for a living planet
®
Conservation
with Communities
in the Biodiversity
‘Hotspots’ of India
March 2005
Forests & Biodiversity Conservation Programme
WORLD WIDE FUND FOR NATURE - INDIA
172-B, Lodi Estate, New Delhi - 110 003
Tel : 91-11-51504785 / 87, Fax : 91-11-51504779 / 95
E-mail : [email protected]
Visit us at : www.wwfindia.org
Project Team
WWF-India Secretariat
Mr. P.K. Sen (Director)
Mr. Sudipto Chatterjee
Dr. Rajeev Semwal
Ms. Gitika Goswami
Maharashtra State Office
Dr. J.C. Punetha
Kerala State Office
Ms. Sudha Soni
Mr. Siva Kumar
Gujarat State Office
Dr. Jayesh Bhatt
Mr. Vijay Mane
Arunachl Pradesh Field Office
Mr. Pijush Kumar Dutta
Dr. D. Saikia
Mr. Govinda Pangging
for a living planet
®
CONSERVATION WITH
COMMUNITIES IN THE BIODIVERSITY
‘HOTSPOTS’ OF INDIA
With support from
Ford Foundation - US
and World Wild Life Fund - US
March 2005
Forests & Biodiversity Conservation Programme
WORLD WIDE FUND FOR NATURE-INDIA
172-B, Lodi Estate, New Delhi - 110 003, Tel : 91-11-51504785 / 87, Fax : 91-11-51504779 / 95
E-mail : [email protected], Visit us at : www.wwfindia.org
4
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
CONTENTS
Executive Summary ................................................................................................................ 7
1.
An Introduction to Participatory Forestry in India and the Case Studies
1.1
2.
The Case Studies : ............................................................................................ 11
Description of the study sites & data analysis
2.1
Western Ghats
Gujarat
Case Study 1. Analysing reasons for intentional / accidental forest fires in
Dangs region, Gujarat ................................................................................................. 12
Case Study 2. An assessment of Sustainable Forest Management by
developing Criteria and Indicators : An exercise at village Kunbar in
Rajpipla Forest Division, South Gujarat .................................................................. 28
Maharashtra
Case Study 3. Cultivation of medicinal plants and establishment of a
market linkage with participation of the local community at village
Ahwati in Nasik district of Maharashtra ................................................................... 35
Case Study 4. Evaluation of ongoing Joint Forest Management (JFM) by
using criteria and indicators developed by local communities at village
Ahwati in Nasik District ............................................................................................... 45
Kerala
Case Study 5. Strengthening the capacity of the Vana Samraksana
Samithies (VSS) in South Western Ghats - Villages Pottamavu &
Vanchiyode .................................................................................................................... 49
2.2 Eastern Himalaya
Arunachal Pradesh
Feasibility of Introducing Group Certification for Swertia chirayita in
Western Arunachal Pradesh, Eastern Himalaya .................................................... 68
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
5
Acknowledgements
We place in record our gratitude towards the funding support from Ford Foundation, US
and support and guidence from Dr. Stephen Kelleher and Dr. Tom Erdmann, WWF-US.
Thanks are due to the Forest Officials of the states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Kerala and
Arunachal Pradesh who helped us in collecting the information on forest related issues.
We are grateful to the support we have received from M.S. College Vadodara, Gujarat,
Agarkhar Research Institute, Pune and State Forest Research Institute, Itanagar. Sincere
thanks are also due to all the villagers in the project locations with whom we have
interacted during our study. We thank them profusely for their time, information shared
and guidance provided.
6
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The community forestry project of
WWF-India dates back to mid
nineties. At the inception WWF-India
interected with the Forest Department
and local communities to better
understand the Joint Forest
Management (JFM) processes and
success stories and also worked as
an interface between the local
communities and the FD. The
objective was initially to make people
aware about the benefits of JFM and
provide a platform to bring the views
and perceptions of the local people
to the Forest Department. WWF-India
initiated work in three states in the
Western Ghats, viz., Gujarat,
Karnataka and Kerala in 2001.
Better practices for Raab
cultivation in Dangs
Forests of Gujarat
In the year 2002, WWF-India
implemented a pilot project, on
assessment of JFM at village Ahwati
in Maharashtra. Kunbar in Gujarat
and Vanchiyode in Kerala. This was
an opportunity to develop a deeper
insight into status of JFM and
challenges ahead in these states.
Raab farming is reported to be more
intensive in the Dangs district. Malki
lands (ownership of which has been
conferred to the tribals of the region
by the government), where Raab is
mostly practiced, is at present under
immense pressure. Once described
as ‘sea of forests’ during the colonial
period, Malki lands today appear as
heavily lopped forests, rendering the
trees to extreme physiological stress
and at times beyond the capacity to
rejuvenate.
Experiences gained by the
programme helped in implementation
of the present project during 20032005 in the biodiversity hotspots.
These ‘hotpots’ are areas of high
biological diversity high endemism
and under high anthropogenic
pressures. Western Ghats and
Eastern Himalayas are two hotspots
in India (Norman Myers 1988, 1990).
The following sections discuss in
detail the case studies in the abovementioned states. All the case
studies have the potential to link with
Joint Forest Management as a followup of this programme. A brief
account of the case studies follows :
Of the many known causes of forest
fires in India, slash and burn
agriculture practiced in the vicinity of
forests is one.
Raab cultivation, a form of shifting
cultivation practiced by the tribal
communities like the Bhils and
Konkans in the Dangs Forests
between the fertile plains of south
Gujarat and rugged plateau of
western Maharashtra, could also be a
possible cause of forest fires in the
region.
Historically, Dangs has been a region
of civil unrest particularly during the
British rule. In 1970 the question of
conferring occupancy rights to
Dangis for the lands on lease being
cultivated by them in the protected
forests of Dangs district was under
consideration. The government after
careful consideration directed that
the land be placed at the disposal of
the revenue department for conferring
occupancy to the Dangis. This was
however subject to certain conditions
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
7
specified in the state government’s
resolution in February 1992. The
occupancy rights would be given only
to the Dangis and not to outsiders
who may have obtained leases of
certain lands in Dangs. Occupancy
rights were given only in respect of
those lands, which were actually
leased to Dangis and in their natural
possession as on January 1, 1970.
The reserved trees on these lands
continue to vest with the forest
department but the cultivators are
entitled to lop them for the purpose
of cultivation. However, the
responsibility of cutting the trees from
the reserve forests, rests with the
state forest department for revenue
generation through auctions.
The Forest Department, Government
of Gujarat has been making attempts
to motivate the farmers to switch over
to better agricultural practices, for
example, the use of vermin-composts
in the fields has been suggested visa-vis the use of burnt litter. Timber
auction has created lot of awareness
and there has been a realization
within the community that fires in the
forest subsequently decrease the
value of timber. It does not fetch the
requisite price at the forest deposit
and results in a loss to the tribals.
The Forests and Biodiversity
Programme of WWF-India undertook
an initiative, to understand the
compulsions behind cultivation of
nagli (millet) and rice through the
traditional methods. Socioeconomic
surveys were conducted in the
villages Enginepada, Bhujad,
Chikhla, Devdiyavan, Masli, Khatar,
Dhulda, Bandhpada, Mahal,
Dhongiamba, Bardipada, Sajupada,
Hadaol, Lahnkasad, Girmal,
Goundha, Devan Tembrun and
Jamlapada. Efforts were taken to
encourage farmers to undertake
cultivation through better practices.
The challenge was to overcome the
mindset that cultivation of nagli and
rice is not possible without Raab
cultivation. An experiment cum
demonstration was undertaken
involving the cultivation of nagli and
rice without practicing Raab burning.
8
Forest Protection in
Maharashtra and Gujarat
WWF-India associated with rural
communities in northern parts of
Nasik district of Maharashtra Rajpipla
forest division of Gujarat with strong
willingness for forest protection. The
area is inhabited by tribals and nontribals who are dependent on
agriculture as a main source of
livelihood. The rainshadow portions
of the region are almost devoid of
vegetation and most of the forests
have been destroyed by earlier
generations. Demand for fuelwood,
timber and fodder might have been
the major factors responsible for
decreasing the forest vegetation. A
large percentage of population
reared goat and sheep for their
sustenance till a few years back.
Realising the adverse impact of
deforestation, the villagers accepted
the establishment of Joint Forest
Management (JFM) initiated by
Governments of Maharashtra and
Gujarat. The concept of JFM has
taken the shape of a movement
within the last couple of years. WWFIndia associated itself with this
movement around three years back
by playing a role of catalyst between
the government and village
community. Initially, WWF-India was
restricted to monitoring and
evaluation of the concept by
organising training programmes/
workshops for testing criteria &
indicators. It also used its expertise in
the area of public awareness and
educational techniques in the field of
nature conservation.
An idea, of setting up a model project
in the cultivation of medicinal plants
for economic benefits and
environmental awareness of the
villagers, was initiated in one of the
successful project sites called Ahwati
in Nashik district. The project was
initiated previous year with cultivation
of ten medicinal plant species. The
purpose was to reduce pressure on
natural forests for economic gains, to
make use of the extra portions of
land lying with villagers (non-
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
agricultural and degraded land), to
reduce loss of certain species as a
result of extensive use of land under
agriculture. The project motivated the
neighbourhood villages as well. The
public awareness programmes,
launched by WWF-India jointly with
JFM active supporters, has resulted
in the formation of new committees in
a number of villages. From a meager
number of a dozen JFM Committees
till about two years back, today there
are more than 150 villages working
under the JFM movement in Satana
and Kalvan, two sub-divisions of the
district. Today villagers talk about the
greening of their barren hills in most
of the forums.
Capacity building of
Forest Protection
committees in Kerala
Forests constitute about 9% of the
land area in Kerala. Although it’s
almost ten years since the Joint
Forest Management programme was
initiated in Kerala it was strongly felt
that the Forest Protection
Committees (Vana Samrakshana
Samithies) in Kerala needs
strengthening through capacity
building.
The present project focused on
Capacity Building of Vana
Samrakshana Samithies at villages
Vanchiyode and Pottamava w.r.t. to
natural resource management. After
an analysis of the NTFP usage in the
villages, extensive training
programmes were organized for their
sustainable management. While
implementing the core programme
there were many occasions in which
the two VSS had a chance to share
their experiences and problems
related not only to NTFP
management but also issues related
to administration. It helped in the
common sharing of ideas and
promoting links between the two
different types of VSS. This has given
origin to the development of a
concept of inter & intra VSS
coordination that could prove fruitful
and effective in enhancing the
effectiveness of sustainable
utilization of natural resources and in
turn forest management.
Feasibility of Group
Certification of Swertia
chirayita in Eastern
Himalaya
The state of Arunachal Pradesh
harbours a rich stock of high valued
medicinal plants like Taxus
wallichiana, Acorus sp, Picrorhiza
kurroa, Swertia chirayita etc. Local
communities of the state with
otherwise limited scopes of livelihood
are engaged in the trade of these
plants. Most of the Swertia chirayita
marketed from the state is harvested
in West Kameng district. The whole
process of marketing involves many
players at different levels such as
agents from pharmaceutical
companies, retailers from Assam,
local contractors, local subcontractors and harvesters.
Marketing of Swertia chirayita is a
seasonal occupation for the local
villagers. The process starts from
September and continues till
February every year. In September,
traders from Assam contact the local
villagers and place orders as per the
demand in the pharmaceutical
companies. The collection of the
species is presently banned by the
state government. However there
were reports of harvest of the species
from the wild. An effort was made to
explore the possibility of introducing
cultivation of Swertia chirayita and
organize the farmers for group
certification using Forest Stewardship
Council (FSC) principles.
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
9
1. An Introduction to
Participatory Forestry
in India and the Case
Studies
Participatory Forestry in India is
widely known as ‘Joint Forest
Management’ where protection and
management of forests is jointly
undertaken by Forest Department
and the local communities. Joint
Forest Management (JFM), a
programme of peoples’ participation
in forestry had been initiated from a
small village ‘Arabari’ in Midnapore
district of West Bengal in 1972. The
objective was to involve the local
communities in protecting the forests
by sharing the benefits accruing from
resources collected from the forest.
Similar exercises had been
undertaken in Sukhomajri village in
Haryana. The success of the
programme in these two states led
the policy makers to rethink and
reorient its emphasis from revenue
generation to conservation and form
a participatory approach to forest
management. However, JFM was
formally initiated in June 1990 after
receiving an endorsement from the
government of India on the JFM
system. Certain guidelines like
formation of Village Forest Committee
(VFC) or Village Forest Protection
Committee (VFPC) and the role and
functions of these committees were
framed. All the state governments
were advised to provide a formal
framework for implementation of JFM.
Twenty-three states in India have till
date formally initiated JFM by
constituting FPCs. At present there
are 63,618 FPCs through out the
country managing an area of more
than 14 million ha (RUFFOR and
MoEF, 2002). Among all the states,
Orrisa has the highest average area
10
under one FPC (597 ha/VFC) and
Uttar Pradesh has the lowest area of
about 4.69 ha. (Rabindranath, Murali
& Malhotra, 2000). West Bengal has
the largest JFM programme in India
of 53.81% of forest area of the state.
Remote Sensing assessments have
clearly indicated the improvement of
crown cover in some parts of the
country due to protection and
management of the forests. Micro
level studies in some states have
shown an improvement in
productivity and diversity of
vegetation and an increase in income
accruing to FPCs from Non timber
Forest Produces.
Large financial support have been
received for the programme from
different funding agencies like World
Bank, OECF-Japan, DFID-UK, and
SIDA –Sweden, EEC and UNDP.
The ultimate goal of the JFM
programme is to initiate participatory
forestry which can ultimately lead to a
wider role, responsibility and
authority for the rural communities in
decision making, infrastructure
sharing and financial management.
The approach in the present study
has been to work with the Forest
Protection Committees. Although this
has been possible in the states of
Maharashtra and Kerala, our work
remained confined to the local
farmers in Gujarat and Arunachal
Pradesh where the Forest Protection
Committies could be involved only in
the future projects by WWF-India.
Much of the effort in these states
have been to analyse the reasons for
unsustainable and destructive natural
resource practices. A brief
background to project initiation under
the Ford US grant is follows :
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
1.1 The Case Studies :
The community forestry project of
WWF-India was initiated in 1997. At
the time of its inception WWF-India
started interacting with the Forest
Department and local communities to
understand the JFM process and also
worked as an interface between the
local communities and the FD. The
objective was not only to disseminate
the benefits of JFM among the local
communities but to also work as a
platform to bring the views and
perceptions of the local people to the
Forest Department and to implement
the programme in a sustainable way.
With support from International
Institute of Environment and
Development (IIED), UK a series of
workshops were organized in the
states of Gujarat, Maharashtra and
Kerala in Western Ghats in India
during 2001-2002.
In 2002, WWF-India implemented a
small project on the assessment of a
SFM at village Ahwati in Maharashtra
by developing Criteria and Indicators
based on the local communities
under the aegis of the World BankWWF Alliance. The objective of the
study was to gain a greater insight
into the benefits of JFM for the
communities. While working with the
communities it was realized that the
same exercise could also be
replicated in other areas where JFM
is being practised successfully.
Under the Ford US grant a project
was designed to work with the
communities on different issues of
community forestry in Gujarat,
Maharashtra, Kerala and Arunachal
Pradesh during 2003-2005. These
‘hotpots’ are areas of high biological
diversity, high endemism and under
high anthropogenic pressures.
Western Ghats and Eastern
Himalayas are two hotspots in India
(Norman Myers 1988, 1990). The
following sections discuss in detail,
the case studies in the abovementioned states. All the case
studies have the potential to link with
Joint Forest Management as a followup of this programme.
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
11
2. Description of the
study sites & data
analysis
2.1 Western Ghats
Gujarat
Case Study 1. Analysing
reasons for intentional /
accidental forest fires in
Dangs region, Gujarat
Introduction
The Dangs district in Gujarat is
located between 20 0 33’40” and 21 0
5’10” N Latitudes and 73 0 27’58” and
73 0 56’36” E Longitudes. The total
geographical area of the district is
1,764 sq. kms. In the east it is
bounded by the Dhule district of
Maharashtra, in the west by Valsad,
in the north by Surat district both of
Gujarat while in the south by the
Nasik district of Maharashtra. Of the
total geographical area, dense forest
constitutes 1,008 sq.kms, degraded
forest 500 sq.kms, thorn scrub (open
forest) 2 sq.km and 184 sq. kms
under protected area category. At
present in Dangs 58,758 ha is under
Malki land (private land) category,
22,000 ha as protected forest and
84,000 ha as reserve forests. The
total population of the district is 1,
86,729. There are 311 villages
covering 8.9 % of the total land area
of the Dangs. (Census data, 2001)
The Sahyadri Hills occupy the eastern
part of the Dangs district while the
western portion descends into the
plains of Gujarat. The district also
forms the northernmost limit of the
Western Ghats ecoregion. Barring a
few high hills in the east and south,
most of the area is made up of a
series of flat-topped low hills. The
elevation of these hills varies from
105 m in the west to 1,317 m above
mean sea level (amsl) on the eastern
border. However, most of the area
Map : Project Locations in Dangs District, Gujarat
12
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
lies between 300 m and 700 m amsl.
