Facts and Figures
For New Zealand Dairy Farmers
Preface
Have you ever needed the facts on
cow nutrition requirements, the dry
matter percentage of mature maize
or average pasture growth data for
your region and cannot remember
where you saw it?
Facts and Figures for New Zealand Dairy
Farmers may just have what you are after.
This booklet brings together some key
facts and figures and other useful bits of
information as a quick reference when
you’re hunting for the facts.
The information in this booklet is a
compilation of established research and
practical knowledge. A huge number of
people have contributed to the content and
its development however special thanks
must go to the following:
Colin Holmes, Ian Brookes, John Roche,
John Simmonds, Eric Kolver, Jakob
Kleinmans, Stewart Ledgard, Mark
Robinson, Chris Pyke, Ian Williams, Dave
Miller, Selwyn Beynon, Bill Montgomery,
Tom Fraser, Johanna Deutz-Ebeling, Mark
Blackwell, John White, Jenny McPherson,
Steve Lee, Chris Glassey, Errol Thom,
Virginia Serra, Miranda Hunter, Bastiaan
Schouten, Phil Irvine, Wayne Berry, Kim
Reid, Leo Hendrikse, Christine Finnigan,
Dawn Dalley, Jane Lacy-Hulbert, Alan
Fergusson, Heather Lawson, Chris Burke,
Rob Brazendale, Phillipa Hedley and
Anna Lambourne.
Version 2 : September 2012
DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Contents
Production systems
5 farm production system definitions
Cow feed requirements
Dairy cow annual dry matter requirements
Lactating cow requirements
4
5
5
7
7
8
Dry cow dry matter requirements
11
Estimating herd/cow liveweight
12
Nutrition
General nutrition
Young stock requirements
13
13
16
Young stock target liveweights
16
Total daily requirements
16
Estimating liveweight of dairy heifers
17
Feed
Feed values
18
19
Commonly fed supplements:
22
Feeding forage crops: factors to consider
24
Density and storage of silage
26
Density and storage of other feeds
27
Interpreting silage analysis
28
Time to ensile
29
Mineral additives to maize silage
30
Costing feeds
31
Supplements
31
Seasonal milksolids responses to supplement offered
32
Feed allocation
34
Contents | 1
Contents
Feed requirements
Contents
Animals
36
Body condition score recommendations
37
Reproduction
40
Gestation period (term of pregnancy)
40
Breeding dates and periods
40
InCalf key performance targets – calving and mating
41
Heifer calf rearing
42
Colostrum
42
Calf rearing rations
42
Calf rearing key points
42
Treatment of diarrhoea in calves
45
Herd replacement
Optimal target age structure for a herd
Breeding
Animal evaluation and cow indexes
Animal health
46
46
46
46
48
Magnesium
48
Facial eczema prevention
50
Trace element supplementation
54
Milk
56
Milk composition
57
Milk quality tests
57
Milking plant
59
Milkings before rubberware changed
59
Recommended vacuum levels
59
Mastitis
60
Mastitis targets
60
Teat spray
61
2 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
62
Pasture renewal
63
Average pasture growth data
66
Fertiliser
76
Nitrogen
76
Soil map
78
Effluent
79
Infrastructure and financial
82
Farm infrastructure
83
Water supply and irrigation
85
Costing of servicing table mortgages
88
Contents | 3
Contents
Pasture and nutrients
Feed requirements
4 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Production systems
As New Zealand pastoral farming is about profitably balancing feed supply and demand,
five production systems have been described by DairyNZ primarily on the basis of when
imported feed is fed to dry or lactating cows during the season and secondly by the amount
of imported feed and / or off farm dry cow grazing. The definitions do not include grazing or
feed for young stock.
System 1 – All grass self contained, all stock on the dairy platform
No feed is imported. No supplement fed to the herd except supplement harvested off the
effective milking area and dry cows are not grazed off the effective milking area.
System 2 – Feed imported, either supplement or grazing-off, for dry cows
Approx 4-14% of total feed is imported. Large variation in % as in high rainfall areas and
cold climates such as Southland, most of the cows are wintered off.
System 3 – Feed imported to extend lactation (typically autumn feed) and for dry cows
Approx 10-20% of total feed is imported. Feed to extend lactation may be imported in
spring rather than autumn.
System 4 – Feed imported and used at both ends of lactation and for dry cows
Approx 20-30% of total feed is imported onto the farm.
System 5 – Imported feed used all year, throughout lactation and for dry cows
Approx 25-40% (but can be up to 55%) of total feed is imported.
Note:
Farms feeding 1-2 kg of meal or grain per cow per day for most of the season will best fit in
System 3.
Feed requirements | 5
Feed requirements
Five farm production system definitions
Key performance indicators for farm systems
1
No imported
feed
2
3
4
5
Imported feed
Imported
Imported feed Imported feed
for dry cows
feed extend
shoulders of
all year
4-14%
lactation and/or
season
25-40%
winter 10-20%
20-30%
Similar for all systems
Pasture eaten (t DM/ha)
MS as % of Lwt 1
Feed requirements
NI and unirrigated (%)
Canterbury/Southland (%)
CSR 2 cow Lwt/tDM
Days in milk (DIM)
1
75-80
75-80
80-85
85-90
90-105
-
80-85
85-90
90-95
90-105
83-90
83-90
80
80
75-80
230-250
240-260
245-265
265-280
275+
J, X, F
430 kg +
X, F
470 kg +
Cow Lwt and breed
J, X, F < 500 kg
1
MS as % of Lwt and DIM are based on the number of peak cows milked as calculated in DairyBase.
2
CSR = Comparative stocking rate.
6 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Cow feed requirements
Feed requirements
The feed requirement figures are ‘eaten’ feed demand plus 6% to allow for feed wastage
observed under good feeding conditions of pasture in farmlet trials i.e. feed offered.
Where feed (pasture or supplement) wastage rates are greater than those stated, feed
requirements need to be increased.
Dairy cow annual dry matter requirements
Annual requirements tonnes DM/cow/year at 11.0 MJ ME/kg DM
Breed
kg Lwt
Jersey
Jersey
Milksolids production (kg MS/cow/year)
250
300
350
400
450
500
350
3.7
4.0
4.4
4.7
5.1
400
3.9
4.2
4.6
5.0
5.3
5.7
JxF
450
4.2
4.5
4.9
5.3
5.6
6.0
Friesian
500
4.4
Friesian
550
550
6.4
4.8
5.2
5.5
5.9
6.3
6.7
5.0
5.4
5.8
6.1
6.5
6.9
The annual requirements include walking 4 km/day on the flat for 270 days in milk per cow.
Note:
These requirements are greater than the figures used in DairyBase, as DairyBase calculates feed
eaten which does not allow for wastage.
•
DM requirement with increasing feed quality: subtract 14% per MJ ME above 11.0 MJ ME/kg DM
•
DM requirement with decreasing feed quality: add 14% per MJ ME below 11.0 MJ ME/kg DM.
Feed requirements | 7
Lactating cow requirements
Daily energy requirements of lactating cows (MJ ME)
Feed requirements
The requirements are calculated for pasture at 11.0 MJ ME/kg DM. For different pasture
quality make the following adjustments to calculate ME requirements:
•
ME requirements with increasing feed quality: subtract 4% per MJ ME above
11.0 MJ ME/kg DM
•
ME requirements with decreasing feed quality: add 4% per MJ ME below
11.0 MJ ME/kg DM.
Maintenance MJ ME/day
Lwt (kg)
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
40
45
50
54
59
63
68
Milksolids MJ ME/kg MS
Breed
MJ ME/kg DM
Jersey
JxF
Friesian
10
81
84
86
11
77
80
82
12
74
77
79
Walking MJ ME/km
Flat
Rolling
Hilly/steep
2.0
3.0
6.0
Pregnancy MJ ME/day
Weeks before calving
Annual total
12
8
4
2
Jersey
11
18
32
42
2,840
JxF
12
21
37
48
3,240
Friesian
13
23
41
54
3,610
8 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Liveweight MJ ME/kg Lwt change (Diet ME required or saved)
Dry cows
Milking cows
Lwt gain
Lwt loss
Lwt gain
Lwt loss
72
-30
50
-37
Daily requirements of a 450 kg J x F cow, producing 2.0 kg MS/day and losing
0.5 kg/day Lwt at 12.0 MJ ME/kg DM
Maintenance
Walking on flat (3 km x 2 MJ ME/km)
Milksolids (2.0 kg MS x 80 MJ)
54
6
160
Lwt loss (0.50 kg LWT x -37 MJ)
-19
Total MJ ME at 11.0 ME
201
ME requirements reduced by 4% as 12.0 ME fed = 201 x 96%
Total kg DM Eaten (193 ÷ 12.0 ME)
193
16.1 kg DM
(Diet ME required reduced by 19 MJ ME from loss of Lwt).
Example 2:
Daily requirements of a 450 kg J x F dry cow, 12 weeks before calving and gaining
0.5 kg/day Lwt (½ CS in 30 days) at 11.0 MJ ME/kg DM
Maintenance
54
Pregnancy
12
Lwt gain (0.50 kg Lwt x 72 MJ)
36
Total MJ ME
Total kg DM Eaten (102 ÷ 11.0 ME)
102
9.3 kg DM
(Diet ME required increased by 36 MJ ME from gain of Lwt).
Feed requirements | 9
Feed requirements
Example 1:
Total daily dry matter requirements lactating cows (kg DM/cow/day)
Feed requirements
Daily milking cow requirements: kg DM/cow/day at 10.5 MJ ME/kg DM
Breed
kg Lwt
J
kg MS/cow/day
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
350
10.4
11.9
13.4
14.9
16.4
J
400
10.9
12.4
13.9
15.4
16.9
JxF
450
11.6
13.1
14.7
16.3
17.8
Fr
500
12.1
13.7
15.3
17.0
18.6
Fr
550
12.6
14.2
15.8
17.4
19.0
(No walking or Lwt loss or Lwt gain included).
Daily milking cow requirements: kg DM/cow/day at 11.0 MJ ME/kg DM
Breed
kg Lwt
kg MS/cow/day
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
13.9
J
350
11.1
12.5
15.3
16.7
J
400
11.5
12.9
14.3
15.7
17.2
15.2
JxF
450
12.2
13.7
16.6
18.1
Fr
500
12.8
14.3
15.8
17.3
18.8
Fr
550
13.3
14.8
16.3
17.8
19.3
(No walking or Lwt loss or Lwt gain included).
Daily milking cow requirements: kg DM/cow/day at 12.0 MJ ME/kg DM
kg MS/cow/day
Breed
kg Lwt
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
J
350
12.2
13.5
14.7
15.9
17.2
J
400
12.6
13.9
15.1
16.3
17.6
JxF
450
13.3
14.6
15.9
17.2
18.5
Fr
500
13.9
15.2
16.5
17.8
19.1
Fr
550
14.3
15.6
16.9
18.2
19.5
(No walking or Lwt loss or Lwt gain included).
10 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Dry cow dry matter requirements
Kg liveweight per body condition score (BCS)
350
400
450
500
550
kg/BCS
23
26
30
33
36
Approximate amounts (kg DM) of ‘commonly used feeds’ required for a 1.0
unit increase in BCS.
Breed
kg Lwt1
kg
Lwt/
BCS
Autumn
Pasture
Pasture
Silage
Maize
Silage
11.5
10.5
10.5
Kale2
Swedes3
Fodder
Beet2
11
11
12
12.5
PKE
MJ ME/kg DM
J
350
23
145
110
115
85
150
125
110
J
400
26
165
130
130
100
175
145
125
JxF
450
30
185
145
145
110
195
160
140
Fr
500
33
205
160
160
125
215
180
155
Fr
550
36
225
180
180
135
235
195
170
Live weights are for the cow only and exclude the weight of the foetus. 2 Requirements for kale and fodder beet
were estimated relative to requirements for grass silage from Keogh et al. (2008).
3
Requirements for swedes were estimated as the average of kale and fodder beet.
1
Note:
•
The reason why different feeds have different effects on BCS gain is currently not known, but
the results are based on feeding studies in New Zealand
•
The difference in feed requirements between maize silage, PKE and pasture silage is not
statistically significant – this means that we cannot say with certainty that the numerical
difference is real. However, this is the best information available for New Zealand farmers
•
The figures presented are average feed requirements for a 1.0 unit gain in BCS
•
The amount of feed required to gain BCS increases later in pregnancy. Realistically, cows do not
gain BCS during the last month before calving because of the energy demands of foetal growth
•
Dry (non-lactating) cows struggle to eat more than 3.5 kg of PKE/day.
Maintenance and pregnancy requirements no body condition score gain
(kg/DM/cow/day) 11.0 MJ ME/kg DM autumn pasture
Weeks pre-calving
Breed
kg Lwt
12
8
4
2
J
350
5.0
5.7
6.8
7.7
J
400
5.5
6.3
7.6
8.5
JxF
450
6.0
6.8
8.3
9.3
Fr
500
6.5
7.4
9.0
10.1
Fr
550
7.0
8.0
9.6
10.8
Feed requirements | 11
Feed requirements
kg Lwt/CS = 6.58% of cow Lwt
Cow Lwt
Maintenance, pregnancy and gaining 1 body condition score in 60 days
(kg DM/cow/day) 11.0 MJ ME/kg DM autumn pasture
No CS gain in last month of pregnancy
Feed requirements
These requirements do not include an allowance for wastage like the other tables in Facts & Figures
Breed
kg Lwt
8 - 4 weeks pre-calving
J
350
10.3
J
400
11.5
JxF
450
12.8
Fr
500
13.5
Fr
550
15.0
Estimating herd/cow liveweight
Weighing cows to estimate average herd liveweight
Ideally average herd liveweight should be determined by weighing at least 20% of the
herd with a cross section of cow age. Cows should be weighed when around BCS 4.5 and
when pregnancy is not affecting liveweight. This is usually around 1 December. If cows are
being weighed when they are milking, weigh after morning milking. If cows are dry, weigh
the cows in the morning before they are offered any new feed.
