TRANSITION Issue 42. No.2 2013 INSTITUTE OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES UNIVERSITY OF GUYANA TURKEYEN, GREATER GEORGETOWN GUYANA Motivation and Actions to Enhance Performance MOTIVATION AND ACTIONS TO ENHANCE PERFORMANCE Hector Edwards ABSTRACT All aspects of our lives are influenced by motivation. Everything we do or say is directed towards an expected result, which is the motivational force driving our behaviour. Cyclists are no exception to this process. Some of the leading athletes in professional cycling have been accused, found guilty of doping, and even admitted to such behavior. The motives along with the demographic background of the athletes have been responsible for, and in some instances contributed to their actions. The adoption and use of performance enhancement practice has become unacceptable by most stakeholders – international sporting bodies, sponsors, spectators, fellow athletes, and some pharmaceuticals, within the society. The approach of some athletes to fulfill their various needs whether perceived or in reality, can contribute to a decline in their behaviour. The decline in behaviour can contribute to the negative publicity that the sport of cycling has been experiencing in recent times. The policies adopted by cycling’s governing body - Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI), will therefore have to address the underlining concerns of the athletes, rather than reacting to their behaviour which would not change unless their needs are fulfilled. Key words: motivations, cycling, doping INTRODUCTION Why would an individual try to provide for the future, and at the same time partake in behaviour that will jeopardise his or her chances of enjoying the fruits of his or her labour? The sport of cycling has seen significant changes over the last three decades, in both positive and negative ways. However, more recently, the negatives have overshadowed the positives. The main negative issue to affect cycling, and for that matter sports in general, is the use of illegal substances and practices for the purpose of performance enhancement. Cycling has been experiencing negative publicity as a result of doping scandals involving some of the world’s best athletes – seven times Tour de France winner Lance Armstrong (1999 – 2005), three times Tour the France winner Alberto Contador (2007, 2009, 2010), 2006 Tour de France winner Floyd Landis, and 2004 Olympic Time Trial 89 Transition 42 gold medallist Tyler Hamilton. Some of these scandals came to a conclusion with the suspension of the athletes who were found guilty of doping, and subsequently stripped of their titles. Landis and Hamilton have both admitted to the use of performance enhancement drugs, after earlier denying such use and serving their penalties. Contador was stripped of his 2010 Tour de France title, and banned for two years after sport’s highest court - Court of Arbitration for Sports (CAS) found him guilty of doping. The CAS decision was made after appeals by the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI) and World anti-doping Agency (WADA), which challenged the decision of the Spanish Cycling governing body- that Contador was not guilty of doping. On the other hand, US Federal prosecutors dropped a doping investigation into Armstrong’s participation in systematic doping, due to a lack of evidence. The most recent attempt by cycling governing body Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI) to address the doping problem is the adoption in May 2011 of a ‘no needle policy’ in cycling. In effect this is a ban on the use of needles other than for a medical indication on an active cyclist (Union Cycliste Internationale, 2011). The question that has to be answered therefore is why do athletes participate in doping when these practices are harmful to them, and can contribute to their demise? To understand the thinking behind doping, one has to analyze the factors that contribute to this kind of thinking, which is subsequently transferred to their behaviour. The demographic background of the individual, the economic well-being of the individual, the economic development of the country in which the athlete participates, the extent of their motivation, and the cultural setting in which he/she exists, may be significant factors that contribute towards an individual’s behaviour. Some of the issues and concepts that will be discussed in the remainder of the paper include doping by cyclists, which is seen as a core variable in enhancing performance. This will be followed by content theories of motivation, which provide the general framework for discussing the needs influencing the behaviour of cyclists. Finally the motives of the cyclists will be addressed as they progress in their cycling careers. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Doping by Cyclist There is a paucity of literature with specific focus on motivation and doping by cyclists. This has been due to a “lack of scholarly attention paid to the sport” of 90 Motivation and Actions to Enhance Performance cycling (Brewer, 2002: 280). However, literature examined under Sport Sociology indicated that doping in cycling has been with the sport from its earliest times, due to the demands of frequent racing by top cyclists (Brewer, 2002). “The Frenchman Jacques Anquetil, one of the best racers of all times, was notorious for frankly acknowledging doping” (Brewer, 2002:284). In addition to acknowledging such a practice, he also posited that a person “would be a fool to imagine that a professional cyclist who rides 235 days in a year in all temperatures and conditions can hold up without a stimulant” (Brewer, 2002 p. 284). This type of behaviour was not just restricted to individuals, but was also institutionalised as “team administrators, support staff, and teammates were all involved in the organisation and expansion of doping” (Brewer, 2002:285). The 1998 Tour de France scandal involving Team Festina and subsequent investigations exposed the systematic doping of many