There are four distinct river valleys
viz., Gira, Purna, Khapri and Ambika
rivers in the area that emerge in the
hills of the Western Ghats and flow
towards the west (Wohra, 1991).
shifting (slash and burn) agriculture.
Although there is no record available
on exactly when the Konkanas
entered the Dangs, it has been
inferred that they were called by the
Bhils in order to cultivate their lands
(Patel, 1971). The Konkanas migrated
here from the coastal areas of
Maharashtra like Konkan. According
to an oral tradition, the community
migrated north as a result of the
famine of 1396-1408 that devastated
the Konkan region (Hardin 1998). The
Konkanas used to practice settled
cultivation known as raab.
Almost all the annual rainfall occurs
between June and September. The
average annual rainfall in the district
is about 2,000 mm and the west
receives more rains than the east.
May is the hottest month when the
mean daily maximum temperature
soars up to 40 0 C while December is
the coldest month in the district.
Minimum temperatures are usually
well above freezing, and frost is not
usual (Patel, 1971).
The forests of the Dangs belong to
the subgroup “South Indian moist
deciduous forest”, and within this are
more specifically classified as moist
teak forests (Champion and Seth,
1968). According to the classification
followed by Puri et. al., (1983) these
forests are classified as deciduous
teak forest types which are
intermediate between dry and moist
categories. They are named as the
Tectona-Terminalia-Adina-Anogeissus
series. The forests are known to be
the richest in Gujarat and contain
many invaluable timber species as
well as medicinally important species
(presently Dangs occupy about 30%
of the forest area of Gujarat and
generate 50% of its forest revenue
and flora of Dangs is richest in
Gujarat). Teak (Tectona grandis) is
the most dominant species in Dangs
and occurs throughout the area.
Authentic information about the
original inhabitants of Dangs prior to
the early 18th century is scanty.
However, it is clear that the original
inhabitants of the Dangs were the
Bhils. This is predominantly an
adibasi region with tribals of Bhil,
Gamit, Konkanas (kunbi) and Varlies
who are called Dangis. The recorded
history of Dangs is 400 years old and
was first referred by Sir John
Hawkins, a British traveller in 1608.
According to him Bhils were the
rulers of the region and practiced
During the early 18th century, the
Dangs was ruled by small
principalities presided by four Bhil
chiefs and ten Naiks. The Konkanas
were required to cultivate the lands of
these chiefs and Naiks in lieu of
tribute (Patel, 1971). Until the late
18th century, slash and burn
agricultural system prevailed in the
Dangs which was sustainable as the
population was small and the shifting
agricultural cycle i.e. fallow period
between two successive cropping
must have been longer. However, by
1891, there were already records to
show that the Konkanas were
practicing some form of settled
agriculture in the Dangs. This usually
consisted of lopping the trees within
the agricultural field and around the
area to be cultivated rather than
cutting or burning entire trees (Lucas,
1892). As mentioned earlier, this
form of cultivation is known as Raab.
The forest history of the Dangs over
the past two centuries has been
tumultuous. It has been one of defeat
and loss of land and livelihood for the
local communities. But at the same
time, it has also been a history of
struggle by the local people of the
Dangs against the scheme that
farming is detrimental to the forest.
The British took over the forests in
Dangs from the Surat merchants in
1867 alleging that the Bhils were
being exploited. Gradually the British
unfolded their original plan and
curtailed the rights of Dangi chiefs. In
1889 the forests were divided into
reserves and protected categories
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
13
and 1902 onwards rules were strictly
enforced to prohibit cultivation in the
former category, which constituted
about 50% of the total forest cover in
the Dangs. Good timber was
harvested from the prime locations. A
subsequent aerial survey revealed
that the existing forests in the Dangs
with good conservation values are
very patchy. The largest contiguous
forest areas are located in the
northern and western parts of the
districts. Good forests are relegated
to the steeper slopes where the plain
areas are largely under cultivation
(Worah, 1991).
In the late 19th century, about 66 per
cent of the Dangs land were classed
as available for cultivation. Just after
independence by 1956-57 the figures
diminished to 54 per cent. During the
1960s, the Gujarat government
conducted a survey of the Dangs,
aiming to give land occupancy deeds
to the local inhabitants. According to
this survey, 79,913 hectares were
classified as farmland, which
represented 45 per cent of the total
area. In 1970, land deeds were given
on condition that forest department
would continue to own trees on the
land and that the occupants could
only lop branches for Raab
cultivation. No forest produce could
be taken from reserved forest, which
now constituted about 50 percent of
the Dangs area. Thus, it was
observed that land under cultivation
decreased substantially over the
years. With the gradual acceptance
of the idea that without the support of
local communities’ protection of
forests would remain a far cry, the
forest department relinquished its
right in 1997 over trees growing in the
cultivated or Malki lands in favour of
the cultivators. At present 58,758 ha
is under Malki land category, 22,000
ha as protected forests, 84,000 ha as
reserve forests (figures based on land
records, and personal interviews with
forest officers in Dangs). However, it
is still too early to conclude whether
this change will impact the forest
cover and socio-economy of the
Dangis.
14
Geology and Soil
The word Dangs stands for
mountainous terrain and also
includes the bamboo forest, the
principal plant species of the region.
Dangs is covered by Deccan Lava
flows as horizontally bedded sheets.
Hence flat topped hills are common
in the area which is characteristic of
the trappean country. At places, the
trap contains iron and traces of
feldspar and hornblende, producing
the red, sharp gravel covering many
hillsides (Khanchandani 1970). The
soil in the valleys is mostly black
cotton soils composed mainly of clay
mineral. The texture is clay loam and
the soil is fertile. It contains high
amounts of alumina, lime and
magnesia, with a variable amount of
low nitrogen and phosphorus. On the
slopes of the hill is red soil, which is
light and porous and contains no
soluble salt (Patel, 1971). The
agricultural soils are mildly acidic to
neutral with the pH value ranging
from 6.7 to 7 and moderately rich in
organic Carbon (based on recent
analysis by WWF-India in July, 2004).
Raab - The Traditional
Agricultural Practice
Raab is an age-old agricultural
practice of the Dangis – the tribal
people living in the Dangs. It is a kind
of simultaneous agroforestry practice
where the naturally growing teak,
Terminalia, Lagerstromia etc. trees
are maintained in different densities
within and around the Raab fields.
These trees of various species are
lopped, generally after every 2 years,
to obtain the biomass required for
burning. at designated plot with in
the larger one used for raising
nursery of crops like Eleusine
coracana (nagli), Oryza sativa (rice),
Panicum meliaceum (vari), and
occasionally maize and pulses. In
addition to the lopped biomass from
the trees, leaf litter is also collected
from the Protected Forests and
occasionally from the Reserve
Forests. The amount of biomass
burnt (locally known as adar)
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
depends on the size of nursery,
availability of labour within the
household for its collection from the
forest, and type of crop being grown
in the nursery. On an average, in a
plot of 50 sq. m 700kg -1000kg of
biomass is burned. The unlocked
elements from the burned biomass
pool are the source of readily
available nutrients for the crops for
which the nursery is prepared. The
general belief of the farmer is that the
robust seedlings grown in this
manner provide higher yields than
those which are raised in the
nurseries where biomass is not
burned. This can be corroborated
from the study done by Worah (1991).
Once the seedlings attain the desired
growth (40-60 cm height), these are
transplanted into the larger plots. No
further inputs are required except
occasional weeding after
transplantation of crop seedlings.
The soil fertility of the bigger
agricultural plot is maintained by
shifting the location of the nursery
(where biomass is burned) every year
in such a fashion that practically
every chunk of land within the Raab
fields becomes the nursery bed after
5-7 years. The forest trees growing
within the Raab fields also help
maintain the fertility of soil over the
years by pumping out nutrients from
deeper soil layers to the surface, litter
fall albeit smaller amount due to
lopping of these trees and fine roots
turn over etc (Semwal et. al., 2002).
In the distant past the Bhils used to
practice shifting agriculture, in this
region, which over the years due to
socio-economic and ownership
changes, forest utilization policies,
got transformed into settled
agriculture known as Raab. In this
form of cultivation burning of
biomass played an important role in
the maintenance of soil fertility and
good crop yields. This form of
agriculture is promoted by the
Konkanas another tribal group who
moved into Dangs in the 13th century
from the Konkan region of
Maharashtra due to famine
conditions in Konkan at the time
(Mark Poffenberger 1998).
Degraded Forests in Dangs
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
15
Dried biomas spread over nursery bed
The official announcement from the
forest department in 1997 that the
trees are also the property of the
Malki land owner, and the farmer is
entitled to sell the timber to improve
the household income, had positive
implications. Many farmers are now
planting economically important trees
on the Malki lands. On experimental
basis a policy has been framed to
provide support for replanting trees.
Farmers are given free seedlings of
various tree species and financial
support of Rs 500 per year per ha for
the next 15 years. The initial plant
density should be 2000 tree seedlings
/ha with the prescribed species
composition of 1500 individuals teak
and rest 500 miscellaneous as per
the preference of the individual
farmer. The financial support is
provided only if the seedlings show at
least 60% survival after plantation.
During our field visit it was observed
that many farmers started planting
teak seedlings in the Malki lands and
Raab fields. The impact of the policy
shift from dual management of forest
16
trees by forest department and
communities to vesting all rights with
the farmers may yield good results.
On the one hand, this may lead to
increased tree density in the Malki
and Raab fields, and an improvement
in the economic conditions of the
inhabitants of Dangs. However it is
too early to conclude on the impacts
of this policy change.
As far as Raab agriculture is
concerned there is no sharp
distinction as to the choice of crop
planted on the slopes or flat land.
However, rice is generally grown on
flatter areas. In the present scenario
when population has risen from a
mere 18,000 in late 19 th century to
over 1,88,000 in 2001 the pressure on
the available land is increasing and
intensive agriculture is being
practiced. Fallowing of Raab plots is
no more in vogue as a result of which
soil erosion will become a major
problem in future.
Leaf litter and lopped biomass called
adar from the forest is piled up on a
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
Biomas burning in nursery bed
small plot of land and burned. After
which seeds of millet and cereals are
sown. Once the rains start, the area
around the plot is ploughed and the
germinated crop seedlings with an
average height of 40-60 cms are
transplanted to the prepared land.
Weeding is carried out periodically,
and the crops are harvested after the
monsoons in October. The Dangs,
with its abundant supply of forest
biomass is well suited for such
agriculture. As a rule, an area was
cultivated only for two or three years.
After this the soil was left fallow and a
fresh patch of land was sought.
Further details on Raab cultivation
are provided in subsequent
paragraphs.
As far as Raab cultivation and the
starting of forest fires in Dangs is
concerned, generally all care is taken
during biomass burning by the
farmers. However, as per the
preliminary survey incidences of
accidental forest fires are higher in
areas where Raab cultivation is
practiced as compared to the areas
where the practice is gradually being
abandoned (Near Purna Wildlife
Sanctuary).
The objectives of the
case study
The practice of Raab is detrimental to
forests of Dangs - The objective of
the case study was to analyse the
reasons for intentional/ accidental
forest fire in Dangs region, Gujarat
and explore agricultural practices
that would permit cultivation of
millets without the practice of Raab
cultivation.
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
17
Heavy silt in flowing water - an indicator of soil erosion
Approach
A preliminary survey was undertaken
to meet the local community and
forest officials to select villages for
the study. A total number of 18
villages were selected for collecting
the information of the accidental and
incidental forest fire in the Dangs
district of Gujarat. The selection was
based on one village from each range
so that distribution of villages in the
district would cover the whole district.
18
The other criteria for selecting the
villages was community eagerness to
work with WWF-India and a
composition of socio-economically
backward classes. The areas where
other organizations were active were
not included within the study area. A
detailed socio-economic study was
carried out in three villages of Purna
Wildlife Sanctuary and Vansda
National Park.
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
Socio economic status of
the selected villages
around Purna Wildlife
Sanctuary and around
Vansda National Park
The general health condition of the
people here is not very good. There is
only one hospital in the district, which
is located at Ahwa, nearly at the
centre of the district. Some of the
villages are located more than 12
kms from Ahwa.
People are totally dependent on
forests for fuel wood and fodder. The
consumption of fuel wood in each
family varies from 200 - 250 kg/
month. Grazing is allowed in the
forest, which is very detrimental for
the new shoots. Grass is abundant in
the forests up to the month of
November and after that the land
slowly turnes completely barren
during the months of February &
March.
There are three metal roads which
traverses through the district along
north-south and east-west and
connects Surat and Nausari districts
with the neighbouring state
Maharashtra. Every village has an
approach road of 1 km from one of
these metal roads. The roads within
the village are mostly kachha. Every
village has drinking water facility,
where for a population of 700 to 800
there are four tube wells and three
dug wells. Electricity has yet not
reached some of the villages. But the
district headquarter is electrified.
Irrigation facilities are also not
available here and the crops are
essentially rainfed. Water of river
Purna and Khapri are used to irrigate
the fields.
The socio economic status of Dangs
is summarised in the table below :
Dangs at a glance
1.
Total land area
1764 sq. km
2.
Total Malki Land
588 sq. km
3.
Total Forest Land
•
Protected Forest
•
Reserve Forest
220 sq. km
580 sq. km
Protected Areas
•
Purna Wildlife Sanctuary
•
Vansda National Park
160 sq. km
24 sq. km
5.
Total Population (2001)
•
Male
•
Female
1, 86,729
93,974
92,755
6.
No. of Gram Panchayats
70
7.
No. of Villages
311
8.
No. of Students
46,711
9.
No. of Primary Schools
415
4.
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
19
Contd...
10.
No. of Teachers
1344
11.
No. of Secondary Schools
18
12.
No. of High Schools
4
13.
No. of College
1
14.
No. of Farmers
53,356
15.
Total Agricultural Labourers
26,582
16.
No. of Small Scale Industries
1,022
17.
Agricultural Crops
•
Cereals
•
Pulses
•
Vegetables
•
Fruit
•
Cash crop
Paddy, maize, Finger millet (nagli), vari, hog millet
(tuwar),
Black gaur, Pigeon Pea, Brinjal, gaur, cucumber,
Banana, watermelon, Mango
Ground nut, cashew nut
(Source: Jilla Parisad, Dangs & Land Revenue Office, Dangs, July 2004, Census 2001)
Selection of villages for
study
There are a total of 311 villages
covering 8.9 % of the total land area
of the district Dangs. Two protected
areas viz., Purna Wildlife Sanctuary
and eastern part of Vansda National
Park are located within the district.
Out of 26 villages 18 villages were
selected for the study in and around
Purna Wildlife Sanctuary from the five
ranges of the sanctuary where Raab
is practiced.
There are six villages in and around
Vansda National Park; Tekpada,
Kilad, Navtad, Kevdi, Kala-Amba and
Kayai. Among these six villages,
Kilad, Kala-Amba and Kayai are
located within the National Park and
rest are located on the periphery of
the National Park. Three-fourth of the
Vansda NP falls in Nausari district
while one-fourth falls in Dangs
district. The selection of the villages
for socio-economic survey was made
in consultation with the forest
department.
A description of the socio-economic
status of the villages is as follows:
Majority of the people are engaged in
agriculture for 8 months that is from
March to harvesting of crops during
(end of October to early November)
and during the remaining months the
20
younger members of the family
generally migrate to neighbouring
districts i.e., in Surat to work in the
sugarcane industry. For cultivating
paddy, nagli and vari the Dangis
follow the typical agro-forestry
system called Raab.
The Practice of Raab
For a raab /adar plot of 40-50 sq. m
generally 10 baskets of dry leaf litter
of nearly 250 kg (25x10kg) and 10
bundles of lopped branches of 250
kg (10 x 25 kg) (pers com.) are
required which shows that for one
raab plot the biomass burnt every
year is 500 kg. A lopping cycle of 2-5
years is maintained. The height of the
dry biomass on the adar/raab plot is
nearly 1-1.5 ft.
The raab plot is rotated within the
whole field for maintaining soil
fertility. In such a small plot 500 gms
of seeds of nagli or rice is generally
grown. The small plot can be referred
as the nursery bed. For preparing the
nagli nursery sloping land is
preferred. The sprouted seedlings are
then transplanted into the prepared
field of 1.62 ha. Two or three such
adar/raab plots are prepared for
seedlings of nagli, rice or vari. The
number of raab plots depends on the
total agricultural land available for
transplanting.
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
Eleusine coracana seedings in nursery
Collection of dry biomass starts from
mid March and continues up to mid
April. Just before the first shower of
every year the biomass is burnt. Extra
care is generally taken during burning
of biomass.
The biomass is burnt from the four
corners to prevent escape of fire. The
fire is also swept by lopped branches
of trees from the four sides of the
plot. At the end of burning the ash is
covered by soil. With the very first
shower, the seeds of the previous
year are spread over the plot. With
the nagli and rice in the nursery bed
pulses also are grown to maintain the
nutrient balance of the soil.