Estimate herd liveweight from breeding value
Obtain the liveweight breeding value (Lwt BV) for mature cows from your herd improvement
organisation and use the following formula:
•
Low producing herd (MS < 75% Lwt): Lwt = 503 + Lwt BV x 85%
•
Average producing herd (MS 75-85% Lwt): Lwt = 503 + Lwt BV x 95%
•
High producing herd (MS > 85% Lwt): Lwt = 503 + Lwt BV.
Estimate from breed
Breed
Lwt kg
Herd average Lwt kg
LIC statistics
Jersey
370-395
375
75% Jersey ( J12 F4)
400-440
445
75% Friesian (F12 J4)
445-470
445
Friesian
475-500
480
Holstein Friesian
510-600
12 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Nutrition
General nutrition
Energy is the key driver of milk production. In practice high protein pastures meet the protein
requirements for high milksolids production. The table below shows when protein may limit
production for cows fed high quality pasture.
Nutrients first – limiting milk production on high quality pasture diets
kg milk/cow/day
Approx. kg MS/cow
Nutrient first limiting milk production
20
1.6
Energy (protein in pasture >18%)
25
2.0
Energy (protein in pasture > 24%)
30
2.4
Energy and protein
35
2.8
Protein
Fibre
Fibre is the primary source of energy for grazing animals, but is also required to stimulate
chewing and saliva production.
Neutral Detergent Fibre (NDF) is the most common measure of fibre used for animal feed
analysis. It measures more than 90% of the structural components in plant cells (i.e.
lignin, hemicellulose and cellulose).
For cows grazing only high quality pasture the minimum NDF requirements are 28-32%.
In diets containing large amounts of finely ground grain and by-products or precision
chopped silages, recommended fibre levels have been further refined to include the term
“effective fibre”(eNDF). This term is used to describe the fibre that is most effective at
promoting chewing. For example, the fibre in fresh pasture or silage (pasture, cereal
or maize) is very effective and the fibre in cereal grains is 0% effective in promoting
chewing. However, currently there is no accurate way to measure eNDF of long forages
(fresh pasture, or grass or cereal silage), hence eNDF figures have not been included in
the feed table.
Feed requirements | 13
Feed requirements
Energy and protein
Nutritional guidelines for all pasture, pasture + supplement, and total mixed
ration (TMR) diets
Note: Energy – refer to pg 8
Protein
Protein content of diet required % DM
Feed requirements
Good quality all-pasture diets
kg milk/cow/day
kg MS/cow/day
20
1.6
18
30
2.4
24
Pasture + supplement, TMR
kg milk/cow/day
kg MS/cow/day
20
1.6
16 (65% degradable, 35% bypass, 32% soluble)
30
2.4
18 (65% degradable, 35% bypass, 32% soluble)
As a general rule for all diets
Early lactation
18
Mid lactation
16
Late lactation
14
Dry cow
12
Fibre
(% Diet DM)
As a general rule for all diets
Minimum NDF
35
Minimum effective fibre (eNDF)
17
Pasture + supplement, TMR
Minimum NDF
Minimum effective fibre (eNDF)
27-33
20
Minimum ADF
19-21
Soluble carbohydrate
(% Diet DM)
Pasture + supplement, TMR
Maximum total soluble carbohydrate
38
Maximum starch
30
(cont’d p15)
14 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
(cont’d from p14)
Fat
(% diet DM)
Pasture + supplement, TMR
Maximum additional protected fat
Macro minerals
3
3
(% diet DM)
Mineral content of diet required (%DM)
All diets for high production
(2 kgMS/cow/day)
Calcium
0.6-0.8
Phosphorus
0.3-0.35
Magnesium
0.22-0.28
Potassium
1.0+
Sulphur
0.23
Sodium
0.20
Chlorine
0.25
Feed requirements | 15
Feed requirements
Maximum additional unprotected fat
Young stock requirements
Young stock target liveweights
Young stock target liveweights – kg Lwt
Feed requirements
Age in months
3
6
9
15
22
% of mature liveweight target
Breed
Mature
Lwt kg
20%
30%
40%
60%
90%
Jersey
350
70
105
140
210
315
Jersey
400
80
120
160
240
360
JxF
450
90
135
180
270
405
Friesian
500
100
150
200
300
450
110
165
220
330
495
Friesian
550
Total daily requirements
Young stock total kg DM requirements: kg DM/head/day at 11.0 MJ ME/kg DM
Total kg DM
Breed
Mature Lwt kg
Jersey
Age in months
3-10
11-22
3-22
350
770
2,115
2,885
Jersey
400
865
2,370
3,235
JxF
450
960
2,630
3,585
Friesian
500
1,050
2,880
3,930
Friesian
550
1,145
3,130
4,275
Daily young stock requirements: kg DM/head/day at 11.0 MJ ME/kg DM
Age in months (% of mature Lwt)
Breed
Lwt gain
kg/day
3 (20%)
6 (30%)
9 (40%)
15 (60%)
18 (73%)
21 (86%)
22 (90%)
Jersey
0.45
2.7
3.5
4.2
5.7
6.5
7.7
8.4
JxF
0.55
3.2
4.1
5.0
6.6
7.6
9.0
9.9
Friesian
0.64
3.6
4.6
5.7
7.6
8.7
10.3
11.2
16 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Girth (metres)
Height (metres)
Body weight (kgs)
0.85-0.87
0.75-0.76
50
1.00-1.05
0.90-0.92
100
1.03
0.90
120
1.12
0.95
140
1.19
0.99
160
1.25
1.02
180
1.31
1.05
200
1.36
1.07
220
1.41
1.09
240
1.45
1.11
260
1.48
1.12
270
1.50
1.13
280
1.54
1.15
300
1.59
1.17
320
1.62
1.19
340
Feed requirements | 17
Feed requirements
Estimating liveweight of dairy heifers
Feed
18 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Feed
Feed values
DM
%
ME
MJ/kg DM
CP
%DM
NDF
%DM
SSS
%DM
Starch
%SSS
Fat
%
Pasture
North Island and dryland South Island
Spring
12-15
11.5-12.5
20-30
35-45
7-25
2-4
4-6
Summer leafy
15-20
10.5-11.5
15-22
42-50
7-25
2-4
3-5
Summer dry stalky
20-30
9.5-10.5
13-18
45-55
6-13
2-4
2-4
Autumn / winter
13-18
11.0-11.5
15-20
40-47
7-25
2-4
3-5
13-20
11.5-12.5
18-28
30-45
11-29
Irrigated South Island
Spring
Summer leafy
13-20
11.0-12.5
18-28
35-50
10-30
Autumn / winter
13-20
11.0-12.0
18-30
30-45
7-30
Spring
12-24
11.0-12.5
18-34
35-50
9-21
3-6
Summer leafy
13-22
10.0-12.5
18-30
35-50
6-20
3-6
Autumn / winter
12-25
11.0-12.5
18-32
35-50
6-20
4-7
Leafy
20-30
9.0-11.0
16-20
Stemmy
40-60
7.0-9.0
6-10
30-35
11.0
17.0
45-50
3-5
Southland
Kikuyu
Silage
Pasture, good
7
3.0
Pasture, poor
33-40
9.0
12-14
53-57
3-5
8
3.1
Baleage
35-45
9.5-11.5
12-17
45-55
5-10
2-4
3.0
Lucerne
30-50
9.0-11.0
19-23
36-48
4-6
1-3
Maize, high grain
33-38
10.8-11.0
8.0
42-45
35
75-80
3.1
Maize, low grain
28-40
10.0-10.5
8.0
45-50
30
70-80
3.1
Pea
Whole crop Silage 1
33
9.0-9.5
13-16
59
20
35
3.3
35-40
9.0-10.5
8.0-9.0
55-60
16-30
75-80
3-6
(cont’d p20)
Feed | 19
Feed
Ryegrass/white clover dominant
(cont’d from p19)
Feed values continued
DM
%
ME
MJ/kg DM
CP
%DM
NDF
%DM
SSS
%DM
Starch
%SSS
Fat
%
Pasture, good
85
9-10
15-20
50-58
10-15
2-4
2.6
Pasture, poor
85
7-8
5-10
60-70
5-10
2-4
2.6
Barley straw
87
6-7
4-5
80
5-8
100
1.9
Pea straw
85
7-8
6
59
Wheat straw
89
6-7
3-4
79
7-9
100
1.8
8-19
12.5-13.0
20-26
30-38
4-9
Hay
Feed
Grazed crops 1
Chicory
Fodder Beet
14-20
12.0-12.5
9-14
11-16
Kale
11-15
11.0-13.5
12-18
20-35
35-40
Swedes
9-12
11.0-12.5
12-20
16-30
45-50
Turnips
9-11
12.0
12-18
27
17
10
2
86-89
12.5
11-12
16-21
60
90
2.0
Bran (wheat)
89
10.0
17
51
20
95
4.4
Maize grain
87-89
13.5
8
9
75
99
4.3
Oats
89
11.5
13
31
48
90
4.9
Peas
87
13.0
24
23
46
Soya bean meal
90
12.5
47-53
15
27
90
1.5
86-89
13-13.5
13
11-14
70
90
1.5-2.0
Concentrate
Barley
Wheat
1
1.8
Higher values South Island
Note:
The average ME has been rounded to the nearest 0.5 ME. Quality of forages may be outside the
range depending on the level of pasture/crop management. ME=metabolisable energy, CP=crude
protein, NDF=neutral detergent fibre, SSS=soluble sugars and starch. Data from Holmes and Wilson,
1987; NRC, 1989; Kolver 2000, Roche 2008; Personal comm. T Hughes; C Pyke Intelact.
20 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
DM
%
ME
MJ/kg DM
CP
%DM
NDF
%DM
SSS
%DM
Starch
%SSS
Fat
%
22
10.5
5.4
41
44
100
4.7
Apple pomace
Brewers grains
20-25
10.5
20-25
55
11
100
7.3-8.0
Broll
85-88
9.5-11.0
11-14
41
22
90
5.0
Carrots
12-13
13.0
9-10
20
40
25
Fishmeal
92
11.7
70-73
2
0
0
10.5
Kiwifruit (ripe)
14
9.0-11.0
12-17
20
50
2-4
3.0
Kiwifruit (hard)
20
12.0-12.5
6-10
25
30
2.0
3.0
Molasses
75
11.5
4-6
0
65
0
0
Onions
10
13.0
12
18
65
100
1.6
Palm kernel extract
90
11.0-11.5
14
70
5
8.0
11
5
100
0.4
Potatoes
20
13.0
32-40
9.0-11.0
Sweetcorn silage
20
9.5-10.5
8
40
Tallow
99
38
0
0
0
0
99.0
Tapioca
88
12.5
3
15
65-70
90
1.0
Urea
99
0.0
281
0
0
0
0
Proliq
77.2
contact supplier
Feed | 21
Feed
By products
Commonly fed supplements: MJ ME, wastage and other considerations
Supplement
MJ ME
/kg DM
Estimated wastage
feeding out
Other
High risk of acidosis. Can be reduced
by spreading/scattering over paddock.
Need to restrict to 3 kg DM/cow/day if
fed in bins as risk of acidosis from cows
gorging. Limited supply. Need to know
rations ingredients.
13.0
20%+
Meal
12.0-12.5
ME is dependent on
the weighted ME
of the ingredients.
Where the meal
contains mineral
based compounds eg
magnesium the ME
will be less than the
weighted average of
the feed ingredients.
10%+
5% pelletised
Wastage is dependent on the
processing of the
meal (pellet vs loose)
and how it is fed (in
shed feeding vs out
of shed feeding in
troughs)
Molasses
11.5
10-15%
Feed
Potatoes
25% Tapioca;
11.5
75%/PKE
Palm kernel
Silage /
baleage
11.0-11.5
9.0-11.5 Quality
varies widely
Moderate to high risk of acidosis.
Need to introduce slowly and feed so
individual cows can’t gorge. Can get
intakes of up to 3 kg DM /cow/feed.
High risk of acidosis. Max intake 1.01.5 kg DM/cow (i.e. 2 l/cow). Introduce
gradually.
Moderate risk of acidosis, especially
Feed in bins 10-20%; if poorly mixed. Reduced by
feed in paddock
minimising Tapioca to 25% of mix
30%+
and good feed management (refer
DairyNZ Farmfact 1-70 – Tapioca).
Feed in bins
10-20%; feeding in
paddock 30%+
Not very palatable. Needs to be
available to cows when grazing to
encourage intake when first introduced.
Ideally no more than 30% of the diet;
severe feed deficits max intake 50% of
diet, balanced forage. Cows need water
all day at high intakes. No major animal
health risks. At high intakes review
copper supplementation (refer DairyNZ
Farmfact 1-71 – Palm kernel extract).
20%+
Silage and baleage often not 10.5 ME
and therefore not suitable as milking
feed. Suitable feed for dry cows, or if no
long-chop feed available for milking
cows (to reduce risk of acidosis). Cost
varies depending on size of bale,
wastage and ME.
(cont’d p23)
22 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
(cont’d from p22)
Supplement
Maize silage
MJ ME
/ kg DM
10.0-11.0 Average
10.5 ME
Estimated wastage
feeding out
Other
20%+
Can feed up to 40% of diet to milking
cows and 50% of diet for dry cows if
the pasture is 25% crude protein. For
short periods (up to a month) can feed
up to 80% of diet for dry cows. At high
intakes require supplementation with
Ca, Mg and Na.
Cereal Silage
8-11
20%+ good quality
30-40% poor quality
Like maize, not all regions in NZ
are suited to growing quality cereal
silage and to get high ME crops
requires top management (small
harvesting window). Can get high
wastage if poor quality.
Hay
8-9
20%+
Suitable feed for dry cows, or when
fed to reduce risk of acidosis.
20%+
Not suitable as milking cow feed
unless diet short on fibre but can
make part of a dry cow ration. May
be required in diet to meet fibre
requirements, especially if diet high
in sugar/starch and little long chop
silage, hay or pasture available.
20%+
Feeding may cause anaemia, cows may
also choke, and risk of milk taint.