major cycling teams (Brewer, 2002). A study by Bilard et al. (2010) found that the ranked motives by cyclists for using illegal substances were health concerns- due to intensive training, performance enhancement- so as to gain financial and other rewards, and social norms associated with the sport. Though these motives have contributed to the use of illegal substances by some cyclists, a more careful analysis is needed of the situations that influence their behaviour. Motivation and Doping Motivation is seen as the force that directs an individual’s behavior (Perry & Porter, 1982; Wright, 2001; Steers et al., 2004), as well as the persistence and intensity of their actions (Wright, 2001; Steers et al., 2004), so as to satisfy specific needs. Cyclists are no exception, and as such their behaviours are also expected to be influenced by motivation. According to Pelletier et al. (1995) “Motivation is at the heart of many of sport’s most interesting problems, both as a developmental outcome of social environments such as competition and coaches’ behaviors, and as a developmental influence on behavioral variables such as persistence, learning and performance” (p 36). The use of prohibited drugs by cyclists is therefore one such behaviour that can be seen as having been influenced by motivation. Brewer (2002) in his study referred to doping as routine and “an integral part of the culture of top-level cycling” (p 277). Doping was not just an integral part of cycling, but this social norm was one of the top ranked motives by cyclists based on a study by Bilard et 91 Transition 42 al. (2010). Another motive identified was that of performance enhancement, which is reward-oriented. However, whether cyclists commenced this type of activity to obtain financial reward is not certain, as it should be noted that success is not guaranteed, and hence financial rewards may not follow. Based on the writer’s own experience having competed over 19 years as a cyclist - 15 on the international circuit, which was followed by 13 years as an administrator, and having discussions with numerous cyclists in my capacity as a cycling coach, I am of the opinion that a sequence of motives would be activated over the life of a cyclist. As such a theory that can be totally operative over a substantial period of a cyclist’s career would be appropriate in an attempt to understand the behavior of cyclists. Wahba and Bridwell (1976) posited that “Maslow’s hierarchy requires the length of a life time to be totally operative” (p. 231), and as such can be seen as a useful theory. Content Theories of Motivation The framework that will be used to analyze the behaviour of cyclists is content theories of motivation, which include humanistic theories such as Maslow’s 1954 needs hierarchy theory (Wright, 2001) see fig. 1. Content theories are concerned with the needs or motives of individuals. The motives represent what the individual wants or expects from their actions (Wright, 2001). Maslow was of the opinion that as individuals develop, they prioritize which group of needs are to be fulfilled (Steers et al., 2004) in a hierarchical manner (Kolltko-Rivera, 2006). He also posited that the first three needs are deficiency needs, while the upper two are growth needs (Wahba and Bridwell, 1976; Steers et al., 2004). This model was later adapted by Alderfer (1972) who collapsed the model into three needs; existence, relatedness and growth (Luthans, 1995). The need/ content-based perspective of motivation categorizes higher–level needs as intrinsic, while lower-level needs are considered to be extrinsic in nature (Bright, 2009). In addition to Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs and Alderfer’s ERG (Existence Relatedness and Growth) theories, Frederick Herzberg two-Factor’s theory and David McClelland’s acquired needs theory were other content theories developed to provide a better understanding of human motivation. These theories will not be used to any extent, since they focus on hygiene and motivator factors, and learnt needs respectively. Herzberg addressed the issue of satisfaction, which is derived from the presence of motivator factors. These factors are content related and intrinsic in nature. On the other hand dissatisfaction which occurs due to the absence of hygiene factors are context related, but extrinsic in nature (Iguisi, 2009). 92 Motivation and Actions to Enhance Performance Also, Herzberg’s two-factor theory is more relevant to work redesign (Hackman and Oldham, 1976), and as such less applicable to understanding the behaviour of cyclists as it relates to doping. McClelland however focused on Need for achievement (nAch), Need for affiliation (nAff), and Need for power (nPower) (Schermerhorn et al., 2008). McClelland’s nAch will be discussed, as it will provide an understanding of this learnt behavior. Maslow’s theory will be the primary focus as it is “a theory of human behavior in general rather than work behavior in particular” (Wahba and Bridwell, 1976:214). Reinforcement theories will also be used to address resolving some of the issues faced by this sporting discipline. These are not the only factors, but they can assist in understanding the kind of behaviour that was mentioned earlier. This paper will not be looking at empirical evidence regarding Maslow and the other content theories, nor will a comparison between content theories and other motivational theories be undertaken. Though these are important issues, they are beyond the scope of this paper. Figure 1- Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Self-Actualization Esteem Needs Social Needs Safety Needs Physiological Needs Source: Luthans, 1995:150 High Achievers Over the centuries man has taken various approaches to enhance his performance. This desire is as a result of the secondary motive achievement, which is a learnt motive, and identified in McClelland’s acquired needs theory. The extent of an individual’s achievement, motive or drive will determine to some extent how the individual will behave in most