The seedlings are transplanted to the
prepared field when they attain a
height of 1.5 to 2ft in the nursery bed.
No fertilizer or pesticides are used
after transplantation of the seedlings.
Very few families use dry cow dung in
the raab beds before burning.
After transplantation weeding is done
periodically. Harvesting starts at the
end of October and lasts till mid
November. The average yield of the
nagli (finger millet) varies from 400450 kg / ha, paddy varies from 600700 kg / ha and vari (hog millet) 300400 kg / ha. For a family of 4-5
members the amount is generally
consumed through out the year in
absence of other livelihood
opportunities.
The Local Economy
Generally the landholdings are too
small to permit sale of surplus food
grains. The market price of nagli is
Rs. 3-4 / kg, and rice is 6-8 / kg. The
cattle population in Dangs is
1,78,744, among them cows are
66,650, buffaloes are 18,799 and rest
comprise poultry. In some villages
like Jamlapada, and Lankasad
people have started contributing milk
for dairy development.
The wild animals, which were plenty
have now substantially reduced. The
only wildlife available in forests at
present are wild boars, leopard,
squirrel, rabbit etc. One of the
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
21
reasons for the non availability of
fauna may be due to the food habits
of the tribals. The tribals may even
burn a whole tree for catching prey
such as squirrel.
The overall economic condition is not
very good, most of the houses are
kachha. The basic source of
livelihood is agriculture and very few
people are employed as temporary
workers in sugarcane industry in
Surat and Nausari districts. Some
people are engaged in bamboo
handicrafts as bamboo is found in
huge quantities in the area.
A detailed socio economic survey
was carried out in three villages in
Dangs district. Two of these villages’
viz., Diwan Tembrun and Jamlapada
are situated within Purna Wildlife
Sanctuary and one village Tekpada is
located in the southern boundary of
Vansda National Park. The
experimental plots to cultivate the
finger millet and paddy without
burning the biomass was selected
from these villages. The survey was
undertaken to understand the
character of the social fabric in the
villages. The findings for the three
villages are summarised as follows :
Demographic scenario of the three villages’ viz., Diwan Tembrun,
Jamlapada and Tekpada is given in the table
Diwan Tembrun
1.
Jamlapada
Tekpada
Total Population
838
1016
500
Male
427
513
230
Female
411
503
270
2.
House hold size
5.0
6.0
5.0
3
Total No. of Households
166
169
100
4.
Sex Ratio
963
981
1174
5.
Sex Ratio for Children (0-6 years)
1044
939
1333
6.
Total no. of literate
465
434
275
7.
Literacy rate
71.1 %
52.5 %
66.1 %
8.
Total Worker
470
522
302
9.
Cultivator
323
330
142
10.
Total Agricultural Land
300.29ha
131.30 ha
Not Available
11.
Per capita agricultural land
0.35 ha
0.13 ha
Not Available
12.
Crop grown
Finger millet, Hog
millet, paddy and
pulses
Finger millet, Hog
millet, paddy and
pulses
Finger millet, Hog
millet, paddy and
pulses
13.
Productivity* of
• Finger millet
400-450Kg/ha
400-450Kg/ha
400-450Kg/ha
• Paddy
600-700 kg/ha
600-700 kg/ha
600-700 kg/ha
• Vari/hog millet
300-400 kg/ha
300-400 kg/ha
300-400 kg/ha
*The productivity is based on interviews with 5-6 farmers of each village and also the primary school headmaster
of Jamlapada village
22
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
Diwan Tembrun
The village is located in the central
part of the district. (20 0 50.326 N and
73 044.544 E) and the altitude is 578 m
above MSL. The demographic data of
the village is given in the above table
on page 22.
Out of the total cultivated land of
300.29 ha, the reserved forest area is
47.55 ha, protected forest is 3.34 ha
and gochor land is 1.23 ha (District
Land Records, Survey Office, Dangs).
Per capita landholding size is 0.35
ha. The principal crops are like the
other areas of Dangs and include
finger millet, paddy and hog millet.
The vegetables grown in the village
are brinjal, tomato, etc, and pulses
like tuwar, adad and oil seeds like
ground nut and kharsani. The yield of
the crops varied from 400-450 kg/ha
for finger millet, 600-700 kg/ha paddy
and vari (hog millet) 300-400 kg/ha.
The Bhil families do not have the
cattle whereas the Kunbis rear cattle.
The average cattle per family for the
Kunbis are three (two buffalos and
one cow) which they use for
ploughing purposes.
The village is electrified, there is a
pucca approach road, a primary
school with classes from 1 st to 7 th
standard. The total strength of
students is 235 of which 118 are boys
and 117 girls. There is no health
centre in the village; the only health
centre is located at Ahwa, the district
headquarters, which is about 17 kms
from the village. For drinking water
people used the water of wells and
hand pumps. There are 14 hand
pumps and two dug wells in the
village.
For fuel wood, fodder and cultivation
of crops the inhabitants of Dangs are
heavily dependent on forests. The
distance of the village from the forest
is nearly two km. The fuel wood
consumption per family is 2400 kg
per year. The collection of fuel wood
is generally made during October to
May every year. For Raab burning in
one plot the amount of dry biomass
collected is 20 baskets of leaf litter
(20 x 25 kg) and 10 bundles of
lopped branches of 250 kg which
show that one plot requires 750 kg
biomass to be burnt. A marginal
farmer prepares at least two plots
one for finger millet and one for
paddy. The number of Raab plots
depends on the landholding size of
the farmer. If a farmer can prepare
two raab plots of 45-50 sq m then the
biomass consumption pattern of one
family can be shown as per the graph
below.
Biomass Used (in Kg)
Biomass consumed every year by one household for
domestic use and raab*
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Fuel wood for
cooking
Leaf litter for
Raab
Lopped
branches for
raab
Type of biomass
* On an average one family prepares two raab plots of 40-50 sq m area.
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
23
Jamlapada
Tekpada
Village Jamlapada is located near
Diwan Tembrun. The entire
population belong to tribal
communities of Bhil, Kunbi and
Worlies. Demographic data is
available in the table on page 22.
Average land holding per family is
two-three acres (ha) and average
cattle holding per family is three. Two
families who have migrated here from
Sourastra are engaged in making
bricks. Labour can earn Rs. 4,0005,000 per year through agriculture or
small scale industries.
Tekpada is located at the southern
boundary of the Vansda National Park
at 20 0 45.122 N and 73 0 27.242 E. It is
a small village with around 100
households. A few of the villagers
work in a cottage industry on
bamboo handicrafts.
The total cultivated land in the village
is 131.30 ha, reserved forest is 2.30
ha, protected forests are 4.13 ha and
gochor land is 2.51 ha. (District land
records, Dangs).
The village is electrified, has a
veterinary hospital but villagers have
to travel 70 kms for the nearest health
centre. One post office is situated in
the village Gouri, which is 2 kms from
the village.
Recently a milk dairy has been made
operational in the village. Cows
costing Rs 17,000 have been
financed and provided by the village
bank to each of the twenty families.
Every family have to contribute a
minimum 6.5 litres of milk every day
to the dairy. There is an arrangement
for the collection of milk twice a day.
The families are given Rs. 700 per
month for fodder. The bank loan is to
be repaid collectively by the
beneficiary families.
Village Garbi, near village Jamlapada
witnessed a forest fire this year
during Raab burning. Five huts were
completely burnt when the
unattended fire escaped to cause
damage to the adjacent settlements
and the forests.
24
The average land holding per family
is around four acres. All the families
practice raab cultivation, for which
they have to go to forests at a
distance of five kms from the village
for collection of biomass. Generally
the women collect the dry leaf litter in
the forests in baskets and the males
bring the bundle of lopped branches
of trees. The weight of the basket
with the dry biomass is about 25 kg.
10 such baskets of dry leaf litter is
required for one raab plot (average
40 sq. m). Other than nagli, rice and
vari, villagers grow vegetables like
ridge gourd, black gourd, brinjal,
tomato, custard apple, some have
two three cashew nut trees, for oil
seeds they grow ground nut which
replenished soil nitrogen. Fruit trees
like mango, jackfruit, jamun also
grow in the village. The villagers
depend on their own agricultural
produce; they seldom buy these from
the market. Generally any fertilizer or
pesticide is not used in the fields.
The villagers collect the NTFPs from
the forests, viz., Mahua (Madhuca
indica), Safed Musli (Chlorophyton
boriviilianum) and Kali Musli. Safed
and Kali Musli fetches them Rs. 1000
and Rs. 800 per kg respectively.
There is no health centre in the
village. The village is not electrified
as well. Some of the families use
biogas for both cooking and lighting
purposes. The approach road of the
village is kachha. There is only one
primary school in the village with
classes upto the 3 rd standard. Hand
pumps are the source for drinking
water.
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
A pilot experiment on
‘Cultivation of finger
millet (nagli) without
raab burning’
To demonstrate the possibility of
introducing a better agricultural
practice, an experiment was
designed to cultivate millet without
raab burning at Dangs. Two plots one
of 2,400 sq m at village Tekpada and
another one of 250 sq m at village
Diwan Tembrun were selected for
experiment. As it was against
traditional practice, it was difficult to
overcome the prevailing mindset.
Finally two farmers from the villages
agreed to undertake the cultivation
without raab burning providing
suitable compensation for the
anticipated loss in crop yield. The
plots were monitored time to time by
the project team. The havesting of
the plot was undertaken in November
2004 and a comparison was made
between the experimental plot and
the adjacent raab plot in the two
villages. The findings are given on
page 26.
Comparative analysis shows that the
number of flowering spikes, length of
spikes and average plant length of
plot with raab are more then the plot
without raab in both the cases. The
difference however was not
significent although its premature to
draw conclusions. Experiments at a
greater scale need to be undertaken.
The results of the aforesaid was
encouraging and has opened up
avenues to motivate farmers to
practice cultivation without the
biomass burning.
Observation
4 random quardats each of 1x 1
meter were laid in the field. Readings
of 15 plants were noted for data
analysis. A total of 60 plant readings
were recorded to find the average
length of plant, average length of
spike, number of spikes on each
plant. Plants in the experimental plots
showed similar growth pattern.
Weeding was not been done in both
the fields. Fertilizer was applied in the
plot at Tekpada.
Soil sampling in the experimental plot at Tekpada
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
25
Data Collection for Comparision of Crop Yield
Village: Tekpada, Vansda N.P
Date of Harvest: 5.11.04
Parameters
Experiment Plot
Without raab
2400 sq feet. Approx
Field Size (Sq. Meter)
With raab
1800 sq feet
Seeds (Gram)
300 approx.
500 approx.
Manure Used (Kgs.)
0.5
0.5
a. Organic
Urea
Urea
Insecticides Used (Ltr.)
-
-
Weeding
Not done
Not done
Disease
Observed
Observed
Average length of plant (inch)
38.2
29.7
Avg. Length of Spikes (inch)
4.1
3.1
No. Of Flowering Spikes
11
10
Plant Density (No. of plants/quadrat) 1x1 meter
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
21
27
29
23
28
29
20
31
Total yield (Kgs.)
80 Kg.
65 Kg.
b. Inorganic
Village: Diwan Tembrun, Purna WLS
Parameters
Date of Harvest: 5.11.04
Experiment Plot
Field Size (Sq. Meter)
With raab
3300 sq. ft Approx
Without raab
2700 sq ft. Approx
Seeds (Gram)
250
250
Manure Used (Kgs.)
Not used
Not used
c. Organic
-
-
Insecticides Used (Ltr.)
Not used
Not used
Weeding
Not done
Not done
Disease
Observed
Observed
Average length of plant (inch)
37.7
28.3
Avg. Length of Spikes (inch)
4.7
3.8
No. Of Flowering Spikes
12
7
Plant Density (No. of plants/Quadrat) 1x1 meter
Q/1
Q/2
Q/3
Q/4
23
24
23
25
15
17
22
22
Total yield (Kgs.)
35 Kg.
30 Kg.
d. Inorganic
26
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
Conclusion
Raab cultivation is a traditional
practice of Dangis to earn livelihood,
which was sustainable when the
population pressure was low and
natural recuperation of soil fertility
was facilitated by the long fallow
phases. In the changed scenario,
modification is needed in the
traditional practices to make them
sustainable and economically
remunerative at the same time. As
stated above, tree ownership will
provide the farmer additional
economic benefits in future but to
make it more sustainable the tree and
crop component should be managed
in such a way that it gives equal
consideration to both (crops and
trees) components of this traditional
agroforestry practice. In this situation
suitable lopping regime should be
worked out so that tree vigor can be
maintained and the yield of annual
crops is also optimized. Legumes
such as groundnut and pulses could
be cultivated with millets and
traditional cereals to maintain soil
fertility, and for biomass needed for
burning, alley cropping could be
promoted. Long term studies are
needed to suggest modification for
this simultaneous agroforestry of the
Dangs. Integrated study on villageagriculture-forest and socio economy
interlinkages could provide answers
to make the existing practices
sustainable.
Future Plans
It is now envisaged to involve
stakeholders like the Agricultural
University at Nausari to promote
better agricultural practices that
would discourage ‘Raab’. The project
would explore involving the institution
of Joint Forest Management and the
Forest Protection Committees for the
aforesaid purpose and restoration of
degraded forests of the Dangs.
Experimental plot in Village Dewan Tembrun
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
27
Case Study 2. An
assessment of
Sustainable Forest
Management by
Developing Criteria and
Indicators : An exercise
at village Kunbar in
Rajpipla Forest Division,
South Gujarat
Introduction
Gujarat has a long tradition of
successful cooperative movements.
Peoples’ participation in forest
resource management was
introduced soon after the
independence. Joint Forest
Management was adopted in Gujarat
through a Government resolution of
1991. This was superceded by a more
comprehensive resolution of 1994,
which was modified in March 2002.
Ecological setting of the
village
31.757 E) falls under Rajpipla East
Forest Division (Surapara range,
round Khaidipada, beat Kaliyabhut)
in Narmada district (taluka
Deriapada) of Gujarat, which is about
90 km SE of Baroda city.
Joint Forest Management (JFM) was
introduced in the village in 1992-93
with 11 office bearers and 150
members, one from each family. Out
of the total forest area of 188 ha only
50 ha land had been taken for first
phase of plantation and 55,000
saplings of teak, khair and bamboo
were planted with active participation
of the villagers. In the second phase
an additional 30 ha land was
undertaken for plantation and in this
way the whole forestland was covered
under plantation where fruit trees
were also planted along with wood
lots. In the current year villagers have
planted some fruit trees in their own
land and also in the village grazing
land (15.75 ha) [Profiles of JFM
village Kunbar, published by FD in
1998] under the funding support of
local panchayat.
Village Kunbar (21 0 35.420 N, 73 0
Map : Kunbar Village in Narmada District, Gujarat
28
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
The forests of the area are dry
deciduous with some patches of
moist deciduous. The dominating
tree species are bamboo, teak
(Tectona grandis), shisam (Dalbergia
sisoo), khair (Acacia catectu),
dhavdo (Anogeissus latifolia) and
kadam (Anthocaphalus indica). The
other indigenous tree species
available in the forest are Pterocarpus
marsupium, Bauhinia racemosa,
Butea monosperma, Cassia fistula,
Prosopis juliflora, Eucalyptus sp.,
Gmelina arborea, Termenelia arjuna,
Cassia auriculata, Emblica officinalis.
In the early 1970s the area was
covered by dense forest where
leopard, hyena, peacock, tiger, wild
boar were easily sighted.
Objective
The study was undertaken for
assessment of the Sustainable Forest
Management in the village by
developing criteria and indicators by
the local communities. The objective
of the study was to get a greater
insight into the JFM programme in
the village and how beneficial it has
been for the communities.
agricultural crops grown in the village
include cereals like makai, jowar and
wheat, pulses like tuar (Cajanus
cajan), vegetables like onion, brinjal,
papri (Dolichos lablab) and cash
crops like ground nut and cotton.
The overall economic condition of the
villagers is weak with only two
families having pucca houses.Around
145 families fall under BPL (Below
Poverty Line) category. Only 12
persons from the village are employed in government departments, out
of which six are teachers, four are
employed in forest department and
two are in the police force, one is
studying veterinary science in Anand.
There is only one secondary school in
the village where two teachers have
been employed from the village itself.
Almost all children have the access
to education. For higher education
students have to go to Deriapada, 7
kms from the village.
Women actively participate in all JFM
related activities. They work as
labourer in the fields within and
outside the village. After the
monsoons they are engaged in
The criteria and the respective
indicators were developed through a
meetings where all the JFM
committee members, local villagers,
forest officials, women, teachers and
students participated.