20%+
Intake must be increased gradually over
2-3 weeks. Up to 3 kg DM/dry cow/day
(15 kg fruit/cow/day) can be fed to dry
stock but this needs to be reduced to 5
kg fruit/cow/day if fruit is ripe. Milking
cows have been fed up to 5-6 kg DM/
cow/day without obvious problems but
only where cows have a high intake
of pasture (10-12 kg DM/cow/day). As
kiwifruit is high in soluble sugars there
is a high risk of acidosis when fed to
excess. There is also a risk of animals
choking especially when fruit is hard.
Straw
6-8
Onions
Kiwifruit
Note:
Starch based
concentrates
12-12.5%
Grain, tapioca
When feeding a starch-based
concentrate, the ME of pasture
decreases by up to 5% due to negative
associative effects in ruminal fibre
digestion.
Feed | 23
Feed
Commonly fed supplements: MJ ME, wastage and other considerations
Feeding forage crops: factors to consider
Forage crops
Factors to consider
Cereals
Flexible as can be grazed or ensiled (whole crop silage) Silage quality general lower
ME than good quality maize silage but is less risky in cooler regions or exposed
locations. In North Island difficult to get good grain fill reducing silage quality.
Triticale
Range of cultivars from single to multiple grazings.
Oats
Best suited to single grazing; or multiple cut and carry where height
controlled. Quality changes with maturation, protein declining, soluble
carbohydrate increasing.
Feed
Multiple-graze cereals Sown in autumn; grazing time in winter not as flexible as Italian ryegrass.
e.g. triticale, rye corn,
oats
Brassicas
Fall into 2 categories – summer feed or winter feed. All provide high quality feed
and bulbing brassicas a source of carbohydrate (stored starch and soluble sugars).
Dangers of feeding can be avoided by careful transitioning between diets (at least
10 days) and supplementing with straw and silage to increase gut fill and reduce
rate of intake and offering 2-3 smaller breaks during the day. High sugar and low
fibre: rumen acidosis. Toxic components SMCO, glucosinolates and high nitrate.
SMCO1 – reduced performance ‘red water’ disease; highest risk mature kale,
flowering brassicas and secondary re-growth. Rape scold in second-growth Pasja.
Swedes (approx 12.0)
Low DM% 11-12% which can limit intake.
Kale (approx 12.5 ME) High in protein, good levels of soluble carbohydrate and high levels of
calcium (7-8 g/kg DM compared to pasture 2-2.4 g/kg DM). Can be ensiled;
need to manage effluent loss. Utilisation 75-80% ideal conditions; 50-60%
in the wet. Can provide 100% of diet but better feed usage if less than
65% with high quality baleage, hay or pasture as the other 35%. SMCO –
greatest risk in mature kale crops; use little to no sulphate fertiliser. Nitrate
poisoning: excessive fertiliser use and exacerbated by certain weather
conditions. High Ca/P ratio can cause milk fever at calving.
1
Turnips
Use long and narrow breaks. Introduce cows gradually to adjust to crop;
offer a maximum of 2 kg DM/cow (approximately 2-3 m2/cow/day) in first
five days increasing over next five days, up to 5 kg DM/cow/day; no more
than a third of the daily ration. For more information refer to DairyNZ
Farmfact 1-67 – Barkant turnips: feeding the crop.
Chicory
Management is similar to turnips with time required to adjust to crop.
Pre-graze at 25-35 cm height; graze to 5-10 cm. Do not graze lower than
5 cm. For more information refer to DairyNZ Farmfact 1-72 – Chicory.
Fodder Beet
Not the same management as kale and swedes. Need to transition cows onto
crop over 10-14 day period. Graze the roots and crop together. Transition cows
off crop 2-3 weeks prior to calving and supplement with magnesium. For more
information refer to DairyNZ Farmfact 1-73 – Fodder beet: feeding dairy cows.
SMCO = amino acid S-methylcysteine sulphoxide
24 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Crop area required to feed 100 cows
Crop Yield
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
8 t DM/ha
375m²
500m²
625m²
750m²
10 t DM/ha
300m²
400m²
500m²
600m²
12 t DM/ha
250m²
333m²
420m²
500m²
14 t DM/ha
215m²
280m²
360m²
430m²
Estimating chicory crop yield
The DM% of chicory ranges from 10-15% and therefore yields can vary by up to 50% if
DM is over or under estimated. The following outlines the best practise method. For more
information refer to DairyNZ Farmfact 1-72 – Chicory.
•
Make a 0.25 m² quadrant by bending wire into a square 0.5 m x 0.5 m
•
Take cuttings from 4 randomly chosen sites, cut to 5 cm height
•
Bulk up 4 samples and weigh
•
Multiply by 10,000 to get fresh weight (kg/ha)
•
Take 200 g sample of fresh chicory
•
Dry in microwave or oven and re-weigh or send sample away for DM analysis
•
Calculate DM% (dry weight / fresh weight)
•
Calculate DM/ha (Fresh weight x DM%).
Estimating brassica or fodder beet crop yield
•
Collect at least 6-8 quadrat samples that are representative of the paddock. The more
samples the better
•
Sample size minimum of 1 m2 (use a 1 m x 1 m square quadrant or a circle made with a
3.55 m length of alkathene; or for a 2 m2 sample use 7.1 m length of alkathene to make
the circle)
•
Harvest all the material within each sample and measure its fresh weight after removing
any excess soil, especially from the bulbs of swedes, turnips and fodder beet
•
Determine the DM content – take a sub-sample of plants and send to the lab for DM
analysis. As DM% varies greatly estimating will result in under or overestimating the yield
•
Average the DM yield for the quadrat samples (fresh weight x DM%) and multiply by
10,000 for a 1 m2 sample or by 5,000 for a 2 m2 sample (e.g. 1.44 kg DM from a 1 m2
sample equates to 14,400 kg DM/ha or 14.4 tonnes DM/ha).
Feed | 25
Feed
Daily intake (kg DM/cow)
Density and storage of silage
Feed
Density and DM% of silage and hay
Silage type
DM %
Wet weight silage
kg/m3 in stack or
hay in bale
DM silage kg/m3 in
stack/bale
Direct cut grass
13-18
700-900
120-160
Wilted grass
20-30
600-800
160-180
Baleage
35-40
500
130-180
85
18-25
15-20
Hay – small bales
Hay – round bales
85
180-300
150-250
Maize stack
33-38
500-760
170-250 (average 200)
Maize bunker
33-38
600-820
200-270 (average 220)
Maize deep bunker
(not common 5% of
bunkers)
Density in
wagon kg/m3
in stack
80-120
33-38
760-900
250-300
Estimate of DM % grass silage
Squeeze test: Break up silage 2-3 cm length and roll into ball size of tennis ball,
squeeze in fist for 30 seconds
DM %
Hands dry, sample does not stay in tight ball when stop squeezing
Over 30
Sample stays in ball when stop squeezing, no juice, hands moist
26-30
A little juice runs out with difficulty
21-25
Juice runs out easily
18-20
Storage space required for grass and maize silage
Silage storage
Tonnes DM multiplied by
Example
Maize stack
5.0
e.g. 50 t DM x 5.0 = 250 m3
Maize bunker
4.4
e.g. 50 t DM x 4.4 = 222 m3
Grass silage
5.7
e.g. 50 t DM x 5.7 = 285 m3
26 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Density (kg/m3)
Storage (m3/tonne)
Grains – Barley
630
1.6
– Wheat
760
1.3
630-750
1.35-1.6
630
1.6
630-725
1.4-1.6
660
1.5
PKE
Carrots
Onions (dry)
Potatoes
Feed
Density and storage of other feeds
Feed | 27
Interpreting silage analysis
Interpreting pasture silage analysis
Factors measured
High
Low
3.5-4.5
5.0-6.0
A low pH prevents unwanted butyric
fermentation.
Ammonia N (% of total N)
5-10
20-30
Low values indicate minimal breakdown
of protein in silage usually due to rapid
fall in pH to a low level in the silage.
Lactic acid (% of DM)
8-12
0.1-1
High concentrations indicate well
preserved silage.
Butyric acid (%of DM)
0.1-1
3-5
pH
Feed
Interpretation
Quality of fermentation
High concentrations indicate poorly
preserved silage.
Interpreting maize silage analysis
Factors
Quality of fermentation Interpretation
typical range
pH
3.7-4.2
pH higher than 4.0 may be due to the silage
being very high DM (>42%) or the silage has
had considerable aerobic exposure.
Ammonia N
(% total N)
5-7
High value (>12%) is the result of high protein
breakdown. Note: maize silage has low crude
protein (8%) i.e. less crude protein available to
be degraded.
Lactic acid (% DM)
4-7
High concentrations indicate well preserved
silage. Low values may indicate restricted
fermentation due to high DM or after
considerable aerobic exposure.
Acetic acid (% DM)
1-3
High concentrations are often found with
very wet silage (<25% DM) or due to loose
packing. Silage treated with inoculant
containing
L. buchneri show higher levels of acetic acid;
this should not be mistaken for a poorly
preserved silage.
28 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Time to ensile
Time to ensile (days to when can be fed out)
Silage type
% DM
with inoculant
without inoculant
20
4-7
8-14
30
4-10
14-21
40
4-10
20+
50
Up to 14
Up to 30+
Whole crop cereal
32-45
3-4
7
Maize
30-40
3-4
7
Grass
Note:
Need to use crop specific inoculant i.e. grass silage use grass inoculant; maize silage use maize
inoculant. Lower the DM the quicker to ensile but more risk of low quality silage (compost). Higher
the sugar content the quicker to ensile.
Feed | 29
Feed
Days to ensile
Mineral additives to maize silage
Mineral additives to maize silage (when maize silage 25-40% of DM intake)
Use the following mineral supplementation guidelines when 25-40% of the DM intake is
maize silage.
Contact an animal nutritionist to get recommendations when maize is more than 40% of
the diet.
Feed
Amount of each mineral supplement (g/cow/day) to include when feeding
different amounts of maize silage
Maize eaten – kg DM
Limeflour
CausMag
AgSalt
Dicalcium
Phosphate
g/cow/day
Lactating cow
Less than 3 kg
60
40
15
20
3-5 kg
70
45
25
35
5-8 kg
80
45
40
55
Less than 3 kg
0
60
0
0
3-5 kg1
0
60
15
0
Dry cow (last 3 weeks)
1
For more information refer to DairyNZ Farmfact 1-60 – Mineral supplementation for maize silage.
30 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Costing feeds
Costing per kg DM eaten and per MJ ME eaten
Dry Matter (DM)
=
wet weight x DM%
Cost/kg DM eaten
=
price per tonne feed ÷ by kg DM ÷ Utilisation
Cost/MJ ME eaten
=
cents/kg DM eaten ÷ by MJ ME/kg DM
DM
= 1000 kg x 35% DM = 350 kg DM
Cost/kg DM eaten
=
=
Cost/MJ ME eaten
=
$80/tonne
350 kg DM/tonne
23 cents
0.80
Feed
Example: Grass silage costs $80/tonne; 35% DM; 10 MJ ME/kg DM
Utilisation of 80% (10% wastage storage + 10% wastage feeding out)
x 100 = 23 cents/kg DM offered
= 29 cents/kg DM eaten
29 cents/kg DM
10 MJ ME/kg DM
= 2.9 cents/MJ ME eaten
Supplements
Estimates of % wastage rates in storage and feeding out
Storage
Supplement
Excellent Average
Poor
1
Feeding out paddock 2
Feeding out bins 3
Excellent Average
Poor
Very good
Poor
Grass silage (%)
5
10-15
20-40
10
20
40
5-10
25 4
Maize & cereal silage (%)
6
10-15
20-40
15
25
40
5-10
25 4
Palm kernel (%)
<2
10-15
20
25
30
50
10
25
Concentrates (%) 5
<2
5
15
5
25
As research on wastage of supplements is limited, the above are based on best estimates from
scientists and industry experts
1
2
Includes losses at the stack face and when loading the wagon
Bins = Feed trough for PKE fed in the paddock or feed pad for forages or in-shed feeding for
concentrates
3
4
Excludes refusal in the bin for rotten silage
There are additional losses feeding concentrates e.g. small grain losses up to 40% as grains are
undigested by the cow. There are also losses when grains are digested whole.
5
Feed | 31
Seasonal milksolids responses to supplement offered
Spring
Feed
Response g MS/kg DM Residuals and average
pasture cover (APC) 1
g MS/MJ ME at 11ME
1
Supplement
Other
<3.0
<30
9.5 clicks or
1,800 kg DM/ha. At or
above APC target.
Quality < 10.5 ME;
Wastage 30% plus
(fed in wet weather; poor
stack management).
Pasture quality in
subsequent rotations
poor and less pasture
grown.
3.5-5.5
40-55
8-9.5 clicks
(1,600-1,800 kg DM/
ha); stop feeding at
target APC.
Average quality
10-10.5 ME; Wastage
25%-30%.
Supplement feeding
stopped too late
creating surplus.
5.5-7.5
60-80
6.5-7.5 clicks (1,3501,550 kg DM/ha) if
supplement not fed;
residuals <8.0 clicks
when supplement fed.
Good quality
10.5-11.0ME; Wastage
20% or less.
Short term feed deficit
(<10 days). Supplement
feeding stopped before
APC cover target
achieved.
8.0-12.0
90-130
Residual < 6 clicks
(1,350 kg DM/ha) if
supplement not fed.
When supplement
fed residuals 6-7
clicks (1,350-1,500
kg DM/ha); APC well
below target (> 300
kg DM/ha deficit).
Good quality > 10.5
ME Low wastage 15%
or less (feeding maize
or PKE in bins / on feed
pad).
Cows grazing to < 6
clicks for 10 days plus;
supplement feeding
stopped in anticipation
of target cover being
met. Responses increase
with the period of severe
underfeeding (8.0 g/ME
at least 2 weeks; 10 g/
ME 4 weeks; 12 g/ME 5
weeks).
One click = 0.5 cm compressed height
32 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Summer
1
Supplement
Other
<3.0
<30
Leaving more than 8.0
clicks.
Or very poor quality
< 10.5 ME and high
wastage 30% plus.
Supplement fed to culls.
Spared pasture lost
when rains.
