong central govt.
•
The Election of 1796 & The Adams Administration
 Followers of Hamiltonian preference for big govt. = Federalists
 Supported John Adams for Pres. & Thomas Pinckney for VP
 Feared “mobocracy” – emphasized order & stability
 Followers of Jeffersonian preference for small govt. = Republicans
 Supported Jefferson for Pres. & Aaron Burr for VP
 Accused Federalists of becoming the party of the wealthy
 Federalists controlled the govt. but Republicans turned toward organizing popular
support for their party.
 Sought support of immigrant (mainly Irish) voters
 Republicans under Jefferson concentrated on local and state issues – an attack
from beneath strategy
 Both parties attacked each other's stands on issues
 Each party had its own newspapers that featured negative stories about the other
party's positions
 Vicious politics – libelous & irresponsible character assassinations
 The election of 1796 was a big test of the Constitution
 New president was elected following the process outlined in the Const. – no
violent change of govt. as happened elsewhere
 Most votes = Pres. & second most = Vice-Pres.
 Surprise! Adams (Fed) wins and Jefferson (Rep) second
 Both sides thought their VP would come in second
 12th Amendment (1804) addresses the problem
 Adams faced immediate trouble with France
 France viewed Jay’s Treaty as the start of an Anglo-American alliance – started
seizing U.S. ships bound for England
 Adams sent diplomats to France to head off a war
 3 unnamed agents (referred to as “X,Y, & Z” ) of French Foreign Minister
Talleyrand demanded bribes and loans
 U.S. delegation refused & left
 XYZ Affair an embarrassment for Republicans and enflamed antiFrench sentiment in the U.S.
 Dept. of Navy formed in preparation for war w/ France
 “Millions for defense but not one cent for tribute.”
 A 2-year undeclared naval war w/ France fought in W. Indies 1798 – 1800 – Adams
successfully resisted calls for declaration of war
 Convention of 1800 (a treaty) negotiated w/ Napoleon
 Terminates Alliance of 1778 – freeing U.S. of Euro alliances
 U.S. to pay claims by U.S. shippers who lost ships to French
 1798 - Alien and Sedition Acts – passed by Fed. dominated Congress
 Harsh laws aimed at crippling “disloyal” Republicans & quieting criticism of the
Federalists
 Federalists defended them as necessary war measures
 Alien Acts aimed at new immigrants – tended to join Repubs.
 Raised requirements for citizenship & allowed for deportation of aliens judged
as dangerous to the peace & safety of U.S.
 Criticism of govt. = dangerous.
 Sedition Act aimed at halting domestic criticism
 Outlawed public criticism of the govt. & officials
 Aimed at rival politicians and newsmen
 A clear threat to critics of the Federalists
 Republicans considered the acts a violation of 1st Amendment
 Respond with Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions
 Statements written by Jefferson and Madison and passed by VA & KY state
legislatures (KY a state since 1792)
 Claimed A & S Acts were unconstitutional & therefore void
 Since states created the national govt. – states could nullify federal laws that a
state considered unconstitutional
 Known as the principle of nullification – a key states rights argument used
later on by the South
 No other states pushed for nullification & it died on the vine
 Federalists asserted that it was up to the Supreme Court, not the States, to
determine constitutionality
 VA & KY Resolutions will become propaganda against Federalists in 1800 election –
underscoring Federalist violations of civil rights