Socio-economic status of
the village
The total population of the village is
1,216 consisting of 205 families who
all belong to the tribal community
(census 2001). The total revenue
land of the village is 210.23 ha. The
population of men is 609, while of
women is 607. The villagers are
mostly agricultural labourers by
profession although half of them have
own land of about 2-3 acres (0.8 to
1.2 ha). The number of big farmers
are 11, small, 19, marginal around 23,
while the rest are landless who make
the livelihood by working on other’s
land in and around the village. The
Teak Plantations raised at village Kunbar
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
29
Training on monitoring and evaluation
weeding where they get Rs. 20 and
one meal per day. Around 50 women
are employed in the Forest
Department nursery where they get
Rs. 80 per person per day.
Women played a substantial role in
the formation of Forest Protection
Committee (FPC) in the village and a
seat is reserved for them in the
committee. The Sarpanch (Village
head) of three villages’ viz., Nighat,
Kunbar & Koyliyavav are women.
The FPC maintains a bank account
where penalty amounts for forest
offences are deposited. The account
presently hold a balance of
Rs.15,000. The penalty for illegal
felling or theft is different in day and
night, during day time it is Rs. 50/and during night and festivals time it
is Rs. 150/- and the cost of the tree.
In most of the cases the logs are
seized from the accused.
The Forest Department constructed a
borewell in 2000 after initiation of
JFM. A watershed development
30
project of Rs. 2,55,000 was
undertaken in the village in 1996-97
by FD where villagers donated three
days labour (shramadan). The pond
created in the project was for
providing drinking water to the cattle
of 13 neighbouring villages and the
wild animals. Fish cultivation was
experimented by the villagers in the
pond, which was later abandoned.
The cattle population of the village is
831, out of which 259 are cows, 36
buffaloes, 80 bullocks, and 456
goats. This indicates that each family
has an average of four cattle. Inspite
of the ban on grazing from the forests
and existence of a gochor (grazing)
land people are dependent on the
forests to feed their cattle. Fuelwood
is also extracted from the forest.
Project Activity: To develop Criteria
and Indicators for Sustainable Forest
Management by the local
communities.
Village Kunbar, is being projected by
the forest department, as a model
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
village and people better understand
the sprit of JFM. With improved
protection and restoration of forests,
Kunbar was ideal for the assessment
of success of JFM. An attempt was
made by WWF- India to develop
Criteria and Indicators for
Sustainable Forest Management by
the local communities in the village.
The objective of the study was to
document the perspective changes,
after JFM was introduced and how
the community could validate the
differences. The indicators are the
parameter of changes visible within
the social and economic status of the
villagers.
Four types of criteria were decided in
the meeting; Ecological, Economic,
Institutional and Social. For each
criteria the villagers spelt out
indicators of their own.
which helps to meet irrigation
needs of 20 families especially
during the lean season. The
water table is reported to be at
80 feet in the agricultural fields
and 40 feet in the villages.
v)
Watershed Development:
A watershed development
project was undertaken in the
year 1996-97 when one member
of each family donated labour
for three days. The check dam
was constructed under the
funding support of Forest
Department. The pond was
used for drinking water of cattle
and wild animals and also was
used for pisiculture. The check
dam was damaged during last
monsoon due to heavy rainfall.
vi)
Forest Fires: No forest fires
were reported during the last
three years which indicates that
sincere efforts are underway for
protecting forests.
vii)
Availability of the medicinal
plant species: The medicinal
plants species which are
available and widely used by
the villagers are Pterocarpus
marsupium (uses for diabetes),
Butea monosperma (leave used
for healing wounds), Cassia
auriculata (uses for cuts and
bleeding), Erythrina indica (for
fever), Lania coromandelica (for
skin diseases), Corcorus sp.
(for mouth ulcers), Notonia
grandiflora (for jaundice). Most
of these were not available in
the early nineties.
Ecological Criteria
The indicators for the criteria were –
i)
Improvement of Forests:
There has been perceptible
increase in Forest cover due to
afforestation and plantation
activities.
ii)
Availability of Fodder: The
area covered by grass has also
increased which could fulfill the
fodder requirement of not only
the village but also of two-three
neighbouring villages as well.
iii)
Increase in wildlife: The wild
animals like peacock, hyena,
wildcat, spotted deer, rabbit
which had completely
disappeared are again visible
now a days. Crop damage by
wild animals is still not reported
in the village.
iv)
Availability of Groundwater:
The intervention of Forest
Department in commissioning a
bore well for irrigation has
encouraged the villagers to dig
more wells. In the last four
years 20 additional wells have
been dug in the private land,
Economic Criteria
The indicators for the economic
criteria were:
i)
Increase in saving capacity:
The members of the SHG are
all women. The SHG was
formed in 1994-1995 where
initial membership was Rs. 11/per family. The SHG has saved
Rs. 76,000 till date in the bank.
Loans are provided to the
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
31
individual families in
agricultural sectors from the
account with 2% annual interest
rate. Men borrow money to buy
hybrid BT cotton seeds @ Rs.
2,400/- per quintal.
ii)
iii)
32
Food Security: Due to the
availability of water in the lean
seasons the villagers could
grow three crops (makai, jowar
and wheat), vegetables and
pulses which fulfills their food
requirement round the year.
They are now in a position to
sell the vegetables in the
market and generate an income
of Rs 300-400 per year.
Employment opportunities in
and outside the village: 12
persons from the village are
employed in the government
departments, of which six are
teachers, two are in the police
force and four in the forest
department. Fifty village women
are employed in the forest
department nursery from where
they earn Rs. 80 per day during
the plantation period. Round
the year villagers are engaged
in agricultural fields either for
cultivation of crops or weeding.
Landless farmers work in the
fields of others both within and
outside the village. People also
find employment working as
teachers, veterinary doctors,
drivers etc.
iv)
Management of FPC funds: A
bank account is operated by
the FPC where the penalty
received from the illegal felling
or grazing in the forest are
deposited. In the year 1996-97
communities received Rs.
18,000 from fish cultivation in
the pond. The savings in the
bank account is presently Rs.
15,000. Loans are provided to
the individual families from the
account at 1% annual interest
rate.
v)
Income from other source:
Very few people in the village
are employed in the
government sector, the rest are
farmers either cultivating their
own land or that owned by
others. Micro enterprise is yet
to start in the village. The
villagers cannot provide milk for
the dairy as according to a
veterinary student of the village
the milch animals are of poor
quality both in regard to yield
as well as quality of milk.
vi)
Improved infrastructure
within the village: The
approach road of the village
was constructed in 2002 using
panchayat funds. The road
within the village is still kachha.
A room in the school building
was constructed last year and
the school has been upgraded
to a secondary one from a
primary school.
vii)
Availability of NTFPs: The
villagers have been given the
rights to collect Minor Forest
Produces tendu leaves (bidi
leaves, Diospyros melanoxylon)
are collected by the village
women from the forest. They
earn Rs. 50 from every bundle
of 100 tendu leaves.
Institutional Criteria
The institutional criteria spelt out by
the villagers were:
i)
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
Gender equality and women
participation in FPC: Women
are actively involved in the
activities under JFM. At the
time of formation of the FPC
one seat was reserved for
women. The sarpanch of the
village is also a woman who
voices the demand of the
village at the district level. The
Self Held Group (SHG) is
completely run by women in the
village. The bank account of
the SHG provides loan to the
agricultural sector for buying
hybrid seeds, fertilizers and
pesticides. Women also play an
important role in decisions
economic conditions thefts of
wood from forests were
reported but there has been a
decline in the number of
offences in the past few years.
taken on forest offences but
they seldom take part in
decisions on land disputes or
other criminal offences.
ii)
FPC acts like a platform for
developmental activity in the
village: The developmental
activities so far undertaken
include the construction of
school building, roads,
watershed project etc. The
penalty for forest offences is
decided by FPC.
iii)
Fuel wood distribution in the
village: The inhabitants of the
village are mostly dependent
on the forest for fuelwood and
fodder. Selective lopping of
trees are done under the
guidance of Forest Department.
The total collected material is
equally divided into 205
bundles. Then through the
lottery system the bundles are
distributed among the families.
An area has been allotted for
grazing in the forestland (15.75
ha). Villagers collect the grass
from the forest and practice
stall-feeding. In the current year
villagers have undertaken
plantation in the grazing land
with panchayat funds. Villagers
have also started using agro
waste for fuel in the houses.
iv)
Relationship with the Forest
Department: The lopping of
trees is undertaken with the
approval of the Forest
Department. Forest beat
guards join on almost every
festival of the village. Formal
meeting with the Forest
Department is organised every
three months. Villagers interact
frequently with FD officials
during plantations.
Social Criteria
Indicators for the social criteria were :
i)
ii)
Access to education and
interest for education: There
is one secondary school in the
village up to 7 th standard where
all children of the village are
admitted. Some children now
have passed from the village
school and admitted to the
high school in Deriapada.
There is a strong awareness on
importance of education in the
village. Land required for
construction of rooms of school
building was easily provided by
a family on the request of the
FPC in lieu of (gochar) land.
This reflects the change in the
attitude of the villagers towards
education, development, unity
and cooperation.
iii)
Unity in Forest protection:
After the formation of FPC
certain rules and regulations
were formulated for the
protection of plantations like
ban on grazing in forests and
the felling of trees. These rules
are strictly followed by the
villagers. Joint protection of
forests led to decline in
incidences of forest fires.
iv)
Eradication of social evils:
The intake of liquor has totally
stopped in the village and the
criminal cases against the
villagers have practically not
been reported in the past 13
years.
v)
Improvement on Health
Condition: There have been no
reports of skin and water borne
diseases during the past five
years. The overall health
condition has improved which
is a reflection on the quality of
food and nutrients intake.
Change in Social behavior of
the villagers: Due to poor
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
33
Conclusion and
Recommendations
A great awareness has been
generated in the village on protection
of forests and forest related issues.
The initiation of JFM with the active
cooperation of the Forest Department
has changed the social and
institutional life of the villagers to a
great extent. The unity among the
villagers was the key of success of
JFM in Kunbar. The availability of the
irrigation has facilitated working on
the agricultural field. An increasing
awareness of the importance of
education has inspired the villagers
to upgrade the school. However, a lot
more needs to be done for
improvement of the livelihood of the
villagers. The different alternatives
discussed in the meeting for
improving the economy of the village
are:
34
•
Land leveling could be done in
the village as the area is an
undulating one for suitable
horticultural species.
•
A village road should be
constructed for the overall
betterment of the village. An
alternative of tree poles is
needed for construction of
houses. Pillars made of bricks
and cemented by mud could be
a possible solution.
•
The village dairy could be
upgraded by providing loan for
buying of good quality livestock
and proper care of cattle. Fish
culture could be reintroduced
once the water tanks are
repaired.
•
People could be trained to
prepare and market bamboo
based handicrafts.
•
Cultivation of medicinal plants
along with the proper market
linkages could provide
alternative livelihood for the
villagers. Plantation of NWFP
shrubs like custard apple
(Annona sqamosa), bidi leaves
are required for better
economic returns.
•
Bee keeping, poultry and
duckery could be some new
initiatives.
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
Maharashtra
Case Study 3. Cultivation
of medicinal plants and
establishment of a
market linkage with
participation of the local
community at village
Ahwati in Nasik district
of Maharashtra
Introduction
As a part of the community forestry
project under the Ford-US grant
WWF-India undertook a project for
conservation of degraded forests in
Maharashtra. Playing a catalytic role,
the organisation joined the movement
of villagers in Nasik district on
conservation related issues. It
included encouraging them to protect
the surrounding forest areas around
their villages, spread awareness and
reduce pressure on natural forests
and find alternate means of
livelihood, particularly for those
mainly dependant on forests. One
such project was undertaken in a
village called Ahwati in Satana Taluka
of East Forest Division of Nasik in
Maharashtra. During earlier visits, it
was observed that a number of plant
species with medicinal properties are
there in the region, giving a clue that
the area has a potential for cultivation
of some of these species. On
inquiring further from the locals, it
was learnt that this region was
decades earlier frequent by medicinal
herbs collectors. With the reduction
in natural forests and due to other
biotic pressures distribution of such
species is restricted to a few limited
pockets. As a small effort to
encourage locals for undertaking
cultivation of medicinal and
economically important species, the
project was undertaken on 4 ha of
land in village Ahwati. The criteria
followed for selection were that the
species:
Map : Ahwati Village in Nashik District, Maharashtra
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
35
and resulted in multiplication of JFM
Committees, awareness generation
about conservation and initiation of
action towards the reduction of
pressure on natural resources.
The project also aimed at attracting
the attention of villagers towards
proper land utilization. It is observed
that most of the farmers make use of
good quality land only neglecting the
fallow land.
Implementation at site
The JFM Committee in Village Ahwati
•
Are suitable for cultivation in a
rain shadow or low-rainfall area
like Ahwati
•
Have a history of growing in
and around project site and
are/were in use in traditional
medicine
•
Do not need specialized kind of
techniques for cultivation like
setting up of Glass House,
irrigation or regular manuring
etc.
•
•
Hardy in nature and do not
need much post plantation care
like manuring, mulching, pest
control etc.
Could be easily marketed in
natural form without involving
processing etc.
•
Could be used locally in day to
day life and have been in
traditional use.
•
Could attract the attention of
other farmers’ particularly that
of the younger generation and
act as model farm for others.
WWF-India organized interactions
with villagers, decision-makers,
academicians and social workers on
subject related matters. The
interactions helped to develop a
cordial relationship with the villagers
36
WWF-India began its implementation
plan in the rainy season of 2003. Mr.
Motha Bhau Bhamre, a progressive
farmer of the village, came forward by
offering a piece of land. Ahwati
village has been one of the pioneers
in working for the protection of
degraded forests. After having made
a general agreement and
understanding about the use of land
and work plan, WWF-India started
implementing the project.
Considerations for the selection of
the site were that the land was:
•
Well protected from all the
sides
•
Equipped with the irrigation
system fed by an open-well dug
within the plot.
•
Proximity to the protected
forests where JFM project has
been carried out.
•
Having same kind of agroclimatic conditions similar to
the adjoining forests, which
would help in long run for
transplantation of the species.
•
The plot is located within the
close proximity of the village
which will be helpful in carrying
out training and orientation
programmes, voluntary labour
work (shramdaan) etc.
Services of trained and experienced
medicinal plant cultivators were
utilized for achieving desired results.
A supervisor and garden labourers
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
were deployed for regular work and
land development, removal of weeds
and plantation work.
The fallow land was tilled thoroughly
and a proper layout for various
species was planned. Since the area
was far from human settlement, it
was decided to develop it in such a
fashion that it needed minimum of
security and post plantation care.
The plotting and layout is the key for
success of any plantation involving
multiple species. This principle was
followed for selection of type species
for cultivation at Ahwati. The names
of the species and their specific
characteristics are provided in the
following table :
planting material cost remains the
same. It has led to severe resentment
among farmers who had taken
commercial cultivation of Musli on
large scale particularly in adjoining
parts of Madhya Pradesh. Another
consideration while selecting what
was to be cultivated was that the
cultivation cost of the plants
particularly the planting material cost
should not be very high.
Out of the list of plants to be
cultivated, the first nine species are
part of the project proposal whereas
the last two species have been
selected on the basis of local
requests and suitability of the species
for the region particularly. The
SN
Scientific Name
Local Name
Special Character of the plant
1.
Aloe vera
Korphad
Small succulent plant
2.
Emblica officinalis
Amla
Medium sized tree
3.
Asperagus racemosa
Satavari
A bushy climber
4.
Cymbopogon sps.
Lemon Grass
A perennial grass
5.
Bryophyllum sps.
Panphuti
A succulent
6.
Convolvulus sps.
Shankhpuspi
A seasonal creeping herb
7.
Caesalpinia cristata
Sagargota
A moderate sized thorny bush
8.
Adhatoda vasica
Adulsa
An evergreen moderate bush
9.
Withania somnifera
Aswagandha
Bush
10.
Aegle marmelos
Bel
Moderate sized tree
11.
Boerhaavia diffusa
Punarnava
Seasonal crawling plant
Initially, it was planned to cultivate
Chlorophytum sps. (Musli) also but
due to conflicting views it was
decided to drop the plant from our
list. The planting material of Musli is
quite costly and the produce is not
giving proper returns to the farmers.
Initially the roots of Musli fetched a
price of Rs.1,500 – Rs 2,000 a kg,
during its peak, against the planting
material cost of Rs.300/- per kg. In
the last one year or so, the buyers
have rejected cultivated Musli to the
extent that the prices have fallen to
Rs.200-Rs.300/- a kg whereas the
Preparation of land for cultivation of medicinal plants
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
37
villagers are very keen to carry out
plantation of Bel (Aegle marmelos)
tree as the leaves provide very good
return due to its offering to the Lord
Shiva on various occasions and the
fruits are used for medicinal
purposes. Another factor, which went
in favour of Bel plantation, is its hardy
nature and ability to withstand
unfavourable weather conditions.
Selection of Punarnava (Boerhaavia
diffusa) is due to its growing use in
traditional medicine and ayurvedic
preparations in recent times and
abundant distribution of the plant
material in the vicinity. By cultivating
the plant in large scale, the villagers
can gain good returns. Most of the
farmers can take up commercial
plantation of this species once they
know its potential.