3.5-5.5
40-60
7.0-8.0 clicks
(1,500-1,650 kg DM/
ha).
Good quality 10.5 +
ME; Wastage 20-25%30%.
Supplement fed to culls;
rotation length extended
to 25 days+.
6.0-7.0
65-80
Less than 7.0 clicks
(1,500 kg DM/ha)
residuals.
Good quality 10.5
-11.0 ME; Wastage
20% or less.
Culls gone before
supplement fed; Rotation
length slowed cow condition
loss held or small loss.
7.5-11.0
90-120
Residuals < 6 clicks
(1,350 kg DM/ha) if
no supplement fed.
Good quality 10.5 +
ME; Low wastage 15%
or less (feeding in bins
/on feed pad).
If supplement not fed cows
dried off – significant inc.
days in milk (DIM)/ha; Cow
condition held.
Supplement
Other
One click = 0.5cm compressed height
Autumn
g MS/
Response
Residuals and Average
kg DM at
g MS/MJ ME
Pasture Cover (APC) 1
11ME)
1
<3.0
<30
Leaving 9.5 clicks plus
(1,800 kg DM/ha); at
or above APC.
Quality < 10.5 ME;
Wastage 30% plus
(fed in wet weather; poor
stack management).
Lactation not extended i.e.
no increase in DIM/ha; loss
pasture quality.
3.5-4.5
40-50
8.0 - 9.5 clicks (1,6001,800 kg DM/ha); stop
feeding at target APC.
Average quality
10.0-10.5 ME;
Wastage 25%-30%.
DIM/ha unchanged;
rotation length not
slowed to build cover;
residuals too high.
5.5-6.5
60-70
7.0-7.5 clicks (1,500
-1,550 kg DM/ha)
residuals.
Good quality 10.5
-11.0 ME; Wastage
20% or less.
Rotation length slowed
and increase in DIM/ha;
cow condition and APC
at calving targets met.
7.0-8.0
80-90
Residuals < 6 clicks
(1,350 kg DM/ha) if no
supplement fed;
Residuals 7 clicks
(1,500 kg DM/ha); APC
well below target.
Good quality 10.8 +
ME; Low wastage 15%
or less (feeding maize
or PKE in bins / on feed
pad).
If supplement not
fed cows dried off –
significant increase DIM/
ha. Cow condition and
cover targets achieved.
One click = 0.5 cm compressed height
Feed | 33
Feed
g MS/
Response
Residuals and Average
kg DM at
g MS/MJ ME
Pasture Cover (APC) 1
11ME
Feed allocation
How to calculate pre-grazing cover
(Stocking rate x intake x
rotation) + optimum residual = pre-grazing cover
(___ cows/ha x ___ kg DM/cow x ___days) + _____kg DM/ha = _____ kg DM/ha
e.g. (3.0 cows/ha x 17.5 kg DM/cow x 22 days) + 1500 kg DM/ha = 2650 kg DM/ha
Feed
How to convert from kg DM/ha to rising plate meter (RPM) clicks
(Grazing cover – constant) divided by the multiplier = clicks
e.g winter formula constant = 500; multiplier = 140
Pre-grazing cover height in clicks
=
(2,650-500)/140
=
15.4 clicks
Post-grazing cover height in clicks
=
(1,500-500)/140
=
7.0 clicks
Target grazing heights (covers or residuals) for ryegrass/clover pastures
Grazing covers are expressed as “clicks” on the Rising Plate Meter (RPM) or in kg DM/ha
based on the winter formula (clicks x 140 + 500) and are for ryegrass dominant pastures.
One click = 0.5 cm compressed height.
34 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Dry Cows
Hours grazed
Cows underfed
Less than 1,050 kg DM/ha
Less than 3.5 clicks
< 3 hours
Maintenance
1,100 kg DM/ha
4.5 clicks
3 hours
Gaining weight ½ BCS/30 days
All grass
1,300-1,400 kg DM/ha
5.5-6.5 clicks
Cows haven’t reached target
residual at 4pm
Gaining weight ½ BCS/30 days
Grass + maize silage or PKE or grain
1,200-1,300 kg DM/ha
5.0-5.5 clicks
Feed
Residual
Lactating Cows
Pre-graze cover
Residual
Underfed
Less than 2,400 kg DM/ha
Less than 1,450 kg DM/ha
2-3 hours per 12 hour break
Less than 7 clicks
Well fed
2,600 – 3,200 kg DM/ha
Underfed
1,500-1,600 kg DM/ha
7-8 clicks
More than 3,400 kg DM/ 1,500-1,600 kg DM/ha
ha (feed quality limiting 7-8 clicks
energy intake)
Grazing time
4 hours plus per 12 hour
break
Feed | 35
Animals
36 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Body condition score
recommendations
BCS 3.0
BCS less than 3.0 is emaciated
BCS 4.0
Minimum at mating
BCS 5.0
Calve at 5.0 for mature cows
BCS 5.5
Calve at 5.5 for first and second calvers
BCS 6.0
Feeding cows to achieve BCS above 6.0 is not efficient
Animals
Body condition score (BCS)
Cows calving 1 BCS lower than target will:
•
Take 8-10 days longer to start cycling
•
Result in a later calving date next year
•
Produce approximately 15 kg milksolids less in the following lactation.
Cows calving at BCS 6.0 (fat) rather than BCS 5.0 will:
•
Have lower intakes than thinner cows post-calving
•
Mobilise more BCS post-calving and are more prone to metabolic diseases.
Realistically dry cows only gain ½ BCS in 30 days unless very well fed with high quality
supplement. Do not expect cows to gain BCS during their final month of pregnancy.
Reproduction and milksolids benefits associated with body condition score for
a 500 kg Lwt cow
BCS change
MS response
kg MS
$5.50/kgMS
Repro benefits
(over two seasons)
Total $/BCS
From 3.0-4.0
18.0
$99
$40
$139
From 3.5-4.5
12.5
$69
$40
$109
Rule of Thumb
15.0
$83
$40
$123
Animals | 37
Drying off time based on cow body condition score and time to calving
Animals
Body condition score
1
Very well fed, either autumn pasture or autumn pasture and
high quality supplement
Cow
Rising 3 year old
Autumn pasture
Days from calving 1
3.0
3.5
160
120
3.5
4.0
130
100
4.0
4.5
100
80
4.5
5.0
70
60
Includes 10 days when cows are being dried off and not gaining weight and 30 days when cows
do not gain weight before calving
38 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
What to look for when body condition scoring
Backbone
Body condition score 5.0 – critical points
Backbone
Ribs
Tailhead
Pin bones
Hip bones
Tailhead
Animals
Pin
bones
Backbone – smooth
Ribs – rounded and not visible
Pins – rounded
Tailhead – even cover, no sharp edges
Hip bones – rounded.
Body condition score 3.0
Body condition score 4.0
Backbone – notches easily seen
Ribs – easily seen, short ribs are sharp
Pins – sharp edges
Tailhead – deep ‘V’ shape appearing
Hip bones – sharp edges, depression
on sides appearing.
Backbone – notches visible
Ribs – rounded but easily felt
Pins – rounded edges
Tailhead – shallow ‘U’ shape
oth).
Hip bones – no sharp edges (smooth).
Animals | 39
Reproduction
Gestation period (term of pregnancy)
Animals
Cow
Average period (days)
Range (days)
282
279-289
(9 months plus 9 days)
Breeding dates and periods
Time of service
Expected calving date
July
April
17
9
July
23
May
1
August
6
May
15
August
20
May
29
September
3
June
12
September
17
June
26
October
1
July
10
October
15
July
24
October
29
August
7
November
12
August
21
November
26
September
4
December
10
September
18
December
24
October
2
January
8
October
17
January
22
October
31
February
5
November
14
February
19
November
28
March
5
December
12
March
19
December
26
April
2
January
9
April
16
January
23
April
30
February
6
May
14
February
20
May
28
March
6
June
11
March
20
June
25
April
3
40 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
InCalf key performance targets – calving and mating
Target
Seek professional advice if
% calved by week 3
60%
% calved by week 6
87%
% calved by week 9
98%
3-week submission rate
90%
<81%
6-week in-calf rate
78%
<68%
Empty rate (9 weeks)
10%
15%
Empty rate (12 weeks)
6%
9%
Empty rate (15 weeks)
5%
8%
Length of total mating
<12 weeks
Animals
Measure
Note:
InCalf is an integrated approach to herd reproductive management, which is one of setting one’s
own targets and striving for incremental gains in performance, year-by-year, through a 4-step
continuous improvement programme. For more information go to dairynz.co.nz/incalf.
Animals | 41
Heifer calf rearing
Animals
Colostrum
•
The calf should drink at least 2-3 litres of fresh colostrum during the first six hours of life
to get supply of immunoglobulins, which act as antibodies. To achieve this, pick up calves
twice a day and give them first day colostrum regardless of if they have had a feed
•
First day colostrum is valuable (even if it has blood or with clotty mastitis milk). It should
be fed fresh
•
To store colostrum (other than first day colostrum) store in multiple drums (to reduce risk
of loss) in a cool place and stir it twice a day
•
A colostrum keeper can be added to maintain the sterility of the product, or add a sachet
of Ezy-yo to each drum
•
Colostrum can be frozen for up six months. Thaw in hot water, do not microwave.
Calf rearing rations
Feed comparisons
All of the following quantities of different feeds can supply about 3 MJ ME to the calf:
•
1 litre of whole Friesian milk (fresh, acidified or stored colostrum)
•
or 0.9 litres of whole Jersey milk
•
or 0.14 kg of whole milk powder
•
or 0.16 kg fat fortified milk powder.
Calf rearing key points
•
Calves need to be fed milk for about the first four to six weeks, and sufficient milk to
meet all their needs for the first two to three weeks as their digestive system will not be
sufficiently developed to deal with “hard feeds”
•
Calves can be fed alternatives to milk (or milk replacer), from week two to three and milk
reduced after week three
•
Meal can be offered from one week onward. Meal needs to be high quality, fed fresh
every day and kept clean and dry
•
Calves need access to clean water at all times.
42 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Daily intakes (litres) of milk (5.0% fat and 3.7% protein) for calves to gain
weight to weaning
Daily Lwt gain (kg Lwt/day)
Liveweight of
calf (kg)
0.63
0.71
40
5.8
6.4
60
6.2
80
6.5
0.83
1.00
1.25
7.3
8.5
10.4
6.8
7.7
8.9
10.8
7.2
8.2
9.3
11.2
Alternative feeding systems for rearing calves
Restricted
milk
Unrestricted
milk
Restricted milk
and meal
Concentrated
milk / high
protein meal
5
8
5
2
Milk
Litres per day
Days on milk
70
42
42
35
Total litres
350
336
210
70
-
-
-
9
Milk replacer (kg)
Meal (kg)
Pasture (kg DM)
-
20
56
125
28
56
28
-
90
110
90
100
Straw (bale)
Live weight at 10 weeks (kg)
1
Animals | 43
Animals
Litres of milk
Restricted milk systems
•
Restricted milk (approximately five litres/day) fed for 10 weeks
•
Rumen development occurs as leafy pasture is consumed in increasing quantities
•
Long period of milk feeding, although can feed milk once daily.
Animals
Unrestricted milk systems
•
High levels of milk (approximately eight litres/day) fed until approximately six weeks of age
•
Solid feed intake minimal during this period and rumen development restricted
•
High quality concentrate meal fed for two to three weeks after milk feeding ceases.
Restricted milk and meal systems
•
Restricted milk (approximately five litres/day) fed for six weeks
•
Free access to meal and leafy pasture from first week
•
Continue to feed meal until eating 1.0-1.5 kg/day and hold at this level
•
Economics depend on relative cost of milk and meal.
Concentrated milk and high protein meal systems
•
Very restricted levels of milk (approximately two to three litres once daily) fortified with
200-300 g milk powder for the first 4-5 weeks of life and fed once daily
•
Calves fed indoors on ad lib 20% crude protein (CP) meal plus straw until 10 weeks of age
•
Meal feeding continued for one to two weeks, after turn-out to pasture
•
Modified versions of this system, developed at Poukawa Research Station, Hawkes Bay
described by Muir et al. (2000). Proc.NZ Grassland Ass. 62: 9-11.
Weaned Calf
•
Require at least 16% crude protein (CP); but ideally 20% CP
•
Most if not all commercial supplements should supply 18-20% CP
•
Homemade mixes (plus fresh pasture and minerals, vitamins and a coccidiostat (e.g.
Bovatech or Rumensin). Soya is the best source of protein, due to the amino acid profile.
Other protein resources can be used:
•
-
80% kibbled maize; 20% soybean
-
60% barley or maize; 30% PKE; 10% soybean.
PKE is a suitable feed for weaned calves providing it does not make up more than
10-15% of diet.
44 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Treatment of diarrhoea in calves
Non-infectious diarrhoea
(nutritional scours)
Caused by changes to the feeding program. Not usually severe
enough to cause death, non-infectious diarrhoea can weaken the
calf and make it more susceptible to infectious diarrhoea.
Temperature: normal – 38-39.5°C.
Infectious diarrhoea
Caused primarily by viruses, bacteria and protozoa. Identifying
the infectious agent causing diarrhoea is an important part of
developing a sound prevention program.
Temperature: fever 39.5-42°C.
Mild to moderate diarrhoea
Continue milk feed and add electrolyte directly to milk diet,
plus water ad lib.
Moderate/severe diarrhoea
Day 1: Electrolyte AM, milk lunch time electrolyte PM
Day 2: Milk AM, electrolyte lunchtime, milk PM
Day 3: as above or back to milk.
•
Isolate to sick bay immediately
•
For infectious diarrhoea consult your vet
•
Oral electrolyte is easy to feed and successful in treating diarrhoea
•
All calves (even those being treated) need to have clean, fresh ad-lib access to water
•
Home brew mixes: rarely are home brew electrolyte mixes effective, as most lack enough
of the vital ingredients of salts and energy
•
Clean bedding area regularly.
Electrolyte Solution
•
10 g NaCl (common salt)
•
5 g NaHCO3 (bicarbonate of soda)
•
250 g glucose (or dextrose)
•
5 litres warm water.