situations. High achievers are moderate risk takers. This “…is probably the single most descriptive characteristic of the person possessing high n Ach” (Luthans, 1995:145). Taking unnecessarily high risk can result in failure (Mullis, 2007), which the high achiever tries to avoid. Another important characteristic of high achievers is that they find “…accomplishing a task 93 Transition 42 intrinsically satisfying in and of itself; they do not expect or necessarily want the accompanying material rewards” (Luthans, 1995:145). Material reward for a high achiever is a measuring tool used to determine the extent of success (Luthans, 1995). Intrinsic rewards unlike extrinsic rewards are generated by the individual internally, and over which he can exercise personal control. Extrinsic rewards are those provided by another party, which the individual has no control over (Crewson, 1997; Rainey and Steinbauer, 1999; Houston, 2000; Bright, 2009), and are often material in nature. At all levels of cycling there will be some individuals who are high achievers, trying to fulfil their personal objective within their physical capabilities. It is important to note that an individual may be successful in certain activities/events, but still not achieve their objective, while one may achieve their objective without being successful in any event. Success is not necessarily achievement, even though it may be, and achievement does not necessarily require success. Success can only be considered achievement if it was the objective. BACKGROUND OF CYCLISTS Cyclists have come from all aspects of life and various socio-economic and sociocultural backgrounds in their quest for success. The level of success desired by these athletes varies from individual to individual and from country to country, depending on the opportunities available. In their quest for success many cyclists have sacrificed other social activities and even education, leaving them with very little to fall back on if they are not successful in cycling. The sacrifice is necessary due to the training intensity of the sport (Bilard et al., 2010), which includes long hours of daily rides. Such activities by cyclists usually commence at an early age so that the individuals can enhance their chances of realizing their potential. Many of the top cyclists in various communities have come from low income families (Brewer, 2002), and as such been forced to make ends meet. For these individuals every step in life has been a struggle. Due to their life experiences their survival skills have been enhanced, thus contributing to their determination and aspiration, which are important ingredients for success in life. IMPROVING PERFORMANCE Over the ages individuals have undertaken various activities to enhance their performance. This has resulted in persons participating in activities that in their 94 Motivation and Actions to Enhance Performance opinion- based on what is reported by others, will result in positive performance (Brewer, 2002). Though not listed in any order, these include additional or longer rest, more of certain types of exercises, the use of certain foods, the use of certain clothing and equipment, and other forms of relaxation. Due to the advancement of science and technology, most of these beliefs have been scientifically proven or disproved (Brewer, 2002). However, in the lesser developed countries some athletes still partake in unproven activities to enhance their performance, while other activities are not done correctly to bring about the desired results. Some of the products available in the developed countries are not available in developing countries, and where they are available due to advancement in information technology–online purchase- the cost far exceeds the material benefit. In these countries success in cycling means participation at a ‘Games’ or Championship, as well as temporary recognition. The more fortunate will achieve some level of assistance during their formative years from their governments and/or the corporate community. As such the reward for these individuals is more of an intrinsic nature in terms of growth and recognition, than extrinsic in nature. MOTIVATION ISSUES Individuals are motivated to do things as a result of a need, which can be as a result of a “physiological or psychological imbalance” (Luthans, 1995:141). The intensity of the drive is determined by the incentive to be achieved, which will ultimately alleviate the need. Once that need has been satisfied, another physiological or psychological deficiency will emerge (Maslow, 1943). “Although psychological needs may be based on a deficiency, sometimes they are not” (Luthans, 1995:141). Various theorists have tried to understand the cycle of needs that an individual passes through during their life, with Maslow and his Needs Hierarchy Theory, being one of the earliest of behavioural scientists. He was of the opinion that “the strongest ‘felt needs’ determine behaviours of individuals at given times” (Iguisi, 2009). Maslow was also of the opinion that an individual’s needs could be grouped, and these needs will fall under the various categories, progressing from the lowest to the highest (Maslow, 1943; Iguisi, 2009). They are physiological, safety/security, social, esteem and self-actualization needs. He was of the view that until a particular group of needs is satisfied, a person’s behaviour will be dominated by them (Maslow, 1943). He also posited that needs are satisfied in a step like fashion, and indicated that a false impression may have been given during his discussion that a need must be satisfied fully before a subsequent need 95 Transition 42 emerges. He suggested that a more realistic description is in terms of the decreasing percentages of satisfaction along levels of the hierarchy. Maslow proposed a hypothetical example for an average citizen who is 85 percent satisfied in his physiological/basic needs, 70 percent in his safety needs, 50 percent in his love/ social needs, 40 percent in the self-esteem category, and 