A species wise list giving details of
the medicinal value, ecological
significance and other salient
features is given below.
1.
The plant could be used as a
very good hedge due to its fast
growth, presence of thorns on
the body including seed coat
and leaves.
The sample plot was levelled and
dressed-up using machinery and with
the help of labourers. After a
thorough tilling and removal of rank
vegetation, plotting was done by
identifying suitable sites for different
species. The water retention quality,
land contours and protection from
natural predators were taken into
account before starting the work at
site.
2.
The seeds of the plants are
non-edible, strong and could
survive long duration in adverse
conditions after dispersal.
3.
Due to medicinal properties the
seeds in demand and cost
around Rs. 80-120 per kg in
Mumbai. Used as wormicide
and purgative for infants in
Ayurvedic preparations.
Cultivation techniques used for
different plants are given with details
of material used, plantation
techniques applied and observations
made.
4.
Chances of survival and revival
are very high in nature due to
ability to survive in severe
drought and fluctuating climatic
conditions.
5.
The decrease in sheep rearing
and goat farming will help fast
revival of this unique plant that
could act as best fencing
material for farmlands.
Species Description
Caesalpinia cristata: Known as
Sagargota, this plant is found
abundantly in the forest areas and
open scrubland around the project
site. The main purpose of selecting
this species is to make farmers aware
about the various benefits of
cultivating this plant.
Cymbopogon (Citronella) sps: The
Lemon Grass was suggested for
cultivation due to its medicinal
properties, ecological significance
and easy cultivation. The plant is
ideal to grow on bunds and dividers
between two agricultural plots, which
remain covered with grass.
Cultivating lemon grass on such
pieces of land will help farmers check
soil erosion, and get benefited by
selling leaves on regular intervals in
Post plantation care
38
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
the market. The plant is very much in
demand for its aromatic fragrance
and widely used as herbal tea.
and whole plant is used for medicine.
The plant leaves are used as
household medicine by locals during
cold and cough in winter months.
Introduction in the area will certainly
help in restoring this highly valuable
medicinal plant back to nature in the
region.
Emblica officinalis: Commonly
known as Amla, the gooseberry plant
is ideal for the forest and agricultural
areas. The plant could provide not
just better returns to the farmers from
their agricultural fields but as well
help in the restoration of the
ecological balance. It seems the
plant was found in abundance in the
region earlier. Farmers have also
shown a great interest in undertaking
the cultivation of plant and besides
our pilot project site, the plant has
been demanded by farmers of other
regions. A large number of plants
have also been introduced in the
forest area to attract wildlife in future
and help local nomads to collect
fruits from wild.
Aegle marmelos: Aegle marmelos
(Bel) can survive in drier conditions
and has immense ecological value in
nature. The plant fetches very good
returns on the sale of its products like
leaves, fruits etc. Leaves of the plant
are used for special offering to Lord
Shiva by the Hindus on various
occasions. The water and rind of the
fruit is used as medicine for curing
certain gastrointestinal problems. A
large number of saplings have been
taken by the farmers from the
adjoining villages, besides the
project site. Like Amla, this plant has
also been introduced in large
quantity in the forest.
Adhatoda vasica : Locally known as
Adulsa, the plant has been
considered due to its great utility as
medicine against cold and cough in
Maharashtra and Gujarat. It has
been estimated that thousands of
small scale ayurvedic and
pharmaceutical companies have
been using this plant to make a
popular cough syrup known as
adulsa. The plant is useful in
ecological terms as it survives well in
extreme adverse climatic conditions
and is not destroyed by cattle and
sheep. The plant can grow on
degraded land without much care
Withania somnifera : Ashwagadha
has been selected for its high
medicinal properties, and availability
in the wild locally and its highly
remunerative returns. The best quality
Ashwagadha (with low fibre content)
comes from the adjoining regions of
Madhya Pradesh. This plant also
known as Indian ‘Zing seng’ for its
aphrodisiac properties and grows
well in the adjoining scrubland. The
lack of knowledge and information
about the benefits of this plant may
have not encouraged the farmers for
undertaking such cultivation. We
expect good result derived from this
plant, as the soil conditions of
Madhya Pradesh, the major supplier
of Ashwagandha and present project
site resemble each other.
Aloe vera : Locally known as
Korphad, the plant is gaining
popularity among the farmers due to
its high demand in cosmetics and
medicines in recent years. Aloe vera
is ideal for this region due to its
nature to grow well in semi-arid
conditions. The plant can be used by
the farmers as a marker, divider
hedge between two plots or along the
bunds. It can be used for curing cold
and cough, gastrointestinal ailments
and increasing lactation. The
presence of other succulents in the
region is one of the regions for
adopting this plant.
Boerhaavia diffusa: The Punarnava
plant is seen growing wild on the
scrublands in the region. The main
purpose of introducing this plant on
farmers’ land is to ensure regular
availability to the users. It has been
observed that the plant starts wilting
after two three months from the day
the rainy season is over and
resurfaces itself on the advent of the
next rainy season. Due to its diuretic
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
39
Aloe Vera in cultivation in project location
quality the demand for plant is
growing and cultivation seems the
only viable option for maintaining
regular supply of fresh material to the
ayurvedic practitioners.
Asparagus racemosa: Satavari is
the local name of Asparagus which is
famous for its medicinal properties
and food value. The new offshoots
are used for making soup etc. of high
nutritious value by most of the quality
restaurants and hotels, thereby
providing better returns to the
suppliers. The plant is used by
ayurvedic practitioners for various
purposes and always remains in short
supply. The scrubland habitat and
rocky mountainous terrain seems very
ideal for adopting large-scale
cultivation of Asparagus. The
proximity to the country’s large towns
like Mumbai, Pune, Aurangabad and
Nasik could help farmers to get good
returns on their produce. This will
also help to reduce pressure on the
destruction of the Asparagus plant in
nature, particularly in Himalayan
40
region where Asparagus grows well
on rocky beds and terrains.
Convolvulus sps. : Shankhpuspi or
Convovulus is a high demand plant
growing in wild. The plant is a
seasonal herb that survives for a
duration of about a month or so
during late rainy season or early
autumn. The plant spreads on
scrubland, which has high murrum
content in it. The forest and adjoining
degraded land forms an ideal habitat
for the growth of Convovulus in this
region. The plant is used as nervine
tonic and memory enricher by many
of the ayurvedic manufacturers. The
short supply and seasonal nature of
plants is responsible for use of a lot
of fake plants as substitute to
Shankhpuspi. Through the effort of
cultivation of Shankhpuspi the top
soil of the land on which it is
cultivated can be protected.
Bryophyllum sps: Known locally as
Panphuti, the plant is a succulent
growing well both on dry and humid
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
conditions. The juicy leaves are
being used in traditional medicines
for dissolving stones, curing liver and
spleen ailments etc. It is a rapid
vegetative multiplier.
Training and orientation programmes
are being conducted simultaneously
with cultivation. The Project team
visited other villages in the
surrounding area for attending JFM
meetings and to address public
gatherings to propagate the concept.
Training is being imparted to villagers
at site on raising of saplings through
nursery development work. The
motivation of rural youth has been a
learning experience. A group of
students from local college, known as
“College Kumars” had come forward
volunteering themselves for
plantation and post-plantation care
works. The “College Kumars” had
agreed to work on two days a week
basis during which they will be
provided with basic meal.
•
A large number of plants could
be used locally by the villagers
in crude forms as vegetable
medicine or fruits.
•
It will help to reduce the
dependence on other precious
resources like water, electricity
etc. as most of the plants can
grow in hard/difficult conditions
prevailing in the region.
•
It will help to generate
awareness on conservation of
medicinal plants towards
medicinal plants amongst
locals particularly within the
farmers who could help
preventing destruction of such
species from the wild.
•
It will also act as a model
project for other farmers of the
region who would undertake
Closer interaction with villagers
helped in getting their views on the
subject and also to inculcate interest
in their mind. A workshop was
organised in the initial months,
attended by large number of villagers
and students. Similar types of
interactions were arranged in
different locations during the year for
propagating the concept. The large
demand of villagers for Citronella
planting material has been met from
the sample plot raised at the site
during the year. This acts as a
barometer for popularity of the
concept.
Benefits Expected from
the Project
•
It will help make use of
degraded, unutilized land, lying
idle.
•
The economic benefits are
good since the species
selected are not very new to
farmers and seed material is
also easily available.
School children were involved in medicinal plants cultivation
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
41
similar projects of economically
important nature in their
specific regions.
•
Students of the area can get
benefited in terms of
knowledge and opt for a
suitable plant-based career.
•
It will help in maintaining a
relationship between WWFIndia and villagers, particularly
from those villages where JFM
is being implemented. It is
heartening to note that JFM has
become a movement today by
spreading its wings in more
than 150 villages within a short
span of three years from a
modest number of approximate
30. The government’s efforts in
this regard are commendable.
•
crafts and cottage industry in
other villages depending on
edaphic factors and geoclimatic conditions.
•
The project gives an idea of
working jointly and sets new
kind of examples.
•
All the villages, if they form a
co-operative body
(Maharashtra is famous for its
co-operative movement) a
number of satellite projects can
be set-up with their joint efforts
of same nature.
•
Such involvement of villagers in
undertaking cultivation projects
in different locations can help
in maintaining the bio-diversity
of the region, which is
otherwise getting affected due
to large scale conversion of
land for agriculture.
WWF-India can consider setting
up of similar projects covering
fodder species, fuel wood and
timber species, species for
Medicinal plants in the project area at the end of project period
42
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
Conclusion &
Recommendations
f. Adhatoda vasica (Adulsa).
Along the community land
and village boundary as
hedge plant, around
residential locations and
horticultural plots.
Based on the work carried out at the
site, it has been observed that certain
species out of the selected ones have
shown very encouraging results
whereas a few others, despite being
local species could not give similar
kind of results on cultivation. Their
growth is better in wild and effort
should be made to increase the
population density of such plants in
wild, protection of their habitats,
spreading awareness about their use,
etc. So recommendations are as
follows:
1.
g. Withania somnifera
(Ashwagandha). On
degraded community land,
along the hedges of private
agri-horticultural plots.
h. Aegle marmelos (Bel). On
open degraded community
land around religious places,
community land and
residential locations. Well to
do farmers can also think of
undertaking mass cultivation
as horticulture. Due to a long
gestation period the yield is
expected only after 6-7
years.
Farmers should be
encouraged to undertake
cultivation of the following
species on large scale
a. Emblica officinalis (Amla). As
an intercrop in their orchards
along the margins of plots
and fallow land.
2.
b. Aloe vera (Korphad). Along
the boundaries of
agricultural fields around
roadsides and village
pathways on marginal and
degraded land.
a. Convovulus sps.
(Shankhpuspi)
b. Boerhaavia diffusa
(Punarnava or Common
Hogweed)
c. Caesalpinia cristata
(Sagargota). Along the
boundaries of the village as
a strong hedge on ravines,
and along the nallas.
c. Bryophyllum sp. (Panphuti)
d. Cymbopogon sps. (Lemon
grass). Along the irrigation
channels to act as a soil
binder, on slopes of terraced
plots, on the margins of
horticultural plots and
around residential areas on
fallow land.
e. Asparagus racemosa
(Satavari). On degraded,
sloppy or community land,
on agricultural plots on a
mass scale along the
margins of horticultural
plots.
The following species are not
very ideal for plantation due to
their presence in the wild and
difficulties faced in cultivation
under controlled conditions.
3.
Consultations among JFM
committees and villagers
should be held before
undertaking any plantation
activity by individual farmers or
villagers in groups to avoid
duplication or mass
multiplication of similar works,
resulting in a glut of a particular
plant.
4.
Well-organized marketing
strategies under the cooperative umbrella may help
farmers get better returns and
protect them from greedy
middlemen.
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
43
5.
Efforts could be made for
setting up a small scale
processing units for extraction
of certain secondary products
or by-poducts from plants. Rich
farmers can come forward to
support such efforts.
6.
Publicity given via media and
local residents travelling
outside the village can promote
the efforts of the villagers.
7.
Certain cottage industries like
juice and pickle making,
powdering and packaging of
herbs could be set up by
women groups belonging to the
tribal and non-tribals as well.
Market Survey of
Medicinal Plants
cultivated at Ahwati
The first question asked by the
villagers of Ahwati and adjoining
areas working on JFM project was
related to the marketing of their
produce. The queries include, why
the cultivation of these species, who
will buy them, how to process the
product, marketing techniques, the
prevailing market rates and the
storage of raw material in adverse
conditions. The villagers who are
used to grow mostly agri-horticultural
crops know the difficulty of marketing
their produce and about the methods
to overcome such situations. They do
not want to deviate from the
traditional crops they grow due to
fear of passing through
uncontrollable experiences of the
stages associated with difficulties in
the market like dealing with the
middle man, recovery of the sales
proceeds, etc. We thought it prudent
to have a general survey for arriving
at answers to some of the basic
problems associated with the
subject. It will not only enable us to
convince the villagers from this
44
region to opt for cultivation of
medicinal plants but as well help in
marketing the produce. Keeping in
mind the location of the project site,
we have decided to identify some of
the major centres for herbal trading
like Nasik, Pune, Mumbai, Valsad,
Surat and Indore. These are
traditionally known places for
consumption and utilization of herbal
products. The criteria adopted for
determining the survey technique was
also based on the locations. The
following considerations were taken
into account before gathering
information:
i)
The nature and availability of
the product
ii)
Cyclic fluctuations in the
demand / supply ratio,
consumption pattern and
prices
It was decided not to go to any
chemical analysis of the product
mainly due to the following reasons:
1.
The users of the raw material
and traders still believe in the
traditional methods of material
identification, quality checking
and pricing.
2.
Non-availability of scientific
data available with the
consumers.
3.
Due to a strong belief on the
existing system of determining
the prices. So far the buyers
had been dealing with the
suppliers/collectors mostly
coming from rural areas with
their produce collected from
the wild.
4.
Most of the plant products are
used in ayurvedic system of
medicine, which works on the
basis of symptoms and their
causative.
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
Case Study 4. Evaluation
of ongoing Joint Forest
Management (JFM) by
using criteria and
indicators developed by
local communities at
village Ahwati in Nasik
District
in a more scientific way by adopting
more advance and remunerative
technologies like drip irrigation,
organic farming, cultivation of
vegetables during unusual season
and marketing of their produce
accordingly. Education has also
played a major role in spreading
awareness about the sustainable and
judicious use of water and natural
resources. Villagers have started
realising the importance of forests
and vegetation in water retention, soil
conservation and temperature
regulation in the region. Sometime
the incentives given by the forest
department at the time of forming
JFM Committee like providing
drinking water, construction of a
Community Hall, laying of concrete
roads, repair of school buildings play
determining role for formation of JFM
Committee in a village. A healthy
competitive feeling amongst the
villages has also helped in expansion
of JFM movement in the region.
Ahwati is one such village, which has
set example for others in the field of
forest protection, equitable use of
natural resources and eradication of
social evils. With the extension of
JFM formation in the adjoining areas
the pressure on government officials
have increased in last few years. With
the same staff strength and financial
resources, the department has to
cater to the needs of many times
more new entrants.
Introduction
Joint Forest Management has
become popular concept in various
parts of the country. Under the
scheme the villagers come together
and join hands with the State
Government, particularly with the
Forest Department and share the
responsibility of protection of forests
around their locality. Generally a
village unit forms a JFM Committee
with all the residents of the village as
its members. The local forest officer,
mostly Range Forest Officer (RFO)
acts as the co-ordinator between
Government and local community.
He also works as Chairman of the
village level JFM Committee which is
formed in consultation with the
villagers and which have an approval
of Divisional Forest Officer (DFO).
Divisional Forest Officer is the main
functionary for a particular forest
division.
Evaluation exercise in
village Ahwati
In Nasik District of Maharashtra
villagers have opted for JFM in a big
way which is evident from the fact
that within a span of four years the
number of JFM committees have
exceeded 200 from just 25 initially.
The reasons for this popularity could
be many but one cannot deny the
fact that most of the villagers are
today enthusiastic about
conservation work and know the need
of such activity. Most of the villagers
in the region are in the business of
agriculture, which is directly
dependent on water. The increase in
output in recent years from
agriculture has prompted most of the
farmers to undertake the profession
WWF-India got involved in the
movement about four years back
when it came to know about the good
work being done under JFM. Some of
the WWF-India officials from Delhi
and Mumbai visited the site to get
first hand information on the concept
and its implementation. The
experience was so encouraging that
the organisation felt it prudent to be
associated with the villagers
movement in whatever little way it
was possible. One such activity
included involvement in evaluation of
the outcome of JFM using criteria
indicators. A special format was used
to record the findings from the site.
While applying the format it was
observed that many of the aspects
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
45
could not get revealed in our first
effort. So it was deided to repeat the
exercise in future in different
locations using modified versions of
the format coupled with personal
interactions with the villagers. The
locations were selected from distant
places not having similar kinds of
geographic and social conditions.