Animals | 45
Animals
Calf scours is a broad, descriptive term referring to diarrhoea in calves. Calf scours is not
a specific disease but the clinical sign of a disease complex with many possible causes.
Scours occurs when normal movement of water into and out of the digestive tract is
disrupted, resulting in water loss and dehydration. Loss of body fluids through diarrhoea
is accompanied by loss of body salts which can lead to severe depression in the calf and
eventual death.
Herd replacement rate
New Zealand dairy cows have an average productive life of 4.5 lactations, thus requiring a
replacement rate of 22% of heifers entering the herd. The optimal replacement rate has
been estimated at 18% based on trade off between incorporation of improved genetics
and lifetime efficiency of cows.
Animals
Optimal target age structure for a herd
(% of herd for each age group)
Age (years)
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10+
% dairy herd
18
16
13
12
11
9
8
7
6
Breeding
Animal evaluation and cow indexes
The New Zealand dairy industry’s breeding objective is to identify animals whose progeny will
be the most efficient converters of feed into farmer profit. There are two types of evaluations
calculated for New Zealand dairy animals – trait and economic.
Trait evaluations
•
These are an estimate of an animal’s genetic merit (breeding value) for individual traits,
including milkfat (kg), protein (kg), volume (litres), liveweight (kg), fertility (%), somatic
cell (score) and residual survival (days)
•
The estimated breeding values are expressed relative to a base of 0. The base of zero
represents the average breeding value estimated for all 2,000 born cows measured for 3
production traits (milkfat, protein, milk) and 17 traits other than production (TOP), which
include liveweight, management and conformation
•
An estimated breeding value of +10 kg protein indicates a bull that will transmit 5 kg
more protein per lactation to his daughters than a bull with a protein breeding value of
zero (a bull can pass half of its BV, on average, to its daughters).
46 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Economic evaluations
•
These combine trait evaluations of animals into an estimate of their comparative ability to
convert feed into profit through breeding replacements (breeding worth)
•
For breeding worth, the economic values represent the net income per unit of feed from
breeding replacements with a one unit genetic improvement in the trait. The base unit
of feed is 4.5 tonnes of dry matter of average quality pasture
•
Refer to the website to get current economic values for the above traits
http://www.aeu.org.nz
BW (breeding worth) – the cow’s (or bull’s) ability to breed profitable replacements
This index measures the expected ability of the cow or bull to breed replacements which are
efficient converters of feed into profit.
•
The BW is based mainly on the performance of close relatives
•
Typically a well-recorded heifer starts her life with a BW reliability of about 40%; information
from her own production leads to the reliability increasing to about 55%. If there is extensive
information on daughter performance the reliability can increase to 70% and beyond
•
The main use for the BW is in deciding which cows to retain calves from.
PW (production worth) – the cow’s own productive ability
•
This index measures the ability of the cow to convert feed into profit over her lifetime
•
A high reliability PW is based most strongly on the cow’s herd-testing history
•
A low reliability PW is based most strongly on ancestry
•
Typically, a well-recorded heifer starts her life with a PW reliability of about 20%; by
the time she has five recorded lactations, and some liveweight recording, the reliability
will be about 85%
•
A PW of 72/56 indicates that the cow is expected to generate an extra $72 profit per
year (per 4.5 tonnes of feed eaten on a dry matter basis) compared to a typical cow born
in 2000. The 56% reliability indicates that about one and a half lactations of herd-testing
history has been used to calculate the PW
•
The main use for the PW is in making purchasing and culling decisions.
LW (lactation worth) – the cow’s ability to convert feed into profit in the
current season
This index measures the expected ability of the cow to convert feed into profit in the
current season.
•
Early in the season the LW has to be estimated from very little information. For this
reason, the LW is liable to change very noticeably during the course of the season
•
The LW has limited use for decision-making. The reason for this is that some of the factors that
affect a cow’s current performance will not apply in future seasons (eg. temporary lameness).
Animals | 47
Animals
Cow indexes (BW, PW and LW)
Animal health
Magnesium
Animals
Magnesium and milk fever
Magnesium plays an important role in milk fever prevention (calcium deficiency).
Magnesium is required for the production of hormones that are important for the
absorption of calcium (Ca) from the gut and the mobilisation of Ca from bones.
Supplementing with magnesium daily for two to three weeks pre-calving will reduce the
risk of milk fever. However it does not build up a store of magnesium in the cow.
Magnesium and grass staggers (grass tetany)
The cow is dependent of what magnesium is supplied in their daily diet. The initial
symptoms of magnesium deficiency are nervousness, ears pricked, nostrils flaring, eyes
alert and head held high. Movement is stiff, like walking on stilts, and cows stagger when
forced to move quickly. Cows suffer loss of appetite and reduced milk production. Death
results from a “tetany” where the muscles contract uncontrollably, including the heart.
Dietary magnesium concentrations and quantity of supplementary magnesium
required (g/cow/day)
Supplementary Mg (g/cow/day)
Mg requirement (% of diet)
Jersey
JxF
Friesian
Dry
0.35%
12
16
20
Lactating
0.28%
15
17
20
Quantities of magnesium sources to supply the required amounts of pure
magnesium (down the throat)
Magnesium source
(% Mg)
Example
product
Magnesium required (g/cow/day)
12 g
14 g
16 g
18 g
20 g
CausMag
22
25
29
33
36
Mg Sulphate (10%)
Epsom salts
122
142
162
182
202
Mg Chloride (12%)
Mag chloride
100
117
134
151
167
Mg Oxide (55%)
If dusting CausMag on pasture, need to at least double possibly triple the above to allow for field
losses. When mixing with feed, double the rates above.
48 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Amount of CausMag dusted (g/cow/day)
Mg Oxide (55%)
Rate of CausMag required (g/cow/day)
12 g
14 g
16 g
18 g
20 g
Double rate
44
50
60
66
72
Triple rate
66
78
90
100
108
Magnesium supplementation
Supplementing with magnesium sulphate or magnesium chloride before calving is more
likely to prevent milk fever than using magnesium oxide.
However it can be difficult to supply cows with enough magnesium when using either
magnesium sulphate or magnesium chloride. Therefore dust pastures with magnesium
oxide as well, to ensure the cows receive enough magnesium, not just the correct type.
One way to achieve the required dietary magnesium concentration pre-calving is to add
60 grams of magnesium chloride or magnesium sulphate into the water trough and
dust pastures with 50-70 grams of magnesium oxide per cow per day as well. For more
information refer to DairyNZ Farmfact 3-1 – Magnesium supplementation.
Supplement with magnesium until after spring pasture growth rates have slowed (December).
Use blood tests to determine if continued supplementation is required from December onward.
Magnesium requirements are also affected by the levels of potash and calcium in the diet.
Some farms with very high potash levels in pasture will require high rates of magnesium
supplementation.
Applying potassium fertiliser or lime within three months of calving can affect cow
magnesium levels at calving. Where magnesium is added to water and the dosage is not
accurate there is a risk of the water becoming toxic and stock refusing to drink.
Animals | 49
Animals
CausMag
Facial eczema prevention
Animals
Facial eczema (FE) is a disease that causes liver damage, resulting in lowered production
and sometimes death. Fungal spores produced by Pithomyces chartarum growing on
pasture produce a toxin (Sporadesmin) which when ingested by cattle damage the liver
and bile ducts. The damaged liver cannot rid the body of wastes and a breakdown product
of chlorophyll builds up in the body causing sensitivity to sunlight, which in turn causes
inflammation of the skin.
The fungus produces spores when grass minimum temperatures are above 12°C for two
or three nights and humidity is high (usually January to May). The fungus grows on dead
material at the base of the pasture so hard grazing during danger periods increases the risk
of spore intake, as does topping which increases the build up of dead material.
Symptoms:
•
Drop in milk production
•
Cows are restless at milking time
•
Cows seek shade
•
Cows lick their udder
•
Exposed unpigmented or thin skin thickens and peels.
Pasture spore counts
Spore count
Risk
<16,000
Low
16,000-30,000
Slight
30,000-60,000
Moderate
>60,000
High
Long-term grazing of pastures with lower spore counts is also dangerous.
50 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Zinc oxide drenching
Long-term dosing should be started two to three weeks before the spore growth danger
period for maximum protection. It is 80-90% effective. Crisis dosing (treating previously
non-treated animals with higher rates of zinc during danger periods only) offers less
protection. It is 60% effective.
Stabilisers increase the ease of mixing and drenching and allow the mixing of more
concentrated drenches. Less volume of drench is then needed per dose.
Unstabilised drench
Sprinkle 10 kg zinc oxide powder into 25 litres water, leave to wet and then stir until lump-free.
This produces about 27 litres of drench.
Long-term daily dosing
= 7 ml / 100 kg Lwt (2.6 gm ZnO/100 kg Lwt)
Crisis daily dosing
= 10 ml / 100 kg Lwt (4 gm ZnO/100 kg Lwt)
3-day to weekly intervals long term
dosing (dry stock only)
= 10 ml / 100 kg Lwt x No. of days between drenches
Stabilised drench
Long term dosing rates are 1 kg of zinc oxide will dose 100 cows (400 kg Lwt) for one day.
Example: Where two litres of “stabiliser” are added to 10 litres of water then sprinkle 10 kg zinc oxide
powder on the water, leave to settle then stir to a smooth creamy paste. This produces about 14 litres of drench.
Long term daily dosing
= 3.6 ml/100 kg Lwt
Crisis daily dosing
= 5 ml/100 kg Lwt
3 day to weekly intervals long term
dosing (dry stock only)
= 5 ml/100 kg Lwt x No. of days between drenches
Animals | 51
Animals
Drench recipes and dose rates
Drenching dose rates of zinc oxide (ml/cow/day)
Unstabilised
Stabilised
Long term
1
Dose interval (days)
3
Crisis Long term
7
#
1
Lwt (kg) Dose volume (ml/cow/day)
Animals
Cows
Heifers (18-21 months)
Calves (6-9 months)
* Not recommended
1
3
Crisis
7
#
1
Dose volume (ml/cow/day)
J
350
25
105
*
35
13
53
128
18
JxF
400
28
120
*
40
14
60
140
20
F
450
32
135
*
45
16
68
158
23
J
290
20
87
*
29
10
44
102
15
JxF
340
24
102
*
34
12
51
119
17
F
380
27
114
*
38
14
57
133
19
J
130
9
39
91
13
5
20
46
7
JxF
140
10
42
98
14
5
21
49
7
F
160
11
48
112
16
6
24
56
8
# Dry cattle only
Intraruminal bolus
There are several time capsule boluses available. To ensure stock are not under/over dosed,
know the liveweights and check when repeat administration is required.
Fungicide spray
Spraying pastures with the fungicides can reduce the growth of facial eczema spores by
about 60%. Pasture will be safe for four to six weeks after which they will need to be
resprayed. If spores are already existent allow five days after spraying before grazing.
52 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Zinc sulphate water treatment
There are two forms of zinc sulphate available; zinc sulphate heptahydrate (coarse greenish
crystal), and zinc sulphate monohydrate (white powder or fine crystal). Monohydrate is the
more concentrated form and is used at two-thirds the dose rate of heptahydrate.
Zinc sulphate dose rate (g/cow/day) required in drinking water
Heifers
(18-21 months)
Calves
(6-9 months)
J
JxF
F
J
JxF
F
J
JxF
F
350
400
450
290
340
380
130
140
160
Heptahydrate
8 g/100 kg Lwt
28
32
36
23
27
30
10
11
13
Monohydrate
5.5 g/100 kg Lwt
19
22
25
16
19
21
7
8
9
Lwt (kg)
Floating in-trough dispensers
Calculate amount of zinc sulphate to be added to the trough daily (use above table) eg.100
Friesian cows x 36 g/day = 3,600 grams of heptahydrate/day. Refill the dispenser twice daily
with half the daily amount (i.e. 1,800 g or 1.8 kg) at each visit to the trough.
In-line dispensers
Use the above table to calculate daily dispenser requirements for ALL stock on the farm and
then set the dispenser to deliver that amount, for example:
200 jersey cows x 28 g/day
= 5,600
50 jersey heifers x 23 g/day
= 850
53 jersey calves x 10 g/day
= 530
TOTAL
= 6,980 g = 7 kg heptahydrate/day
Direct addition to supply tank
Do not use this method if the supply tank also supplies the house water. Calculate daily
requirements for all stock on the farm (see in-line dispenser example). Add the daily zinc
sulphate requirement to the supply tank at the same time each day. Dissolve the zinc
sulphate in water before adding to the tank. If the supply tank is regularly refilled e.g. by
pump on time switch, add zinc just after filling.
Where zinc is added to water and the dosage is not accurate there is a risk of the water
becoming toxic and stock refusing to drink it.
Animals | 53
Animals
Cows
Trace element supplementation
Consult with veterinarian to determine if cows are deficient in trace elements before
supplementation.
Cobalt
Animals
Required for production of Vitamin B12, energy metabolism in the rumen and in the cow,
fibre digestion and immunity. High manganese in soil reduces cobalt uptake by the plant.
Therefore, as pasture is generally high in manganese it is usually low in cobalt.
Copper
Required for growth and production, animal health and immunity, reproduction and calf
viability. High intake of molybdenum, sulphur and iron, which often occurs in pasture-based
diets, especially in winter and spring, reduces copper uptake by the animal. Warning: Some
feeds (e.g. PKE) contain copper, hence caution must be had if providing additional copper
supplementation.
Iodine
Required for intake, energy metabolism and milk production, protein synthesis, reproduction,
and heat detection. Uptake of iodine by pasture can be low. Additionally, iodine is easily
leached during wet weather in winter and spring. Requirements for iodine increase during
cold wet weather.
Selenium
Required for disease resistance (e.g. mastitis), placental shedding (post-calving cleaning), milk
production, reproduction, calf viability and immunity. There are regions that will have high
selenium levels in pasture, particularly if they have been fertilised with selenium fertiliser. In such
areas supplementation should be avoided. If in doubt, consult with your vet or farm consultant.