10 percent in his selfactualization needs (Maslow, 1943; Luthans, 1995). Though Maslow provided some insights in understanding the forces that determine an individual’s behaviour, it does not fully explain certain behaviour, which is explained by another theorist Alderfer. Alderfer’s ERG theory identifies existence, relatedness, and growth needs as the main categories of needs. He collapsed Maslow’s two lower order needs into existence, and the two upper order needs into growth. Unlike Maslow, Alderfer was of the opinion that once a higher level need cannot be satisfied, the individual will return to the lower level need. He also posited that more than one level of needs may exist at a given time (Schermerhorn, 2000). This view is important if one is to understand the behaviour of cyclists in their attempt to satisfy their needs. Physiological and Security Needs For a ‘competitive cyclist,’ matters such as equipment, nutrition, clothing, transportation and training conditions are at the physiological or basic level. With limited success and the prospect of becoming a high performer, an individual has a strong chance of securing a place on a recognized cycling team. Being on the team will assist in the alleviation of these earlier needs, since these basic needs would be taken care of by the team. Further success will result in the individual being able to become a professional athlete. Being a professional athlete, cycling becomes the job of the individual, as a result of this; his needs are expected to change. Even though it may appear that he is at the esteem or actualization level (growth level according to Alderfer) and realizing success, he has still not achieved his objective. At this phase of his life he has moved to the security level in terms of needs. At this level continued participation in the team, medical care, and existence after his racing career has concluded are his primary concerns. While in other professions or jobs individuals at the end of their work life can retire and enjoy a pension, professional cyclists who have a shorter productive work life are not that fortunate. The ‘after retirement’ life can only be meaningful 96 Motivation and Actions to Enhance Performance or worthwhile if they provide for those less formative years. The more they earn and set aside, the more likely are their chances of a comfortable retirement. They are therefore driven to earn as much as they can, so that they can enjoy a better ‘after retirement’ life. In the developed market economies better results do not only result in higher salaries, but also endorsements (Brewer, 2002), which can be very lucrative, and will contribute to the overall income of the cyclist. As was earlier stated many of the top cyclists have nothing of substance to fall back on, making this phase a very important or defining period in their life. The future for this type of cyclist is not their only concern, job security or membership in the team is also dependent on their performance. The failure of a cyclist to perform at an acceptable level will result in him no longer being a part of the team. Here high performance can guarantee his place on the team, and at the same time assist in providing for the future. At this level if the cyclist is unable to alleviate these security needs, he is forced to return to the physiological needs to ensure that the basic needs are satisfied, and must perform at a higher level. During this phase of his career, in an attempt to enhance his performance whatever is available would be considered important to improve his performance. Improved performance will guarantee a place on a professional team. The team will then take care of all the basic needs, which will no longer be a concern of the cyclist. Team Needs The role of the team is not restricted to providing for the athlete’s needs. It also must make certain that the athlete performs at a level that will promote the sponsor of the team (Brewer, 2002). Highlighting the sponsor’s brand will also promote the sponsor’s image, which will impact on the sale of the sponsor’s products. An increase in sales will result in greater profits, and more investment in the team. Corporate sponsors are aware that the more successful a team or event, the more interest there will be in it. This places an additional burden on the team, since the team has to perform so as to maintain sponsorship. Once again the security need is activated but at a macro level. Here performance is not just the concern of the athlete, but also the team. This concern often results in teams taking part in activities that will enhance the performance of the team. At the macro level team prestige and even national prestige are at stake. Not only is prestige at stake at the macro level, but the financial resources available is also greater, so that whatever is available can be obtained to enhance performance. While affordability may have been an issue at the micro level, (individual) at the macro level (team) this is not a factor. 97 Transition 42 Social Needs Another level of need is also activated at this phase, and that is the social level of needs. At this level the quality of the management team, professional friendships, and compatible work group are all important issues for the cyclist. At this level the cyclist is likely to partake in activities that are seen as in the team’s best interest, and as such, activities done at the macro level to alleviate the security needs are likely to continue. At this level bonding is highly desirable, with affiliation, another secondary motive, becoming the most dominant force influencing behaviour. This motive has accounted for institutionalised doping on some teams as was earlier stated. Here individuals are more concerned with the team than their individual well being (Brewer, 2002). This results in the evolution of perverted collective security needs arising from the imperative for social solidarity and confidentiality or a strong in-group mentality. Such behaviour has been further influenced by the