The three sites selected for
application of criteria and indicators
(C/I) were Ahwati, Ratir and
Chinchwah. Ahwati was selected for
three reasons – One because it was a
pioneer in this field, second because
the earlier pilot exercise was done
here under the aegis of the World
Bank-WWF Alliance and third a
project on medicinal plants
cultivation was undertaken in this
village (previous case study). Ratir
was selected because of a variety of
reasons including conflict amongst
the villagers over the use of forest
particularly the grazing of large
number of sheep and goats reared by
the villagers. Chinchwah is a village
where the community forests have
been regenerated so well that wildlife
has started inhabiting the site. A
large number of black bucks, barking
deers roam freely the open
grasslands of Chinchwah through out
the year. The vegetation type of
Chinchwah also differs from other
parts of the district.
The approach towards development
of C/I was similar to one developed in
village Kunbar in Gujarat (This
report). For true analysis and
revelations people from different
segments of society in each of C/I
meetings were invited. In the first
meeting college students were
involved who had been given a task
of carrying out a project
independently on studying the status
of local resources within their
particular regions. A joint interaction
session was organised by involving
people of student community, village
community and from management –
i.e. the office bearers of JFM and
government officials. Similar
experiments were done in two other
sessions by involving people from
46
different groups. The point wise
analysis of C/I format reveal the facts
as under:
Ecological – things have improved
since the inception of JFM
particularly in the area of species
regeneration and forest cover,
biodiversity, increasing biomas and
retention of soil humus and longevity
of water cycle.
Economic – the economy of the
villagers, particularly activities related
to agriculture have improved. On
account of an increase in cultivable
area, availability of more water, better
yield and self-dependence for
finance. The non-agricultural
population benefited in the process
by way of creation of more labour
jobs, marketing activities,
transportation works, etc. The
common man from poor strata of
society benefited due to availability of
plenty of food locally. Forests
produce increased mainly in the area
of grass, fodder and fruit species like
custard apple, etc. Not much effort
has been made to tap the potential of
grasslands development and
increase in fodder volume. New
avenues of employment have been
created only in agriculture or related
field but the increase in money
accumulation through agriculture
might result into creation of new
employment opportunities by the
local entrepreneur.
Institutional – JFM has definitely
helped in bringing individuals and
different communities with similar
interests together. Collective decision
making, open and active
participation, gender equality,
conflict management and
representation at higher level are
routine and normal activity in most of
the villages within the region.
Social – JFM has made two kinds of
impact on the social sector within the
community. Despite the claims made
by pro JFM one can see the rift
between sheep grazers, goat rearers
and agricultural farmers, the former
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
two being on one side conflicting with
others. The respect that the
leadership of JFM commands within
the society has helped to act as a
motivating factor for lesser-known
interested young people. In many
cases despite hidden resentment
within their heart, it is observed that
sheep and goat rearers also join their
rivals in protection of forests from
forest fires and poachers.
Some of the salient
features of the outcome
of the workshops and
interactive sessions held
in different locations
more group of villagers.
6.
The value addition idea for
various products for harnessing
better price realization and
sustainable use of resources
profounded by WWF-India was
appreciated by most of the
participants.
7.
Some of the villagers agreed to
exchange their views, technology
and plant and other material with
each other for maintaining equilibrium within society.
8.
Villagers were willing to
contribute towards forest
regeneration and ecodevelopment funds if the need
arose. The suggestion given to
them was to get united and
form a taluka or regional level
body in the line of farmers’ cooperative society. Members
also agreed to prepare a
checklist of progressive farmers
belonging to different villages
so that in case of any
emergency requests for
financial support they would be
able to help them in accordance with their capability.
9.
Many of the JFM members were
perturbed about the nonserious attitude of government
officials, especially against the
complaints lodged by them for
legal grazing and grass cutting.
The divide between two types
of opinion holders – i) work in
harmonious manner with the
graziers and try to convince
them through motivation and
inspiration and ii) deal with the
graziers firmly by taking stern
action against them and
complaining to the administration, is evident in the region.
10.
Despite all the differences
within forest protectors and
destroyers, a desire to find a
long term permanent solution
prevails in the minds of both
the groups.
It was observed that the participants,
mostly affiliated to the institution of
JFM were enthusiastic with the
responsibility they have undertaken.
A great amount of cooperation could
be seen among the villagers towards
protection of forest wealth in different
villages and both independently and
jointly. Some of the main points
brought out in the workshop include:
1.
Most of the villagers had a
major problem of protecting the
forest from cattle and sheep
grazers.
2.
Although the efforts of forest
department were appreciated
they were however, found
inadequate as far protection is
concerned.
3.
Villagers wanted funds for
watch keeping and security of
their protected areas.
4.
Villagers are keen to make
maximum use of their resources
by marketing them through
proper network channels and in
a more professional manner.
5.
Villagers appreciate the effort
of coordinating agencies like
WWF-India, Forest Department
and District Administration as
these agencies act as a
connecting link between two or
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
47
11.
12.
A regular and constant
interaction with the villagers
representing all the groups will
certainly help to create a
conducive environment for
forest protection through JFM.
As mentioned the main interest
of the farmers is to enhance the
agro-horticultural potential of
the land, there is increasing
pressure on the land and other
natural resources through
conversion of non-agricultural
land into agricultural plots. The
results are :
Assessment and
Recommendation
1.
Continuation of mass
mobilization programme for
maintaining the enthusiasm of
villagers.
2.
A proper mix of advanced
technology and latest
achievements in the area of
plant material used with regard
to the local condition and
socio-agricultural status of the
region reaped better results
from degraded and agricultural
land without much change in
the use of natural resources.
Value addition with herbal
formulations and water saving
techniques on the locally
available species was
beneficial for both – the farmers
and nature.
3.
Involvement of local youth in
local area resource
management along with the
elders will help sustainable
development of the region.
a. Rapid growth in the area
under cultivation.
b. Increase in number of open
wells and water holes.
c. Reduction in diversity of
plants in nature in a village.
d. Impact of chemicals and
pesticides used in agriculture on faunal diversity
particularly the minor and
invertebrate species.
48
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
Kerala
Case Study 5.
Strengthening the
capacity of the Vana
Samraksana Samithies
(VSS) in South Western
Ghats - Villages
Pottamavu & Vanchiyode
Introduction
Kerala has a historical legacy of
forest management from as early as
the 19th century. Forests constitute
about 9% of the land in Kerala,
making it one of the greener states in
India. The major part of Kerala lies in
the south-western ghats one of the
biodiversity hot spots of the world.
In Kerala, where Participatory Forest
Management took some time to find
its moorings, the pace has picked up
over the years and there are many
excellent examples of well-managed
PFM initiatives. More than 400 Forest
Protection Committees (Vana
Samrakshana Samithies) have been
established in the state. VSS's are of
two types - (a) Tribal VSS, comprising
of tribal population entirely
dependent on the forests (b) Fringe
Area VSS, where tribals have access
to benefits from resources other than
forests. Two villages Vanchiyode and
Pottamavu near Thiruvananthapuram
represent the Tribal and Fringe Area
VSS respectively.
The NTFPs have played a significant
role in the livelihood of local
communities dependent on forest
resources. Nationally more than 50%
of the Forest Revenue and about 70%
of Forest Export Revenue comes from
NWFP mostly in unprocessed and
raw form. In the present project an
attempt has been made to strengthen
the capacity of two VSS through
development of an action plan for
NTFPs collection primarily, honey,
medicinal plants, bamboo and reeds.
Map : Villages Vanchiyode (Kollam District) and Pottamavu (Thiruvananthapuram Distict), Kerala
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
49
Status of PFM in Kerala as on 31.08.2004
S. No
Name of Circle
No. of VSSs
Total forest area
in the circle
Area covered
under JFM (ha)
1
North
82
115578.17
28464.00
2
Eastern
77
188795.49
42807.84
3
Central
47
151498.78
57256.80
4
High Range
45
104274.00
15413.07
5
South
78
241564.70
21499.00
TOTAL
329
801711.14
165440.71
Source : Department of Forests, Govt. of Kerala
Objectives
The objectives of the project were:
1. Preparation of an Action plan for
NTFP collection at Vanchiyode for
honey, medicinal plant, bamboo and
reeds as measure for strengthening
the capacity of the Vana
Samrakshana Samithy (VSS) at
Vanchiyode and Pottamavu.
2. Strengthen Inter VSS as well as
Intra VSS relationship through
capacity building initiatives in both
types of VSS.
Rationale of the Study
The present project of WWF-India is a
follow up of an earlier effort to
understanding the status and
challenges related to JFM in the state
with support from International
Institute from Environment and
Development (IIED), UK. It was
realized that forest protection
committees operational under JFM
need capacity building. This would
not happen unless the issue of
livelihood is addressed. The rationale
behind undertaking the present
project is not only to develop a
replicable model for the
establishment of better health among
the NTFP management institutions
but also for strengthening the
50
capacity of the VSS to take up the
leadership in this direction.
A Background to
Participatory Forest
Management in Kerala
There has been a paradigm shift in
the overall management of forests by
the Forest Department (FD) of Kerala.
From basically a management mode
with emphasis on administering from
the top, the overall thinking has
slowly started moving towards
management by partnership with
people. The goals of Participatory
Forest Management (PFM) initially
faced obstacles due to unwillingness
of the FD personnel to give up power
and its corollary benefits. With time
the government policies on forest
management got firm on the
adaptation of PFM as the more
feasible option towards ensuring
sustainability and long term
conservation of forests.
The process though took time to take
root in Kerala, has with the
committed efforts of a few forest
officials and support of the
government progressed on a firm
footing and now has 329 Vana
Samrakshana Samithies covering a
forest area of 165,440 ha under the
JFM.
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
A Description of the
Project Locations
The Vana Samrakshana Samithies of
the two villages Vanchiyode and
Pottamavu were among the first to be
established in their respective
category in the state.
Vanchiyode (A Fringe
Area VSS)
Vanchiyode lies 8°52' and 9°7’
latitude and 76°35' and 77°6' east
longitude in the Anchal Range in
Punalur Forest Division. The total
Punalur Forest Division Reserve
Forest consists of an area of 275.55
sq. km. Of this the Vanchiyode Vana
Samrakshana Samithy manages 250
ha of forests. The VSS was formed in
September 1999.
These forests cover the outer foothills
of the Western Ghats. As is common
in the Western Ghats, the underlying
rocks are metamorphic consisting of
charnockites and other gneisses. The
major type of soil found in most of
the areas is red loamy, which is rich
in minerals. Alluvial soil is found in
riverbanks and valleys. Generally the
soils are well drained. The area has a
tropical climate. The forests of this
area are drained by the tributaries of
Kallada and Ithikkara rivers. The
streams have narrowed down largely
due to the large-scale clearance of
forests in the past and in some cases
the rivers have even changed course
due to silting. Though the area is
blessed with adequate rain-fed river
system there is an acute shortage of
water in the low country during peak
summer.
The tribes inhabiting Vanchiyode are
Kanikkars. There are altogether
eleven settlements in Anchal Range
of which Vanchiyode is one of them.
Vanchiyode project area consists of
four enclosures or settlements;
Vanchiyode (there is a settlement by
that name itself) Kuruvikkadu,
Nedumapacha and Venkodu. Of this
the Vanchiyode enclosure consists of
tribals exclusively and is generally in
Forest Department parlance termed
as 'Hill Men Settlement' whereas the
remaining three are settlers from
other places who have been living in
this area since the last forty-fifty
years.
Prominent species in the semievergreen and deciduous forest types
include: Terminalia paniculata,
Dillinea pentagyna, Pterocarpus
marsupium, Terminalia crenulata,
Mahogany, Anjily, Kadamaram, Percia
macrantha, Terminalia bellerica, Vitex
altissima, Aporusa lyndlyana, Pathiry,
Holygarna arnottiana, Cinnamomum
malabariuim, Mangifera indica,
Venkotta, Knema attennuta, Carrya
arborea.
Birds like Malabar grey hornbill, Grey
jungle fowl, Hill mynah, Blossom
headed parakeet, Blue winged
parakeets, and animals like Sambar,
Barking deer, Bonnet macaque,
Monitor lizard, Porcupine, Malabar
flying squirrel, Civet cats etc are
found in the forests.
The inhabitants are engaged in
agriculture, which includes rubber,
pepper, banana, tapioca, rice and
coconut. In the initial stages the
forest area was exploited and the
people encroached upon forestland
and converted it for agricultural
purposes. The forest is being utilized
besides for NTFP, for firewood
collection, fodder collection, drinking
water, wood for building, illicit liquor
brewing, poaching and sand mining.
The forests here also provide labour
to the people in the VSS.
Land use Pattern
Vanchiyode has a total population of
448 persons and 124 families reside
in this village. The first micro plan for
the VSS was prepared during 1998. A
memorandum of understanding
between the JFM committee and the
forest department was signed on
December 29, 1999.
The microplan drawn in 1999 for
implementation of JFM was not
comprehensive enough for
undertaking activities. With the
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
51
LAND USE PATTERN
1.6
0%
1.63%
4% 2.25%
Forest
5.40%
Rubber Plantations
13%
Pepper
72.50%
Paddy Fields
The composition of the membership of Vanchiyode VSS
N
Place
a.
Vanchiyode
b.
c.
d.
Families
Venkodu
62
36
Nedumpacha
Kuruvikkadu
15
9
Categories
Nos.
Scheduled Tribe
54
Others
8
Scheduled Caste
20
Other
16
Scheduled Caste
3
Others
12
Others
9
122
122
Source : Department of Forests, Govt. of Kerala
initiative of the forest department and
WWF-India, a new microplan for the
period 2003 - 2008 was prepared to
overcome the anomalies in of the first
microplan. Participatory Rural
Appraisal for the same was
conducted in September 2003.
•
Current Status
1.
The number of people visiting the
forests for NTFP collection has
reduced. Being on the fringe the
VSS are attracted to more
economically beneficial activities
like the modern day business
prospects. The NTFP collection
is slowly getting centered on the
tribals (early settlers).
2.
About 20 people collect honey
in Vanchiyode who are primarily
tribal.
3.
The quantity of honey collected
has been reducing over the
years. In the years 2002, 2003
and 2004 it was 350 kg, 250 kg
and 300 kg respectively.
Major Activities of the
VSS prior to the
implementation of the
project:
•
52
The road from Sivan Mukku to
Vengode was made motorable.
•
Check-dam made in Vanchiyode.
•
Ten wells were dug in the
Adivasi area.
•
Arrangements made for the
installation of smokeless
chulhas in the tribal hamlet.
Medicinal plant nursery for 5 ha
raised
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
4.
The honey collected is sold to
private parties outside and not
generally to the society formed
by the tribals at a cost of Rs. 60
per 50 ml.
5.
Few people had received
training for bee keeping about
thirteen years back from the
forest department.
6.
Due to mass flowering, about
50 ha of reed plantation was
lost.
7.
There is scope for dairying as
Vanchiyode generates 100 ltrs
of milk daily.
The VSS lies near the Trivandrum
Shencottah Road and its proximity to
the road is an added incentive for
supporting illegal logging and illicit
liquor manufacturing. This also gives
access to outsiders for entering
Vanchiyode for collection of grass,
small branches of trees and grazing
domestic animals.
The community here is
heterogeneous in composition and
quite affected by the urbanization
process. This in turn gives rise to the
possibility of exploiting the forests for
financial benefits. With an area of 200
ha of forests in and around the
inhabited area the chances for the
same is very high. The NTFP's
collected from the forests were not
marketed efficiently and a preliminary
discussion indicated that though the
VSS was established long back, there
was absolute lack of clarity in taking
the institution forward.
Rise in demand of ayurvedic
medicines and forest-related produce
for health has directly affected the
quantum of collection of NTFP's from
the area. This in turn has affected the
methods of collection and
encouraged unsustainable collection
practices leading to a depletion of
many plants once considered
common in this area. The lure of
money has infiltrated in to Pottamavu
also.
The influence of the Tribal
Cooperative Society (TCS) in
marketing activities is yet another
important factor that has resulted in
unsustainable collection and
degradation of habitat. In earlier
times the NTFP's collection had to be
carried as a head load to places of
marketing. But now with the
establishment of marketing agencies
like TCS this has changed. They need
to supply the materials to the
collection centers only. To economize
the cost, TCS prefer maximum
collection of NTFPs to load the
vehicle fully for reducing the carrying
expense. This leads to unsustainable
collection of NTFP.
Initially only the people living in
Pottamavu hamlet went for collection
within the forests but gradually with
the opening of the forest for outsiders
and the scheduled caste groups
living nearby, all sustainable
collection practices were replaced by
unsustainable methods and gradually
these practices got transferred to the
Pottamavu inhabitants as well.