Zinc
Required for growth and production, reproduction, hoof strength, and immune system. The
need for zinc supplementation will vary from farm to farm. Farms using zinc in summer for
facial eczema may still require zinc supplementation in the spring. Pasture analysis should
determine the need for supplementation. Excess zinc intake will increase the risk of milk
fever and copper deficiency, and may depress appetite.
54 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Requirements
g/100 cows/day
Cobalt
8-10
0.8-1.0
Cobalt sulphate orally, commercial
cobalt sources, cobalt sulphate fertiliser,
strategic use of Vitamin B12 injections.
Can be added to spring fertiliser.
Copper
250-400
25-40
Copper sulphate orally, copper bullet,
copper capsule (needles), copper injection
(not recommended for cows during the
breeding season), commercial copper
sources, copper sulphate fertiliser (not
recommended in secondary deficiencies).
Iodine
50-60
5-6
“Stock iodine” (3 ml of 2% or 0.5 ml of
10% per cow orally), 8 ml of 5% teat
spray on flank weekly, commercial iodine
sources, oil-based slow release injections.
Selenium
5
0.5
Oral or injection products, commercial
selenium sources, and slow release
injections. Can be added to fertiliser.
Zinc
750
75
Zinc sulphate, zinc oxide, and commercial
zinc sources.
*for other than
facial eczema
Animals | 55
Animals
mg/cow/day
Sources
Milk
56 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Milk
Milk composition
Holstein Friesian
Holstein Friesian/
Jersey Crossbred
Jersey
Ayrshire
Milk fat (%)
4.4
4.9
5.7
4.4
Protein (%)
3.6
3.8
4.1
3.6
Milksolids (%)
7.9
8.8
9.8
8.0
Milk quality tests
Test
Description
Minimum freq
Bactoscan
(BScan)
Test number of live 3 per month
bacteria. Gradings
due to poor hygiene
and plant washing.
A+ Less than 10,000/ml
10,000-19,999/ml
20,000-49,999/ml
50,000-99,999/ml
100,000-199,999/ml
200,000-499,999/ml
500,000-2,999,999/ml
Over 3,000,000/ml
0
0
0
1
2
4
8
20
Thermoduric
plate count
(Therm)
Test the number of
bacteria that survive
pasteurisation at
72 deg for 15 mins.
Grading indicated
hygiene problem.
Less than 1,500/ml
1,500-4,999/ml
5,000-59,999/ml
60,000/ml and above
0
1
4
20
Less than 499/ml
500-999/ml
1,000-1,999/ml
2,000/ml – and over
0
1
2
4
1 per month
April-Oct
2 per month
Nov-Mar
Coliform plate Measure of coliform 2 per month
count
bacteria associated
with dung and
contaminated water.
Standards
Demerit points
(cont’d p58)
Milk | 57
Milk
Average milk composition (2008/2009 lactation)
(cont’d from p57)
Milk
Milk quality tests
Test
Description
Minimum freq
Standards
Demerit points
Organoleptic
assessment
(senses)
Milk is smelt,
tasted, and looked
at to identify
contaminants such
as blood, chemical
and feed taints.
As required
Finest
Minor defect
Major defect
Serious defect
0
1
3
6
Sediment (sed) Amount of sediment As required
in milk from soil,
dung, hair and skin.
Categories ABC
Category D
0
4
Colostrum
To ensure milk does As required
not contain milk
from cows that have
had less than eight
milkings after calving.
1.35% or less
Over 1.35%
0
4
Inhibitory
substances
(I.S.)
Test adds standard
Min 4 per
month
bacteria. If they
do not grow then
inhibitory substance is
present i.e. antibiotic.
Less than 0.003 IU/ml
0.003<0.006 IU/ml
0.006<0.03 IU/ml
0.03 IU/ml or greater
0
12
50
100
Freezing point Indicates if water has Daily
(Fr.Pt)
been added to milk in
increase volume.
-0.513°C or lower
-0.512°C to -0.470°C
-0.469°C or higher
0
1
6
Somatic cell
count (SCC)
Measure of the
Per consignment
white blood cells in
the milk. High white
blood cells indicate
fighting infection in
the udder.
0-399,999/ml
400,000-499,999/ml
500,000-599,999/ml
600,000-799,000/ml
Over 800,000/ml
0
1
2
6
20
Collection
temperature
(Temp)
Time is from end of
milking defined at
7.30 am and 6 pm.
Per consignment 0 hour 18.0°C
1 hour 14.0°C
2 hour 10.0°C
3 hour 7.0°C
Note:
The standards and demerits may vary between dairy companies, but they use similar tests.
58 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Milking plant
Milkings before rubberware changed
Material
Estimated lifespan
Nitrile rubber or natural/nitrile blends 2,500 cow-milkings
3,000-5,000 cow-milkings or 4-6 months, whichever
comes first
Milk
Silicone rubber
Note:
See manufacturer’s recommendations for specific liner products.
Recommended vacuum levels
Vacuum level v.s. milkline height based on that recommended by the NZ Milking and
Pumping Trade Association
Milkline height in metres above cow platform
Vacuum in kilopascals
1.8
48
1.6
46-48
1.4
44-46
1.2
42-44
Lowline
40-42
Notes:
Use the lower vacuum levels listed with large bore long milk tubes or in wet, windy weather e.g.
at the start of spring calving. With automatic cluster removers, depending on their internal head
loss, the higher level is acceptable after spring. (In practice, it is wise to start the season off with the
vacuum level low rather than high, i.e. never start spring calving with a vacuum higher than 46 kPa
regardless of the milkline height). Increase to around 48 kPa for herd testing to compensate for the
head losses in current milk meters.
Pulsation ratios: 60 : 40 or 60 : 35 are typical (open : closed phase)
Pulsation rates: 50-60 pulsations per minute are typical.
Milk | 59
Mastitis
Mastitis targets
Targets are linked to the performance achieved by herds in the top 10% and top 50% of herds
Milk
Key performance indicator measure
Top x% performing herds
Average BMSCC (x 1,000 cells/ml)
Number of consignments >400,000
10%
50%
<150
<200
0
1
Case rate of clinical mastitis
8%
15%
Culls/deaths due to mastitis
1-2%
3%
$27,500
$54,500
Total cost of mastitis
(for 300 cow herd, $6.00/kg MS milk price)
BMSCC and cost of mastitis
Estimated BMSCC (bulk milk SCC calculated from herd test data) is associated with different
levels of subclinical mastitis in the herd:
•
At 100,000 cells/ml, approximately 20% of cows have subclinical mastitis
•
At 200,000 cells/ml, approximately 30% of cows have subclinical mastitis
•
At 300,000 cells/ml, approximately 37% of cows have subclinical mastitis
•
At 400,000 cells/ml, approximately 42% of cows have subclinical mastitis.
Milk yield losses are associated with mastitis
• 1.8% reduction in production per doubling of individual
cow SCC above 100,000 cells/ml.
Subclinical mastitis:
• 5.8kg solids reduction per doubling of individual cow
SCC above 100,000 cells/ml.
Clinical mastitis:
• 3% milksolids loss associated with clinical mastitis.
•
Each case of mastitis costs approximately $200 per case in cost of drugs and discarded
milk, labour and short term production losses
•
Cost of “Gap” in performance for “Average” herd (200,000 cells/ml and 15% clinical
case rate) in comparison with “Target” performance (150,000 cells/ml and 8% clinical
case rate) at a milk price of $6.00/kg MS is $27,000 for a 300 cow herd.
60 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Teat spray
1:3
1:4
1:9
20 l teat spray
= 5 l concentrate + 15 l water
20 l teat spray
= 4 l concentrate + 16 l water
20 l teat spray
= 2 l concentrate + 18 l water
1 : 3 means:
1 : 4 means
1 : 9 means:
- 1 part to 3 parts (1 to 3)
- 1 in 4
- 25% by volume
- 1 part to 4 parts (1 to 4)
- 1 in 5
- 20% by volume
- 1 part to 9 parts (1 to 9)
- 1 in 10
- 10% by volume
Only use teat sanitisers approved by New Zealand Food Safety Authority (NZFSA)
•
Mix new batches regularly (at least once per week)
•
Make up using potable or drinking quality water – cooled water from the hot water
system is a practical option.
Milk
•
Adding extra emollient to teat spray
•
Emollient is a skin conditioner used to keep teat skin healthy
•
Use extra emollient when teat skin condition is likely to be poor (e.g. spring or wet
muddy conditions)
•
Check with supplier for appropriate mix before adding extra emollient
•
When adding extra emollient, replace some of the water volume with emollient; do not
reduce volume of teat spray concentrate.
e.g. 20 l Teat Spray, 10% emollient
(1 : 4) = 4 l concentrate + 14 l water + 2 l emollient
Milk | 61
Pasture & nutrients
62 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Pasture
Pasture renewal
Endophyte selection
Before selecting the cultivar, select the endophyte that will give you protection from
insects while not causing animal health problems. There are few areas in New Zealand
that do not have to consider damage from one or more insects except the West Coast
region. As new endophytes are being released annually, contact your seed expert or refer
to DairyNZ Farmfacts 1-22 – Understanding endophytes and Farmfact 1-24 – Establishing
ryegrass containing a novel endophyte.
Heading dates
Do not mix cultivars with different heading dates in a paddock. Consider sowing the
farm in cultivars with a range of heading dates (e.g. half the farm sown in early heading
cultivars, the other half in late heading cultivars).
Aftermath heading (AMH)
Aftermath heading refers to continued seed head production after the main spring
heading. Choose cultivars that have reduced aftermath heading for improved summer
pasture quality and animal productivity.
Tetraploids and diploids
Tetraploids are more upright “clover-friendly” plants. Tetraploid ryegrasses are highly
palatable, tend to be grazed lower reducing litter levels and hence accumulation of facial
eczema spores. Diploids produce more tillers and consequently are more persistent and
tolerant of overgrazing than are tetraploids.
Winter productivity
Generally annual and Italian ryegrasses produce more dry matter in the winter and early
spring than other ryegrasses. Annuals persist for six to eight months; Italians can persist
from one year in summer dry areas and up to three years in summer wet conditions.
Refer DairyNZ Farmfact 1-23 – Pasture renovation/renewal for features and examples of
types of ryegrass cultivars.
Pasture and nutrients | 63
Pasture & nutrients
Choosing a ryegrass cultivar (variety)
Pasture & nutrients
Quality seed – endophyte viability
Certified Seed is recommended – seed produced under the NZ Seed Certification scheme
that meets quality standards and is free of weed seeds. Germination, purity and endophyte
certificates should be available, to check seed quality. The germination should be 90%+,
seed purity 99%+, and perennial ryegrass with endophyte should be 70%+ endophyte.
Endophyte viability deteriorates over time, with some endophytes less viable than others.
Seed that is stored must be cool stored. Use seed harvested in the year of sowing for best
endophyte viability. When using last seasons seed, request a current endophyte test to
ensure endophyte is still viable. When sowing new ryegrass seed, always use treated seed to
control insect attack on seedlings.
Ryegrass seeding rates (kg/ha)
Diploid
Tetraploid
Treated seed
Untreated (bare) seed
16 1
20
20-30
25-30 2
1
Higher seeding rates are often recommended as a cover for poor seedbed preparation. High
seeding rates do result in good coverage in early establishment and provide competition for weed
species. However, high seeding rates also result in smaller, weaker individual plants that do not
survive the first summer.
2
As tetraploid seed varies in size check with the seed company as to recommended rate
`e.g. sowing rate for Bealey is 25-30 kg/ha as it twice the normal seed size.
64 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Pasture sowing rates
16-25 kg/ha
White clover
3-4 kg/ha
Chicory – optional
3-4 kg/ha
Red clover – optional
3-4 kg/ha
Rates are dependent on:
-
a good consolidated seedbed
seed is drilled evenly (tractor speed slow)
drill has good depth control
there is adequate moisture after sowing.
Pasture & nutrients
Ryegrass
Pasture and nutrients | 65
Average pasture growth data (kg DM/ha/day)
Data is based on averages from several years for specific sites, without nitrogen fertiliser.
The data should be viewed simply as a guide to trends as it is based on limited data.