scientific training methods used by teams during preparation for competition (Brewer, 2002). The successful application of drugs to boost training requires “a level of meticulous monitoring, calibration, and measurement beyond the capacities of the average professional rider” (Brewer, 2002:294). There have also been the inclusion of associated networks e.g. pharmaceuticals. It must be noted that “sports medicine has actually been one of the major contexts within which performance enhancing drugs have been developed and used” (Brewer, 2002:295). Higher Level Needs Consideration as to when an individual is likely to resist the practice of risky behaviour, which may occur at the lower levels of needs, is important, and can reduce the likelihood of such behaviour. It is expected that at the higher levels of needs, risky behaviour is less likely. After satisfying physiological, security and social needs, an individual’s needs would become more intrinsic in nature, as against lower order needs which are extrinsic. At this level the athlete is more concerned with challenging activities, and is not concerned with the rewards in themselves, but sees reward as a feedback mechanism. At this level he is at peace with himself, his image is now an important issue in his life. The legacy to be left behind is of foremost importance. At this level the cost will far exceed the benefit, since the cost is borne only by the athlete. Once tarnished the image is irreparable. Dopers are driven by extrinsic rewards, since there is no personal gratification from success or high performance as a result of doping, regardless of how they try to justify their actions inwardly, that others are doing the same thing (Brewer, 2002). 98 Motivation and Actions to Enhance Performance CONCLUSION In addition to UCI’s initiatives to prepare cyclists for alternatives through educational training, local federations ought to develop programmes that will provide a safety net for their cyclists, based on their uniqueness and the available resources in their communities. The elimination of the fear of the cyclist- in relation to the uncertainty of their future economically, has to be addressed if the problem of doping is to be resolved. Like other jobs and professions there should be a mechanism that caters for their less formative years. Knowing that they will be taken care of– due to an established system/program to assist the former athletes at the end of their careers before they participate in risky behaviour would certainly contribute to a reduction in this kind of behaviour. Though the extent of the security needs of every cyclist will vary, the reduction in the period of time spent with these needs will also reduce the likelihood of individuals resorting to desperate means to alleviate their needs. Also of importance is the fact that high achievers are less likely to take part in this type of risky behaviour when compared with moderate and low achievers. Determining whether an individual is a high achiever or not, will allow those in authority to identify those individuals who are less likely to be in the risky group. This will allow them to design programs to reduce the likelihood of individuals in riskier groups from resorting to illegal activities to enhance performance. Individuals have resorted to various illegal means to enhance performance in cycling regardless of their demographic background or geographic location. Their continued participation in these activities can also be deterred with the application of the law of effect. Based on the law of effect, “…behaviour that results in a pleasing outcome is likely to be repeated, while behaviour that results in an unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated” (Schermerhorn, 2000:104). The consequences for undesirable behaviour must therefore deter the athlete to such an extent that consideration of this type of behaviour will remain just that. The consequences for undesirable behaviour should exceed the benefit to such an extent that the net benefit would have a negative value. On the other hand the consequence for desirable behaviour must be so compelling that no other type of behaviour would be considered. In the administration of punishment, which is used to reduce the likelihood of repeating an undesirable behaviour, due care must be taken to make certain that it is properly handled. If punishment is offset by positive reinforcement, through future lucrative contracts or other incentives, then the 99 Transition 42 desired effect would not be realised. While at the various levels of needs various forces will motivate an individual, at all the levels addressed, the single driving force is deprivation, which dominates the organism of the individuals (Wahba and Bridwell, 1976). Regardless of an individual’s thinking or circumstance, his physical wellbeing must be the foremost consideration when decisions are to be made as it relates to the enhancement of his performance, not the team, the sponsor, not the nation, and certainly not the spectators. Though it is not the intention of this paper to address policy matters, an important development in cycling as was earlier stated should not be overlooked. The effect of the current ‘no needle policy’ adopted by the UCI is likely to have a short term effect rather than the desired long term eradication of doping, if the needs of the athletes are not addressed. The advancement in medicine as it relates to the absorption of substances into the body, will much sooner than later be applied to cycling. It is therefore imperative that the problem be solved rather than the symptoms to the problem addressed. The problem should therefore be looked at from various areas or disciplines within the social sciences. Content theories of motivation are just one approach in the attempt to understand the problem of doping in cycling. As was earlier stated, “motivation is at the heart of many of sport’s most interesting problems” (Pelletier et al.,1995:36). 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