Pottamavu
Pottamavu comes in the Southern
Circle under the Trivandrum Forest
division in Kulathupuzha range. This
is a tribal hamlet with the boundaries
constituted in the east by
Pandimotta, south by Kaarumpuram,
Adiparamba in Palode range & west
by Kadukkida Raod, Irupathadikunnu,
Thavalappara and north by Shendurni
Wildlife Sanctuary. It is the catchment
area for the Kallada river. The
tributaries for these rivers are the
Sankhili, Vellamalayar, Chinikkalar,
Kudukkida, Kunkumala and
Idukkumpara rivers. There are more
than 12 smaller rivers and several
streams arising from these rivers.
Pottamavu receives 2700 mm of
rainfall. The area gets ample rainfall
during June, July and August.
The Pottamavu Tribal Vana
Samrakshana Samithi established in
2001 has been allotted a total area of
1200 ha for forest conservation as
well as for collection of NTFP. They
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
53
Resource Map developed through participatory process in Pottamavu
are a primarily NTFP dependent
community. Fifty-six families in the
hamlet have been allotted 33 ha of
land on right of usage basis. Though
they have right of occupancy they are
not authorized to sell the land. The
right of use the basis land and the
forestland has been clearly
demarcated using jandas.
The people living in this are all forest
dependent and make a living out of
collection of NTFPs and forestry
related work that comes up often
related to the plantations. Some of
them are also engaged in making
products out of reeds and cane
besides engaging in regular labour
like masonary, tailoring, carpentery,
there are some drivers too.
Due to uncertainity in employment, as
well as the low margin received for
the NTFP many of the inhabitants are
in debt traps.
In the land is that is allotted to them
on usage basis (no ownership) the
community has raised crops like
54
tapioca, pepper, banana, yam,
ginger, coconut, rubber plantations
for which assistance was provided by
the rubber board. Cashew plantations
are seen in patches in areas
adjoining these habitations.
Villagers at Pottamavu face
difficulties during NTFP collection.
They remain at times for more than
10 to 15 days inside the forest during
collection time. And to sustain them
during this period they carry food,
water and other necessary items. The
collections are made on seasonal
basis as each NTFP had a particular
season for collection. For e.g. honey
is generally collected between March
and April. The process of collection is
wrought with danger as they would
face wild animals at night. They
protect themselves from honey-bee
stings which can sometimes be
dangerous enough resulting in death
even by chewing Maramanjal
(Coccineum fenestratum) and
exhaling the breath. The smell of
maramanjal is said to ward off the
honey-bees making it easier for them
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
to collect honey. The people
generally collect around 5 - 8 kgs
from a single beehive and per kg they
cost around Rs. 55.
Similarly the collectors have to go
deep within the forest for collecting
'Kunthirikkam' (Canarium strictum).
These are available in the form of wax
in the trees. The value of
Kunthirikkam is based on its quality.
Another very important NTFP is the
maramanjal (Coccineum
fenestratum). As it is a vine like
creeper its harvesting involves a lot of
effort. The other major NTFPs like
cardamom, poovanathiri and kasturi
manjal (Curcuma aromatica) are
relatively easy to harvest and hence
mostly done by women of the Oooru
(hamlet). These NTFPs collected are
then supplied to the Tribal
Cooperative society which has an
office within the hamlet itself. Four
watch women at the village entrance
keep a record of the quantum of
NTFP extracted from the forests.
Though there are no serious man
animal conflict in this area the hamlet
is not free from destruction to crops
by wild life attacks mainly by
elephants, wild boar and monkeys.
This has been a major reason that
has discouraged many people from
engaging in agriculture in the one
acre land which is given to each of
them on lease.
The land holding varies between one
- five acre per family. Even though
the government has not handed over
ownership of the land to the tribals,
each family is given one acre of land
on lease where they can cultivate and
reap the produce. They mostly
cultivate agricultural products like
tapioca, banana, pepper, rubber etc.
The roads are not maintained well
and makes transportation through the
area difficult especially during the
monsoons. There is bus service from
the nearby Palode depot (places
where bus services start and end)
twice a day. Similarly the hopes of
electrification of the houses in the
hamlet also remains unfulfilled even
though the electric lines have been
drawn till the entrance of the hamlet.
It just needs to be extended a little
further in to the village to make
electricity accessible to the villagers
there. It is quite ironical that the
villagers hardly show any interest in
ensuring that they get electricity even
though it has reached the threshold
of the hamlet.
The most educated person in the
village is a tenth grade pass, Ms. Sati
having completed the Teachers
Training Course. Women in the
community were found to be more
progressive than their male
counterparts.
In the past the village received help
and support of a MSS church. A selfhelp group 'Stree Shakti' was
established here with an initial
support of Rs. 6000 by the church.
The SHG functioned well in the initial
stages but is defunct now. The
church is also not in operation at
present.
Another institution working in the area
is the Pottamavu Cooperative Society
regionally termed as Pottamavu
Sahakarana Sangh or Tribal
Cooperative Society (TCS). This tribal
cooperative society has been
established for buying and selling of
NTFPs collected from the forests in
Pottamavu. They procure around 11
NTFP products out of the total of 32
NTFPs available here. The
headquarters of this federation is at
Peroorkada in Trivandrum. There is a
school run by DPEP for children
above five years up to the 4th
standard however, only a few children
are presently enrolled. An
'Anganvady' in the village focuses
attention on the education and health
of both mother and child.
People are not conscious of health
and sanitation. They suffer from
elephantiasis which is not curable,
the hamlet does not take too much
interest to ward it off for future
generations either.
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
55
The VSS at Pottamavu keep records the quantum of NTFPs extracted from their forest
The VSS consists of the Kani tribes,
Muslims, the Ezhavas and Nairs.
Various members of the VSS are of
the opinion that Kani group being a
tribal community recives a lot of
privileges from the Government. The
Kanikkars on the other hand are of
the view that they are not party to
many of the activities of the VSS. This
situation needs to be addressed with
earnestness as it could pave the way
for a polarization amongst the
members.
Activities undertaken
under the project and
impacts at Vanchiyode
and Pottamavu
As the existing microplan was
insufficient in terms of
implementation of various activities
and the gaps in information needed
to obtain a complete view of the
Vanchiyode VSS, it was felt that only
a new microplan would be able to
help serve the purpose. Hence it was
decided to call all the members and
56
prepare a new microplan using
Participatory Rural Appraisal
techniques. The matter was brought
to the notice of senior officials of the
Forest Department including the
Divisional Forest Officer who
supported the idea.
As Vanchiyode is a Fringe Area VSS,
in addition to a location sketch, a
Seasonality Calendar and a Labour
Calendar was prepared. Unlike
Pottamavu the community at
Vanchiyode did not depend fully on
forest resources for its subsistence.
Hence it was necessary to
complement the management plans
with the labour and seasonal job
possibilities in the area.
Both the VSS were studied for:
1.
The composition of the
respective VSS
2.
Socio economic conditions
3.
NTFP dependency and
management
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
The composition of the membership
of the Vana Samrakshana Samithy as
well as the socio-economic
conditions and aspirations are
different from each other. As these in
turn were dependent also on various
external compulsions like the extent
to which urbanization has influenced
the respective VSS, the NTFP
management of the area, the literacy
level, the willingness to imbibe and
accept new ideas and processes,
awareness of their rights,
responsibilities and duties.
Socio-economic surveys were
undertaken through a participatory
rural appraisal conducted in both the
villages. The Executive Committee
and General Body meetings of the
VSS were organized for collecting
information on various aspects like
their opinions on various institutions
operating in the region and their
shortcomings.
Assessment of NTFP's
Through interaction with the Forest
Officials and local people, location
maps were prepared and a detailed
analysis of NTFP Management was
undertaken. An inventory of the
NTFPs were prepared and all
possible information of NTFP
collection by the community were
compiled through secondary and
primary data as well as interviews
with the members of the Vana
Samrakshana Samithy. Preliminary
information of quantum of collection
of honey, medicinal plants, bamboo
and reeds as well as the locations
rich in these NTFPs were identified.
Before conducting a detailed market
survey a prioritization of species
which were in demand for trade was
made.
Two workshops were held with the
women's self-help groups. As the
women of the VSS seemed to be
better disposed in the PFM activities
they were encouraged to take up
activities that would assist them to
reduce their dependency on the
forest for income and at the same
time help in forging better links
between the members of the
community. The women here were
encouraged to take initiatives to avail
the benefits due to them from
government agencies such as Zila
Panchayat etc. It was encouraging to
note that they were able to raise
issues with the Panchayat. A tribal
self-help group got funding for raising
goats within their area (Stall feeding
only).
Presently there are four self-help
groups viz., Pournami, Kuruvikktadu,
Aparna and Vanchiod in Vanchiyode.
The SHGs were formed with the initial
support of Rs. 3000 per SHG by the
Forest Department.
Strengthening Capacity
of Management of
NTFPs, Honey, Bamboo
and Reeds
Past system of collection of
NTFPs :
The system that was previously
followed for the collection of Minor
Forest Produce was by contract. In
this, the right to collect and remove
all Minor Forest Produce items was
sold in public auction for each range
separately, the period of contract
being a year. Through this process
the private traders/contractors could
employ the tribes to their advantage.
The disadvantage of this system was
that the contractors took undue profit
by selling the produce at the rates
fixed by them. The department had
no control over the market and actual
consumers had to pay exorbitant
rates to contractors for the produce
they purchased. This system was in
vogue till 1979. A new system for
selling the produce to Girijan Service
Co-operative Societies at negotiable
rates was introduced in 1978 as per
G. O. (MS) No.99150/FM2/AD/Agri.
(Forest Misc.). The rate fixed as per
this system was the average price
fetched during the last three auctions
plus 5%. As per this the right of
collection of NTFPs from reserve
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
57
forests was given to TCS and their
members at a concessional rate. This
system continued till 1981.
Present system of collection
and removal of NWFP:
The system presently in vogue is to
entrust the collection and removal of
NWFP to Girijan Co-operative
Societies on realization of lease rent.
Institutional arrangement for
the collection and marketing
of NTFP in the State
As per an estimation by the
Scheduled Caste/Scheduled Tribe
Federation, NTFP worth Rs. 300 lakh
per year can be collected from Kerala
Forests (Philip Thomas pers comm.)
Out of the total number of TCS given
exclusive rights from 1978 onwards,
only 35% were engaged in collection
and marketing of NTFP. TCS collects
the entire produce from the tribals.
This is marketed through the Kerala
State Federation of SC/ST
Development Cooperatives. The price
given to the tribal against the
produce collected is as per the rates
fixed by the NTFP committee
constituted for the purpose. The chief
conservator of forests is the
chairperson of the committee. The
committee fixes the price for
collection charges of the produce,
the procurement value, and sales
value of the NTFPs.
As per this arrangement, 80% of the
revenue is given as collection
charges to tribals, 15% as
commission to TCS and 5% as
overhead charges to SC/ST
federation. There are specific roles
assigned for the Forest Department,
Tribal Department and Cooperative
Department in the effective
functioning of the federation.
Major species collected as NTFPs are as follows:
1. Chakkarakkolli
(Gymnema
sylvestre)
12.Naruneendi
(Hemidesmus
indicus)
2. Jaathi
(Myristica sps)
13.Nelli
(Emblica officinalis)
3. Kacholam
(Kaempferia
galanga)
14.Nilappana
(Curculago sps.)
4. Karinochi
(Vitex negundo)
5. Kasturi
Manjal
(Curcuma
aromatica)
6. Kurinji
(Strobilanthus sps)
7. Kunthirikkam (Canarium
strictum)
58
15.Nila narakam (Naragamia allata)
16.Orila
(Desmodium
gangeticum)
17.Ramacham
(Veteverea sp.)
18.Sathavari
(Asparagus
recemosus)
8. Kurunthotty
(Sida rhombifolia)
19.Valampiri
Idampiri
(Helicteres isora)
9. Malathangi
(Cissampelos sps.)
20.Veppu -
(Melia sp.)
10.Maramanjal
(Coccineum
fenestratum)
21.Vayanappoovu
(Cinnamomum
malabarium)
11.Moovila
(Pseudarthria
viscida)
-
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
The quantum of NTFP extracted from forests in Vanchiyode every year :
SN
NTFP
Method of collection
Quantity
1.
Asparagus recemosus
Plucking and digging from the soil
10 kg
2.
Cinnamomum sp (flower)
Cutting the branches
25 kg
3.
Curcuma aromatica
Plucking and digging out from the soil
10 kg
4.
Cyclea peltata
Plucking and digging out from the soil
10 kg
5.
Embilica officinalis
Plucking using poles and shaking the tree
50 kg
6.
Gymnema sylvestris
Plucking and digging out from the soil
10 kg
7.
Honey
Smoking for extraction of honey inside the hive...
100- 200 kg
8.
Kodithuva
Uprooting
5 kg
9.
Myristica sp
Plucking ( a very costly item)
5 kg
10.
Sida rhombifolia
Uprooting
15 Kg
11.
Terminalia bellirica
Collecting the fallen seeds, and sometimes plucking it
500 kg
12.
Thatching Grass
Cutting
4000 bundles
13.
Wild Mango (Mangifera indica)
Plucking by poles
500 Kg
14.
Wild Pepper (Piper sps)
Uprooting
10 Kg
Source : Microplan KFD 2001
Marketing Channel of NTFP
For the medicinal plants and herbs
the marketing channel for the SC/ST
Federation are the Pharmaceutical
Corporation of Kerala Ltd (Ousadhi),
other AMMU's (Ayurvedic Medicinal
Manufacturer Units) and the open
market consisting of regular traders
both in and outside Kerala. The trade
in medicinal herbs is mostly through
private traders in and outside Kerala
(68.2%). There are roughly 800
AMMU’s in Kerala and their
requirements are very high.
The right of collection of some
specified Minor Forest Products is
given to Scheduled Caste and
Scheduled Tribe Co-operative
Societies, as a part of welfare
measures taken by the Government
for the upliftment of these
communities. This provides labour
and a source of livelihood to the
communities, dependent on forests.
A meagre annual lease rent is
realized from the societies. The main
items collected are medicinal plants,
bamboo and reeds and honey :
a. Medicinal Plants
An interesting feature in the present
management process of the
medicinal plants scenario is that
there is a distinct inclination in
reviving some of the traditional
conservation practices to preserve
and conserve some of the medicinal
plants. For e.g. the tribal community
do not collect medicinal plants after
sunset. Some medicinal plants are
harvested only at a specified time as
per the traditional knowledge
systems. It is pertinent to mention
here that many of the medicinal
plants, species in Vanchiyode and to
a greater extent in Pottamavu are
listed as endangered. Some of the
endangered species are Padathali
(Cyclea peltata), Chakkara kolli
(Gymnema sylvestres) Kurinji
(Strobilanthus sps). Karinochi (Vitex
negundo) Kacholam (Kaempferia
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
59
Gene Pool area in Pottamavu
galanga). Nila narakam (Naragamia
allata) Naruneendi (Hemidesmes
indicus) Sarpagandhi (Rauvolfia
serpentina).
Untill recently the tribals were lured
by contractors to cut trees and
exploit the forest for their own vested
interest. But with the JFM practices in
place, villagers have come to realize
the need to conserve biodiversity. A
number of awareness sessions have
been conducted by WWF to ensure
conservation of medicinal plants.
They feel motivated to conserve,
sometimes at a loss of economic
benefits. For e.g. they have after a
workshop on medicinal plants agreed
to control the collection of
Maramanjal as well as some other
plants which they feel are not being
replaced by regeneration like they
ought to. There are 500 ha of Gene
Pool area designated to be protected
for conserving the plants for
regeneration and further
afforestation. Prospects and benefits
of a sustainably managed forest have
slowly instilled in them a sense of
security and a hope for a future. They
have realized that although it is a
tough burden that they have been
60
called upon to carry in the name of
nature conservation they would love
to do it either because they are most
suited to do it or because they are
used to carrying burdens for others
for years now. This is primarily the
attitude that is seen in the case of
Pottamavu whereas the Vanchiyode
segment is more a heterogeneous
and only one out of the four group
enclosures there constitutes the
tribals, the rest being settlers.
25 acres of land have been identified
for medicinal plant cultivation and
initiated as joint efforts by the VSS in
Vanchiyode. Whereas in Pottamavu
the available NTFP by itself is more
than enough for their management
and what is required is proper
marketing and utilization plan to
ensure its sustainability.
At present 120 items of NWFP are
allotted free to the societies on
advice from the Kerala State
Federation of Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribe Development Cooperative Societies. Details of Minor
Produce collected by societies during
1982 to 1993 are given below :
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
b. Bamboo & Reeds
few localities only. (Muktesh, KFRI).
Bamboos are commercially much
valued for their manifold uses, in the
industrial sector for paper and pulp,
in cottage industries for a variety of
purposes and to meet domestic
demands.
In general, the forest divisions of
Malayatoor, Ranni, Konni,
Trivandrum, Thenmala and Punalur
are comparatively rich in reed
resource. A large portion of the
ridges forming the northern, eastern
and southern sides of the
Kulathupuzha valley (Vanchiyode one
of the project Area is in this forest
division) of Trivandrum division are
covered entirely by reeds.