Site
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Ararua
40
33
27
30
37
34
29
28
39
47
40
38
Dargaville
43
27
33
28
38
32
30
41
65
71
78
66
Dargaville
58
57
70
52
42
27
23
32
60
71
80
69
Dargaville
55
84
52
30
32
28
26
34
50
71
99
50
Hoteo North
33
20
22
30
29
24
27
30
39
48
36
32
Hoteo North
46
30
38
36
34
24
23
22
30
47
47
41
Kerikeri
39
31
38
34
29
30
21
26
34
47
50
34
Kerikeri
47
52
48
41
35
30
23
23
35
51
57
48
Maungaturoto
22
16
21
19
30
32
23
29
31
31
34
28
Puketona
48
42
39
38
30
25
25
33
53
64
56
54
Puketona
55
47
45
37
36
25
23
31
46
61
61
49
Ruakaka
34
23
22
21
33
32
27
28
51
70
49
46
Ruawai
45
37
31
36
34
36
33
44
50
56
75
78
Te Hana
45
25
31
29
31
24
17
20
38
41
36
32
Te Hana
56
55
51
46
41
35
24
18
46
61
66
64
Waipu
49
35
37
38
34
32
20
24
38
50
51
49
Waipu
52
32
41
42
36
36
22
28
47
57
53
50
Edgecumbe
60
60
49
40
30
18
15
28
54
69
57
58
Galatea
47
46
45
36
24
9
9
20
49
68
62
54
Maketu
45
65
57
38
30
14
17
25
51
66
68
51
Nukuhou North
47
40
45
36
31
14
15
22
47
75
53
61
Opotiki
53
54
45
39
32
16
20
28
49
63
69
59
Paengaroa
34
37
51
32
39
19
14
24
42
66
60
47
Papamoa
50
55
45
41
31
19
19
30
47
74
63
50
Pongakawa
53
52
49
40
32
18
19
27
48
68
65
52
Pasture & nutrients
Northland
Bay of Plenty
66 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
t DM/ha
From
To
Method
Notes
Source
12.9
1994
2000
Cage cut
16.9
1996
2001
Cage cut
Ryegrass/ clover, 130 kg N/ha/yr
2
19.6
1996
2001
Cage cut
Kikuyu dominant, 130 kg N/ha/yr
2
18.6
2000
2001
Whole farm
Ryegrass/kikuyu, 130 kg N/ha/yr
2
11.3
1995
2000
Cage cut
12.8
1995
2000
Cage cut
12.6
1994
2000
Cage cut
15.0
1994
2000
Cage cut
9.6
1997
2001
Cage plate
15.5
1992
2001
Cage cut
New ryegrass and clover
1
15.7
1992
2001
Cage cut
Kikuyu dominant
1
13.3
1996
2000
Cage RPM
3
17.0
1989
1992
Cage cut
1
11.3
1994
2000
Cage cut
1
17.2
1994
2000
Cage cut
Irrigated
1
14.0
1994
2000
Cage cut
Flat
1
15.2
1994
2000
Cage cut
Hill
1
16.4
1989
1997
Cage
4
14.3
1991
2000
Cage
4
16.1
1996
1999
Cage
4
14.9
1996
1999
Cage
4
16.1
1990
2000
Cage
4
14.2
1997
1999
Cage
4
16.0
1995
1999
Cage
4
16.0
1994
2000
Cage
4
1
Irrigated
1
1
Irrigated
1
3
(cont’d p68)
Pasture and nutrients | 67
Pasture & nutrients
1
Average pasture growth data (kg DM/ha/day)
Site
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Pasture & nutrients
Bay of Plenty (cont’d)
Reporoa - Birch Rd
40
30
25
20
15
10
10
20
35
50
60
50
Rerewhakaaitu
- Brett Rd
60
72
47
36
21
11
10
13
42
64
61
56
Tirohonga Tirohonga Rd
45
44
28
25
25
8
8
22
30
39
48
64
Waihau Bay
54
45
53
37
35
27
34
39
56
75
59
62
Arohena
54
55
45
35
27
9
12
26
42
65
69
61
Atiamuri
51
40
23
30
19
22
11
20
45
67
68
68
Horsham downs
49
53
36
37
28
18
10
22
38
92
51
47
Matamata Paratu Rd
38
28
33
33
22
19
12
24
53
55
60
56
Maungateparu
27
40
42
38
35
20
14
25
41
41
26
29
Netherton
44
27
30
31
31
24
19
25
44
63
73
70
Ngatea
57
34
28
31
32
28
21
28
47
55
59
49
Ohaupo
51
46
38
31
26
18
15
30
60
65
51
53
Otorohanga
48
56
25
22
34
25
19
27
56
63
84
64
Panetapu
55
40
50
40
25
10
12
25
40
65
80
70
Parawera
36
20
34
45
40
28
22
35
38
67
62
54
Piopio
52
39
29
39
44
20
23
24
57
64
61
64
Pokeno
44
38
34
32
28
22
17
20
34
65
46
41
Pukekohe
16
34
31
21
40
36
19
25
46
75
57
47
Putaruru
40
30
30
30
25
15
15
25
45
65
70
65
Ruakura
51
45
40
36
30
24
25
27
52
73
70
64
South Auckland
30
25
30
30
25
18
18
25
35
50
56
45
Springdale
50
30
20
30
40
25
15
30
35
60
65
60
Taihoa South
51
44
44
36
26
15
13
24
57
53
70
70
Taupiri
32
39
32
36
28
14
18
25
65
79
34
34
Waikato
68 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
From
To
Method
Notes
11.2
1990
1993
Cage
Pumice soil type 100 kg N/ha/yr
3
15.1
1992
1996
Cage
Rotomaha mud 101 kg N/ha/yr
3
11.8
1991
1993
Cage
Pumice soil type 102 kg N/ha/yr
3
17.6
1992
1999
Cage
4
15.3
-
-
Estimate
3
14.2
1998
2000
Cage
4
14.7
1994
1996
Cage
5
13.2
1995
2002
Cage
11.6
1994
1996
Cage
5
14.7
1996
1997
Cage
5
14.3
1998
2000
Cage
4
14.8
1994
1997
Cage
5
16.0
1998
2000
Cage
4
15.7
-
-
Estimate
3
14.7
-
-
Estimate
3
15.8
1996
2000
Cage RPM
12.9
1994
1997
Cage
5
13.7
1998
2000
Cage
4
13.9
-
-
Estimate
3
16.4
1980
2001
Whole Farm
6
11.8
-
-
Estimate
3
14.1
-
-
Estimate
3
15.4
-
-
Estimate
3
13.3
1994
1996
Cage
5
170 kg N/ha/yr
120 kg N/ha/yr
(cont’d p70)
Source
3
3
Pasture and nutrients | 69
Pasture & nutrients
t DM/ha
Average pasture growth data (kg DM/ha/day)
Site
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Te Aroha
52
45
35
32
27
23
21
38
64
84
36
62
Te Awamutu
(Te Kawa)
46
25
14
24
21
17
14
21
44
62
60
51
Tirau
56
47
20
19
29
29
17
20
51
53
65
58
Turua
68
39
38
36
34
28
20
23
59
67
54
78
Waotu
50
34
39
24
15
13
10
18
46
43
62
64
Hawera
47
29
36
32
18
10
10
29
63
92
75
59
Normanby
(WTARS)
44
35
29
20
17
12
12
22
46
66
64
55
Oaonui
46
44
36
48
25
15
16
22
50
70
70
61
Stratford
47
34
35
33
20
9
7
18
30
60
57
53
Waimate West
45
32
34
31
22
14
13
23
48
65
71
58
Pasture & nutrients
Waikato (cont’d)
Taranaki
Lower North Island
Dannevirke
(Cordell)
23
30
29
36
25
18
17
17
34
58
48
33
Dannevirke
(Tataramoa)
32
38
41
27
20
13
12
23
39
48
59
47
Hawkes Bay Dry
19
66
43
17
17
11
7
22
43
63
54
35
Hawkes Bay Wet
25
45
32
35
10
5
11
22
35
45
35
45
Norsewood
(Malcom)
30
54
36
33
18
10
8
18
35
58
48
35
Patoka (1,000 ft)
38
35
35
28
22
11
10
15
22
41
61
58
Patoka
(Te Pahui)
45
32
36
32
24
15
13
23
33
51
65
53
Takapau
(Longrow)
40
25
25
35
22
8
8
24
45
55
55
55
Foxton
54
28
22
26
17
22
16
16
29
65
66
54
Manawatu
Clays
13
14
28
18
16
20
24
36
37
45
33
32
Manawatu
Sands
20
20
22
8
9
12
16
35
38
43
50
40
70 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
From
To
Method
15.9
1996
1997
Cage
5
12.2
1992
1994
Whole farm
3
14.2
1998
2000
Cage
4
16.6
1996
1997
Cage
5
12.8
-
-
Estimate
3
15.2
1990
2001
Whole farm
7
12.9
1995
1997
Whole farm
7
15.4
1995
1997
Cage RPM
7
12.3
1975
1995
Whole farm
8
13.9
1975
1995
Whole farm
7
11.2
Notes
?
4-5 year farmer data set
Source
12.2
1997
1999
Cage cut
Tui Focus Farm
3
12.1
1997
1999
Cage cut
Tui Focus Farm
3
10.5
1997
1999
Cage cut
Tui Focus Farm
3
11.7
-
-
?
3
11.5
1979
1985
Cage RPM
3
12.9
1978
1984
?
3
12.1
-
-
?
3
12.7
1991
1994
Cage cut
9
9.7
-
-
Cage cut
Tui Focus Farm
3
9.6
-
-
Cage cut
Tui Focus Farm
3
(cont’d p72)
Pasture and nutrients | 71
Pasture & nutrients
t DM/ha
Average pasture growth data (kg DM/ha/day)
Site
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Pasture & nutrients
Lower North Island (cont’d)
Manawatu Silts
27
40
55
22
19
36
8
36
49
40
42
46
Manawatu
Terraces
16
6
55
12
32
18
15
30
47
60
47
40
Marton
(Woodruffes)
42
20
30
42
30
21
15
28
51
61
48
51
Massey
81
62
40
33
19
19
19
39
70
98
92
90
Massey
62
45
37
38
19
19
19
35
71
89
86
86
Massey
34
12
15
22
37
20
19
20
56
70
49
40
Massey
22
16
13
24
34
24
22
20
56
59
53
52
Massey
21
7
13
19
38
22
18
20
53
63
59
46
Massey No 4
wet soils
26
24
22
29
32
23
17
27
41
52
43
34
Rongotea
68
31
33
22
20
20
17
12
21
64
57
70
Woodville
(Ballance)
43
35
30
24
23
14
9
17
27
38
46
52
Carterton
47
41
39
32
21
14
7
18
17
62
58
50
Eketahuna
58
52
29
23
19
17
11
16
22
51
50
55
Greytown
28
12
22
16
11
15
12
17
24
52
46
43
Pahiatua
(Marima)
46
38
22
18
22
19
13
21
29
44
51
60
Collingwood
53
50
48
34
17
8
8
21
40
72
49
57
Motueka
16
18
22
20
8
7
5
15
39
84
58
33
Murchison
55
49
41
23
11
4
4
13
36
76
71
57
Nelson
42
51
39
28
17
11
8
25
49
73
50
46
Pakahi
42
45
46
28
13
8
7
18
36
66
50
49
Takaka
50
45
47
34
20
10
8
23
46
73
55
53
Grey Valley
58
73
73
40
18
6
3
12
37
79
72
61
Harihari
40
48
38
31
20
7
3
14
32
32
54
53
Inangahua
45
65
74
58
4
8
10
7
50
81
82
38
South Island
72 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
From
To
Method
Notes
Source
12.8
-
-
Cage cut
Tui Focus Farm
3
11.6
-
-
Cage cut
Tui Focus Farm
3
13.4
1992
1996
?
20.2
1973
1976
Whole farm
18.4
1973
1976
Whole farm
12.0
1997
2000
Whole farm
100 kg N/ha/yr
10
12.0
1997
2000
Whole farm
Autumn Calving, 100 kg N/ha/yr
10
11.6
1997
2000
Whole farm
Split Calving, 100 kg N/ha/yr
10
11.3
1973
2000
Whole farm
10
13.3
1991
1994
Cage cut
9
11.0
?
?
Cage cut
12.4
1991
1994
Cage cut
9
12.3
1991
1994
Cage cut
9
9.1
1991
1994
Cage cut
11.7
2002
2003
Cage RPM
3
14.0
1994
1997
Cage RPM
11
9.9
1994
1997
Cage RPM
11
13.5
1994
1997
Cage RPM
11
13.4
1994
1997
Cage RPM
11
12.5
1994
1997
Cage RPM
11
14.2
1990
2000
Cage RPM
16.3
1995
1997
Cage RPM
11
11.4
1995
1997
Cage RPM
11
15.9
1995
1997
Cage RPM
11
3
Irrigated
10
10
Tui Focus Farm
Low fertility, Olsen P 12
60 kg N/ha/yr
(cont’d p74)
3
9
11
Pasture and nutrients | 73
Pasture & nutrients
t DM/ha
Average pasture growth data (kg DM/ha/day)
Site
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Pasture & nutrients
South Island (cont’d)
Karamea
50
59
70
36
21
9
8
14
44
52
46
55
Kokatahi
51
65
60
36
14
7
4
11
40
69
69
51
Rotomanu
67
68
42
20
4
6
4
12
30
48
52
53
Taramakau
17
34
36
33
14
3
5
8
26
50
51
41
Waitaha
60
65
54
38
6
4
3
10
45
47
47
56
Westport
55
53
60
44
12
15
3
26
38
69
59
33
Whataroa
54
52
36
29
5
7
5
12
15
43
51
56
Lincoln (Light
sandy loam)
66
32
40
27
23
10
15
30
42
94
117
80
Lincoln
(Heavy clay)
75
47
36
27
23
10
7
24
36
30
75
75
Lincoln
80
78
72
55
31
16
14
26
52
71
83
79
Edendale
49
43
40
42
25
10
6
16
36
56
50
46
Gorge Rd
56
44
31
35
22
11
6
17
34
55
61
50
Gorge Rd
57
45
32
36
23
23
7
18
35
56
62
51
Isla Bank
45
44
45
29
29
11
6
11
35
48
62
40
Orawia
45
33
27
42
25
11
6
12
31
52
52
44
Otama
49
53
34
39
25
11
6
14
43
54
52
51
Riverton
47
46
35
33
23
8
7
14
32
46
47
46
Tapanui
58
44
22
35
25
11
6
15
45
57
41
57
Wendonside
51
37
24
50
27
11
6
13
35
59
68
48
Winton
56
42
42
37
34
11
6
20
42
66
54
55
Woodlands
63
54
52
31
16
8
6
9
33
57
77
67
Sources
1. Graeme Piggot (Pasture Assessment Ltd)
7. DairyNZ (WTARS)
2. Northland Agricultural Research Farm
8. Graeme Pitman
3. DairyNZ Consulting Officer
9. Fonterra - Tui Focus Farm
4. Barry Keene (Fonterra - Bay Milk Monitor Farm)
10. Massey University
5. DairyNZ (More summer milk trial)
11. DairyNZ Consulting Officer/ Westland Dairy Co-op
6. DairyNZ Research
12. DairyNZ Consulting Officer/ Lincoln University
13. AgResearch - Woodlands.
74 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
From
To
Method
Notes
14.2
1995
1997
Cage RPM
11
14.6
1995
1997
Cage RPM
11
12.4
1995
1997
Cage RPM
11
9.7
1995
1997
Cage RPM
11
13.3
1995
1997
Cage RPM
11
14.3
1995
1997
Cage RPM
11
11.2
1994
1997
Cage RPM
11
17.6
2001
2003
Cage RPM
Irrigated new pasture, 200 kg N/
ha/yr
12
14.2
2001
2003
Cage RPM
Irrigated new pasture, 200 kg N/
ha/yr
12
20.0
2006
2010
RPM
Irrigated pasture 210 kg N/ha/yr
12
12.8
1998
2001
Whole farm
3
12.9
2001
2004
Whole farm
3
13.6
1998
2001
Whole farm
3
12.3
1999
2002
Whole farm
3
11.6
1998
2001
Whole farm
3
13.1
2000
2003
Whole farm
3
11.6
1998
2001
Whole farm
3
12.7
1998
2001
Whole farm
3
13.1
1998
2001
Whole farm
3
14.2
1996
2001
Whole farm
3
14.4
1996
2003
Cage cut
New ryegrass and clover for dry stock
Source
13
Pasture and nutrients | 75
Pasture & nutrients
t DM/ha
Fertiliser
Nitrogen
Impact of pasture growth rate on response rates to N fertiliser
Pasture & nutrients
(N applied at optimal rates)
Pasture growth rate
Pasture growth
(kg DM/ha/day)
Response
(kg DM/kg N)
Time for full response
(weeks)
Slow
10
5
10-14
Moderate
20-40
10
6-8
Fast
50-70
15
5-6
Rapid
80
20
3-4
Common N fertilisers
kg/ha needed to apply
Fertiliser
%N
%P
%K
%S
30 kg N/ha
50 kg N/ha
46
0
0
0
65
110
Sulphate of ammonia (SOA)
20.5
0
0
24
150
240
Ammo 31 or N rich ammo
30-31
0
0
14
100
160-165
Di-ammonium phosphate (DAP)
18
20
0
1
170
280
DAP sulphur super or DAP 13 S
10.8
15
0
12.4
280
460
27
0
0
0
110
185
Urea
Calcium ammonium nitrate
Lime requirements for common N fertilisers
Lime needed for each
100kg N/ha
N applied before 1 tonne of
lime/ha is needed
Urea
180 kg/ha
550 kg N/ha
Sulphate of ammonia (SOA)
540 kg/ha
175 kg N/ha
Di-ammonium phosphate (DAP)
360 kg/ha
275 kg N/ha
Fertiliser
Rule of Thumb: 1.0t lime/ha will increase pH by 0.1 unit (e.g. from 5.5-5.6)
76 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Soil test
Ash
Sedimentary
Pumice
Peat
Olsen P
20-30
20-30
35-45
35-45
Soil test K
7-10
5-8
7-10
5-7
Sulphate-S
10-12
10-12
10-12
10-12
Organic-S
15-20
15-20
15-20
15-20
Soil test Mg
pasture 8-10
animal 25-30
pasture 8-10
animal 25-30
pasture 8-10
animal 25-30
pasture 8-10
animal 25-30
pH
5.8-6.0
5.8-6.0
5.8-6.0
5.0-5.5 (0-75 mm)
4.5-5.0 (75-150 mm)
Pasture and nutrients | 77
Pasture & n
nutrients
Target soil test ranges
Pasture & nutrients
Soil map
Ash soils
Sedimentary soils
Pumice soils
Be aware – soil types can be variable
within a region. Check with your
fertiliser advisor for your soil type.
Image reproduced from ‘Fertiliser use on New Zealand Dairy Farms’ –
published by DRC and NZ Pastoral Ag Research Institute; revised 1999.
78 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Effluent
Nutrients in the effluent from 100 cows under different scenarios
Effluent area needed to
apply 150 kg N/ha 1
Farm dairy effluent (no feed pad)
All grass system (milking 270 days, twice a day)
Feeding 2 t DM/ha of maize silage in paddock
2
N
P
K
% of farm ha/100 cows
590
70
540
11
4.0
668
80
668
12
4.4
Using a feed pad – farm dairy effluent plus feed pad effluent (Feeding 2 t DM/ha of maize silage)
N
P
K
½ hour per day on pad
838
100
868
14
5.6
1 hour per day on pad
1008
120
1044
17
6.8
2 hours per day on pad
1348
160
1396
22
8.8
1360
164
1460
25
8.8
1588
184
1668
29
10.4
Time on the pad
% of farm ha/100 cows
Feed comparisons (2 hours/day on pad)
4 t DM/ha/yr Maize silage
4 t DM/ha/yr Grass silage
3
Check your consent conditions for your maximum N loading
Any additional feeding on top of grazing increases the overall nutrients in the effluent
3
Grass silage has higher nutrient content than maize silage, which is reflected in higher effluent
nutrient content.
1
2
Pasture and nutrients | 79
Pasture & nutrients
Nutrients in effluent
from 100 cows (kg/yr)
Some measured nutrient concentrations (%) in various effluents compared to
farm dairy effluent
%DM
%N
%P
%K
0.8
0.045
0.006
0.035
Slurry
4.0
0.150
0.030
0.100
Effluent post separation
0.3
0.025
0.003
0.030
Separated solids
20
0.450
0.080
0.200
25
0.200
0.150
0.200
15
0.200
0.030
0.075
15-25
0.500
0.200
0.750
Source
Farm dairy effluent
Pasture & nutrients
Feed pad
Stand-off pad
Solids
Wintering pad (ad-lib feeding)
Scraped manure
Wintering shelter
Concrete bunker manure
Note: Nutrient concentrations vary depending on feed quality, washdown frequency, etc. These
figures should be used as a guideline only and a nutrient analysis of the effluent carried out to
determine the appropriate area for applying effluent to land.
Effluent application recommendations for various soil types under pasture cover
Depth (mm)
Rate (mm/hr)
Sand
15
32
Pumice
15
32
Loamy sand
18
32
Sandy loam
24
20
Fine sandy loam
24
17
Silt loam
24
10
Clay loam
18
13
Clay
18
10
Peat
20
17
Soil type
Note: These figures are for soils with 50% water holding capacity prior to the application of effluent,
not wet soils. If soils are wet, application depth and rate should drop, or application should be
deferred until conditions are drier.
Please make yourself familiar with the specific requirements for compliance with Regional Council rules
and regulations in your region, which may differ from the values in this table. Detailed information
on compliance requirements can be obtained from compliancetoolkit.co.nz or your local Council.
80 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Dairy shed and feed pad effluent volumes produced
Dairy shed (litres)
(Includes wash down water)
Feed pad (litres)
(Raw manure only, no wash down water)
Herd size
Per cow/day Herd size x per cow/day
0.5 hr
1.0 hr
1.5 hr
2.0 hr
1
50
50
1.7
3.4
5.1
6.8
150
50
7,500
255
510
765
1,020
250
48
12,000
425
850
1,275
1,700
500
43
21,500
850
1,700
2,550
3,400
750
38
28,500
1,275
2,550
3,825
5,100
1,000
34
34,000
1,700
3,400
5,100
6,800
2,000
23
46,000
3,400
6,800
10,200
13,600
Stormwater and washdown water volumes for feed pads
Stormwater
Washdown
e.g.
Pad size (m2) x annual rainfall (mm) ÷ 1,000 = stormwater volume (m3)
875 m2 x
1,800 mm
÷ 1,000 = 1,575 m3
Pad size (m2) x 6.4 (hosing)
= washdown volume (litres/washdown event)
6.1 (flood washing)
e.g.
875 m2 x 6.1
= 5,338 litres/washdown event
Pasture and nutrients | 81
Pasture & nutrients
Time on pad
Infrastructure & financial
82 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
Farm infrastructure
Buildings and yard sizes
• 1.5 m2/Friesian cow
Calf pen
• Allow 1.1-1.4 m2 per calf
• 100-300 kg Lwt heifers 1.2-1.4 m2/head
Cattle holding yard
• 300-550 kg Lwt cows 1.2-1.5 m2/head
• >550 kg Lwt cows1.5-1.7 m2/head
Haysheds
• Allow 1 m3/5 bales
Fertiliser bins
• Allow 0.9 m3/tonne
Feed pads
• 4.5-6.0 m wide – feed lanes
• 4.0-4.5 m wide – single cow lane
• >7.0 m wide – double cow lane
• 0.7 m/cow – length of feed face / bin when all cows feed at once
Dimensions
• 0.3 m/cow length of feed face when cow feeding adlib
• Entry and exit points – 8-10 m wide
• A feed pad where cows are kept for short periods of time should
allow a minimum area of 3.5 m2/cow with 0.7 m length per cow
at the feed bin.
• 2o-4o
Slope
2o – is a vertical rise of 35 mm/1 m horizontal
4o – is a vertical rise of 75 mm/1 m horizontal
Concrete
• Feed lanes 25-30 Mpa
• Cow lanes 20 Mpa
Infrastructure and financial | 83
Infrastructure & financial
• 1.3 m2/Jersey cow
Dairy cow yard
Stand-off pad
Short term
> 12 hrs/day (up to 2 days in a row)
Permanently
No on-off grazing
Area per cow
( m 2)
Surface type
Area per cow
( m 2)
Area per cow
( m 2)
Woodchip
3.5
Woodchip
5.0
Sand
3.5
Sand
5.0
8.0 including a
comfortable lying area
Concrete
3.5
Concrete
Not recommended
Laneway
3.5
Laneway
Not recommended
Crop
8.0
Crop
8.0
Paddock
8.0
Paddock
8.0
Surface type
Infrastructure & financial
Long term
> 12hrs/day, (3 or more days in a row)
Track / race width
Herd size
Race width (m)
<120
5.0
120-150
5.5
250-350
6.0
350-450
6.5
>450
Varies with split of herd
84 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
plus
1m2
feeding area
Length of the feed face
0.7m feed all at once
0.3m feed ad-lib
Water supply and irrigation
Lactating cow
70 litres/head
Dry cow
45 litres/head
Calves
25 litres/head
Infrastructure & financial
Peak drinking water daily requirements
Peak drinking water flows required
Lactating cow
12-14 litres/head/hr
Dry cow
8-10 litres/head/hr
Water supply
Cow shed water requirements 70 litres/cow/day
Trough size should be half the one hour flow demand. e.g. 200 cows need 2,400 litres/hr,
so trough size = 1,400 litres. Mobs of 400 or more need two troughs in a paddock.
Trough flow
Trough size
Herd size
(litres/sec)
(litres/hr)
(litres)
100
0.33
1,200
600
200
0.67
2,400
1,200
300
1.00
3,600
1,800
400
1.33
4,800
2 @ 1,200
500
1.67
6,000
2 @ 1,500
Flow rate = 12 litres/cow/hr at trough
1 litre = 0.26 gallons
Units of measurement used in irrigation
Units = mm
1 mm (depth) = 1 litre/m2 = 10m3/ha = 10,000 litres/ha
The hourly rate of application and infiltration should be in millimetres per hour
(1 mm/hr = 1 litre/m2/hr)
Infrastructure and financial | 85
Average plant available water holding capacity of soils of various textural classes
Infrastructure & financial
Textural Class
Available water holding capacity (mm/m depth)
Down to 0.3 m depth
Below 0.3 m depth
Sand
150
50
Loamy sand
180
110
Sandy loam
230
150
Fine sandy loam
220
150
Silt loam
220
150
Clay loam
180
110
Clay
175
110
Peat
200-250
200-250 (at least)
Notes:
Before applying the information above to the soils on a farm, a number of earth auger tests holes
should be made to determine variations in the depth and textural class of the soil within the effective
crop root depth.
Where detailed determination of the available water-holding capacities of soils have been made,
those values should be used in place of the above information.
Ranges of effective crop root depth under irrigation with unimpeded growth
Crop
Root depth (m)
Barley
0.91-1.1
Maize
1.5-1.8
Kale (Choumoellier)
0.46-0.61
Lucerne
1.22-1.83
Pasture (annual and perennial)
0.31-0.76
Turnips
0.31-0.61
86 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
How much water to apply
More important than the available water holding capacity per meter is the ‘plant available
water’. Using the tables above it is possible to calculate the plant available water. For
example if the soil is a fine sandy loam, and the crop is Barley (assuming a 1 m rooting
depth) then the plant available water (AW) is determined as follows:
Top 0.3 m
AW =
220 x 0.3
= 66
Remaining 0.7 m
AW =
150 x 0.7
= 105
Total AW
= 171 mm
Irrigation should start when the soil moisture content reaches the management allowable
deficit (MAD). The MAD is the soil moisture deficit after which some drought stress will be
experienced by the plant. Its value depends on the sensitivity of the crop to water stress
and varies from 15% to 80% of the available water.
For simplicity it is often taken as 50% which is acceptable in many cases. This means water
should be applied when half of the plant available water has been depleted (this will be
before visible signs of stress occur).
Rule of Thumb: Water should be applied when half of the plant available water has
been depleted.
Infrastructure and financial | 87
Infrastructure & financial
The amount of water that should be applied depends on the water holding characteristics
of the soil. Soils vary greatly in total water holding capacity, however there is much less
variation in the amount of water which is effectively ‘plant available’. Most soils hold a
maximum of between 150 and 230 mm of plant available water per meter of depth.
Infrastructure & financial
Cost of servicing table
mortgages
Annual payments on amortised loans with equal total payments
The annual payment (interest and principal combined) per $1,000 borrowed on table
mortgage is set out below.
Repayments of interest and principal (per $1,000 borrowed)
Years (mortgage term)
Interest rate
5
10
15
20
25
$/year $/mnth $/year $/mnth $/year $/mnth $/year $/mnth $/year $/mnth
5%
231
19
130
11
96
8
80
7
71
6
6%
237
20
136
12
103
9
87
8
78
7
7%
244
20
142
12
110
9
94
8
86
8
8%
250
21
149
13
117
10
102
9
94
8
9%
257
21
156
13
124
11
110
9
102
9
10%
264
22
163
14
131
11
117
10
110
10
11%
271
22
170
14
139
12
126
11
119
10
12%
277
23
177
15
147
12
134
12
128
11
13%
284
23
184
15
155
13
142
12
136
12
14%
291
24
192
16
163
14
151
13
146
13
15%
298
24
199
17
171
14
160
14
155
13
16%
305
25
207
17
179
15
169
14
164
14
17%
313
25
215
18
188
16
178
15
173
15
18%
320
26
223
19
196
17
187
16
183
16
19%
327
26
230
19
205
17
196
17
192
16
20%
334
27
239
20
214
18
205
17
202
17
88 | DairyNZ Facts and Figures
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