Among the 21 genera and 136
species of bamboos and seeds are
recorded in India, 8 genera and 24
species are known to occur in
peninsular India. Of these, nine
species of Ochlandra which are
reeds, used in the pulp and paper
industry, and for mat and basket
making in the traditional industrial
sector in Kerala. Five species of
Ochalandra, O. beddomei, O.
ebracteata, O. setigera, O.sivaairiana
and O. talbortiiare reported to be
endagered and restricted in
distribution'.
Earlier Working Plans of Forest
Department prescribed the
eradication of bamboo, identifying it
more as a weed in favour of teak
plantations. However the use of
bamboo as an industrial raw material
has entirely changed this picture.
Kerala has a culture of planting
bamboos in homesteads.
The reed Ochlandra travancorica is
the most important associate of the
tropical evergreen forests and attains
maximum growth in the very wet type
of evergreen forests. In the evergreen
types, the most important
associations of Ochlandra include
Hopea parviflora, Cullenia exarillata,
Canarium strictum, Dipterocarpus
indicus, etc. Ochlandra being shade
tolerant, grows well even under the
closed canopy of evergreen forests.
The most common ones, are O
travancorica (Bedd.) Benth. ex
Gamble and O scriptoria (Dennst.)
C.E.C. Fisher, are widespread,
extending throughout the Western
Ghats. The small sized reed
occurring along most of the river and
stream banks is O scriptoria. Species
such as O beddomei, Gamble, O
ebracteata Raizada & Chatterji and O
setigera Gamble are restricted to a
Bamboo is a valuable fibre species
for paper and pulp industry and its
demand is increasing day by day. It
forms fodder for some wild animals
as well. The raw material supply for
pulp wood industry is dwindling and
dependence of communities on
forests has also been recognized as
a major factor influencing the
management strategy.
Collection and marketing
The bamboo and reeds available in
Vanchiyode have depleted
considerably due to mass flowering
which took place and the VSS
members who made bamboo murrum
and baskets now collect the same
from the nearby locality. Pottamavu
supplied bamboo and reeds to
Hindustan Newsprint Limited during
1990-2001. The total quantity
available per annum from these
locations is around four tons of reeds
and five tons of bamboo. Out of this
the local members utilize one ton of
bamboo and one and half tons
(approx) of reed for their own needs,
as well as for making small furniture
and baskets etc.
For fear of mass flowering, the
bamboo is harvested completely
before its maturity. This is possibly an
unsustainable practice. Besides this
when contractors of major buyers like
Hindustan Newsprint Limited etc.
enter the plantation area for
harvesting the reeds they seldom
show regard towards sustainability or
conservation aspects of the
resources.
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
61
c. Honey
Honey acts as both medicine and
natural insecticide. It is believed that
in areas where there is bee keeping
there is an increase in the agricultural
yield by 20%. Bee keeping is
practiced in large scale in Kerala.
Kerala is one of the two states, which
witnessed great advances in bee
keeping as a cottage industry, the
other state being Tamil Nadu. Untill
1991, 70% of the total production of
honey came from these two states
together. But within two years as a
result of the virus attack of Thai sac
brood on honey bee colonies the
production of honey fell to very
minimal/nominal not only in Kerala
and Tamil Nadu but in many states
across India. By the end of 1992
almost 98% of the beehive colonies
were destroyed by this virus attack.
Natural Honey continues to be
collected by people living within the
forests as well as on the fringe areas
of the forests. The former being
mostly tribals in some 400 tribal
villages across the state and the
latter being settlers living in the fringe
areas of the forests.
Honey is sold primarily through the
Kerala State Federation of Scheduled
Caste and Scheduled Tribes
Cooperatives. In areas where Vana
Samrakshan Samithies are present
they also function as the marketing
appendage for NTFP products
including honey.
Processing of honey is important for
its preservation. Though honey is a
pure substance preservation of honey
needs to be done scientifically to
ensure a longer shelf life. This is in
order to avoid fermentation of honey
caused by the osmophillic yeast cells
that grow in the water content that
naturally exists in honey. Based on
the content of water in honey it is
divided in to three categories. That
which has 20% water content in it is
termed as special grade, 20 -22% as
‘A’ grade and 22% -25% as standard
grade.
62
As per an earlier study, 27.8 % of the
community in Vanchiyode is engaged
in honey collection. A further study of
the seasonality and labour calendar
shows that there is a strong tendency
on taking up regular labour as on
alternative livelihood rather than
going in for honey collection. It was
learnt that the difficulty as well as the
lack of motivation in marketing the
product has resulted in members
shifting their interest to ordinary
labour which in Kerala is more
profitable. But at the same time it
was also learnt that they would be
interested in reversing this trend if
there were proper marketing methods
by which they did not have to waste
their time in taking their produce to
places which were 20 to 30 kms
away. It has also been noted that
there are many houses in both
Vanchiyode and Pottamavu where the
people have put up beehives in their
homes.
In contrast in Pottamavu which is a
tribal VSS there was a preference
towards honey collection and its
marketing, primarily because there is
a community that depends on NTFP
collection for subsistence.
Collection Methods
The species found in Vanchiyode and
Pottamavu are Apiserana indica and
Apisdorsata trigonairidipenns. The
honey derived from the latter is
supposed to be of high medicinal
value. There is a marked difference in
the collection/harvesting methods
between Vanchiyode and Pottamavu.
Traditionally, the collectors have
certain methods by which they decide
on the rights to collect honey. Once a
member of the community sights a
beehive he puts two small pieces of
stick in the form of an 'X 'depicting
that no one else should collect the
honey from that particular hive and
that it was his to do so. It is believed
that in contrary to this if at all and
any one other than him collects
honey he would collect the wax from
the mouth of the beehive put it in a
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
leaf and closing it within the palm of
his hand curse the family of the
person who has taken it. This curse
they believe would result in the entire
clan of the people to disappear
forever. They go for collection based
on days associated with full moon
and phases of it. The tribals collect
honey on the day after the amavasi
(New Moon). The Vanchiyode
community collects honey by
smoking the entrance of the hive.
Among the unsustainable practices
that have developed due to the high
demand of honey for medicinal,
cosmetic and other health purposes
are cutting of branches of trees as
well as smoking that affects the trees.
Some of the collectors put fires below
the hive to destroy the entire bee
colony itself. Another method is by
chewing garlic or onion and exhaling
the smell at the time of collection of
honey from the beehive when the
bees swarm around the collector.
Other Methods of Honey
Collection
1.
The honey collectors after
identifying the honey nest and if
they are at reachable places on
a tree or elsewhere they make a
hole in the nest big enough for
their hand to go in for taking
the honey comb. After collecting it the honey is extracted in
the traditional manner by
squeezing the honey comb for
the honey.
2.
If the tree is tall and it is not
possible to climb it they
sometimes cut the tree.
3.
If it is at an unreachable area
on a branch they cut the
branch.
4.
The Kani tribals (see photo)
shoot the honey combs and
collect the dripping honey in
pots.
5.
The honey collected from
between the spaces in the
rocks is similar to collection by
hand where they make
sufficient space to insert their
hand and get the honey-comb.
In brief there is no specific scientific
method and the methods used
currently are often destructive. As for
ascertaining the purity of the honey
there is no scientific method either.
They have the usual traditional
methods like smelling and tasting etc
to assess their purity.
• Existing practices for
processing honey
Processing is an important part in the
preservation of honey. Though honey
is a pure substance preservation
needs to be done scientifically to
ensure a long shelf. This is in order to
avoid fermentation of honey caused
by the osmophillic yeast cells that
grow in the water content that
naturally exists in honey.
The tribal community believe that
honey need not be processed as they
feel that warming honey for
preserving it is more than enough to
strain the pollen and keep it clean. In
A Kani tribal in Vanchiyode
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
63
earlier days honey was preserved in
side bamboo poles later replaced by
glass bottles.
Activities Undertaken
This difference in the methods of
collection could be attributed to the
fact that the quantity collected in
Pottamavu is almost three times more
than that of the Vanchiyode VSS and
also because the area covered under
the Vanchiyode VSS is almost 250 ha
while for Pottamavu VSS it is 1250 ha.
A bee keeping training was
conducted by the Regional Manager
of 'Horticorp' in March 2004 at
Vanchiyode Vana Samrakshana
Samithy office.
Some concerns related to
harvest of NTFP's:
64
1.
There are 120 items allotted for
collection to the Tribal
Societies. But invariably they
end up collecting between 15
to 20 items as per demand of
the Federation. This opens the
way for unsustained collection
of the forest produce.
2.
Collection should be linked to
availability of the species,
proper inventorisation of the
entire NTFP in the state needs
to be done.
3.
Collection methods are crude
and outdated. There should be
proper training for sustained
collection practices.
4.
The pricing of items procured
by the federation does not very
often take in to account market
realities. Pricing should be
made more realistic.
5.
Since the SC/ST Federation
does not have an efficient
marketing policy, it often
results in continued financial
loss and this in turn affects the
advances extended to the tribal
societies engaged on the
ground that is in collection.
This paves the way for
middlemen to enter the fray
and forces the tribals to sell
outside the Tribal Cooperative
Societies.
Training for Bee Keeping
The members of both the Vana
Samrakshana Samithies of
Vanchiyode and Pottamavu who were
involved in honey collection attended
this meeting. There were a total of 30
participants including 14 women.
Details regarding honey-comb
making and the community life of the
honey bees were explained by the
trainers. The training emphasized on
sustainable methods of honey
collection. While discussing these
issues the trainer pointed out the
amount of loss incurred by
Pottamavu VSS when honey collected
by them were sold to the cooperative
society established in their hamlet for
the purpose of collection and sale of
NTFP's of their Vana Samrakshana
Samithy. It was realized that the
members of the Pottamavu VSS were
selling Honey at Rs. 20 less than the
market value with no particular
benefit to the Vana Samrakshana
Samithy or themselves.
In continuation to this training
programme the Horticorp trainer was
of the opinion that there is potential
for starting a honey collection center
through installation of bee-keeping
boxes. He also suggested that VSS
send in a request for installing such
boxes. As per the decisions of the
Vanchiyode VSS executive Committee
an application was later forwarded to
Horticorp indicating their interest in
the Scheme and requesting for 20
bee-keeping boxes to be installed in
the four enclosures Vengode,
Kuruvikkadu, Vanchiyode and
Nedumpacha.
In light of the interest exhibited by the
villagers the Forest Department
scheduled a bee training programme
for 11 VSS in the Anchal Range.
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
various outlets for their products
within the state and the district. The
annual exhibitions conducted under
the aegis of Integrated Rural
Development Department was one of
them. He assured a training
programme on some new products of
bamboos for marketing.
Medicinal Plants workshop Vanchiyode and Pottamavu
A workshop was conducted by Dr N
G Nair in both the Vanchiyode and
Pottamavu VSS. He emphasized on
the need for sustainable collection of
medicinal plants. Villagers were
apprised about the destructive
methods of harvest of vayanappoovu
(Cinnamomum malabaricum) and
orila (Desmodium gangeticum). The
VSS members of both the VSS were
advised enrichment planting as a
measure to overcome the depletion
of these medicinal plants due to
excessive collection. He suggested
that selected species of plants in
demand should be raised and to
reinforce this medicinal plant garden
also can be raised and indigenous
plant species focused upon.
A major decision taken during the
workshop was to undertake medicinal
plant cultivation in around 25 ha land
in Vanchiyode. The self-help group
focusing on medicinal plants was
advised to develop a seed calendar
for selected species of NTFP. It is
seen that very often during the rainy
season excessive uprooting is done
for species like Kurunthotty (Sida
rhombifolia) - roots.
Workshop on Bamboo
Cultivation and Marketing
The bamboo workshop involving
tribal members of the Vanchiyode
VSS and Pottamavu VSS was
conducted by Shri Madhavan Kutty
currently working as an instructor in
Tribal Welfare Department and Mr. M.
Unnikrishnan of the Forest
Information Bureau. Shri
Madhavankutty spoke about the
utility value of bamboo and reeds and
informed the group in detail about
the items that are in demand. He
spoke to the participants about the
opportunities available for marketing
the products that they make and also
how to modify their products in
keeping with the times, as cane
products are very much in demand
not only in Indian markets but also
internationally. He spoke of the
Shri M. Unnikrishnan spoke of the
methods of bamboo plantation and
calculation of yield. Vanchiyode was
at a disadvantage in using the reed
this season as they lost the whole
planted bamboo as a result of mass
flowering. The management of
bamboo including extraction requires
the services of semi-skilled labourers
the control of its extraction is still with
the Forest Department though it
needs to be mentioned that the
Pottamavu VSS had recently planted
20 acres of Bamboo under their own
supervision at Erupathampady. The
Hindustan Newsprint and Grasim
Industries are major buyers of the
bamboo.
Development of action plan
for management of NTFPs
Both the project area Vanchiyode and
Pottamavu have a Gene Pool
Conservation Area (GPCA). This is an
unfragmented extent of 500 ha of
forests. The area is endowed with
rare and endemic plant species.
Important medicinal plants located in
the gene pool are Arogyapacha
(Trichopus zeylanicus), Amalporiyan
(Rauvolfia serpentina) Adapathiyan
(Caesalpinia sapan) Maramanjal
(Coccinium fenestratum)
Kunthirikkam (Canarium strictum) and
among the NTFP's Vayanappovu
(Cinnamomum malabaricum)
Ponnampoo (Myristica malabarica)
Parandayakka (Entada scandens)
Kudampuli (Garcinia gummigatta)
Kasturi manjal (Curcuma aromatica).
Human intervention in the GPCA area
is restricted and sanction is not
accorded for collection of NTFP's
from this area. Seeds if at all required
for planting is done with the
permission of the VSS only. Hence
the area is accorded a special status
and is protected.
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
65
Through various awareness
programmes the VSS in both the
places have been sensitized on the
need to:
•
•
Update the inventory of rare
and endangered species and to
regenerate the species that
were commonly found till
recently but have shown a
sharp decline in the recent
years due to unsustainable
collection.
Enhance the traditional
knowledge base and utilize it in
the case of medicinal plants
besides disseminating the
knowledge available for the
benefit of people who use
traditional medicine for their
livelihood.
reinforcing the needs for
sustainability in the harvesting
of NTFP needs to be reinforced.
5.
As per the market analysis it is
observed that opportunities
exist for betterment of
livelihood. However there is a
lack of initiative by the people
themselves in this regard.
6.
The land use study as well as
the labour calendar developed
in the two project sites indicate
that there is a seasonal pattern
which needs to be linked to the
action plan for effectiveness.
7.
It is seen that often during rainy
season extensive harvesting is
done for species like
Kurumthotty (Sida rhombifolia)
(roots) as it is easy to uproot
them at that time, without
allowing any facility for natural
regeneration.
8.
The Tribal Cooperative Society
enjoys monopoly rights of
collecting & marketing the
NTFP and bamboo and putting
the collectors at a great
disadvantage vis-à-vis the
pricing of the produce.
9.
The tribal co-operative
societies rather than ensuring
sustainable harvesting
practices exploit the tribes and
others to divert the produce
with higher return for luring
them to go in for unsustainable
practices in collection.
10.
The VSS per se do not have
strong marketing capabilities.
This greatly restricts benefits
that should be genuinely
accruing to them through
collection and sale of the
NTFPs.
11.
The VSS are not aware of
commercially important items
due to lack of adequate
exposure of the market.
The action plan for management of
NTFPs are based on the following
findings:
1.
The collection methods
adopted currently are not
sustainable.
2.
There is lack of coordination
between the various institutions
operating in the region. For e.g.
though the members of the VSS
who are also members of the
Tribal Cooperative Society do
the collection and sell their
products to TCS there is no
overall guidance or overseeing
of the whole process of
collection and sale by the
Forest Department. Their duty
seems to be over with the
issuance of passes for allowing
collectors in the forest area.
3.
4.
66
The inter-relationship between
the various components in the
VSS that helps in improving the
present management system
as well as identification of their
roles to ensure ecological
stability does not exist.
The strengthening of the socioeconomic linkages for
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
For sustainable utilization of the
natural resources it is therefore
proposed that:
5.
Indigenous knowledge to be
documented and used
systematically for improving the
health of the forest.
a)
6.
Regeneration practices to be
started on war footing for
plants like Maramanjal
(Coccinium fenstratum) etc that
have declined drastically due to
careless harvesting.
7.
Selected species of plants
(medicinal, bamboo, honey) in
demand would be raised in a
nursery for enrichment of the
gene pool area. Seed Banks
feasability of promoting local
seed banks under the overall
guidance the regional station of
National Bureau of Plant Gentic
Resources at Thrissur should
be explored.
1.
Harvesting of NTFPs to be
done exclusively by VSS
members.
2.
Awareness generation should
continue on a regular basis so
that the temperamental /
attitudinal changes that are
required to understand and
practice the concept of
sustained harvesting are
ensured.
3.
Policies, which encourage
unregulated harvesting of
medicinal plants should be
analyzed and corrective
measures taken.
4.
Mechanisms to monitor the
outcome of adapting to
sustained management should
be developed. This would also
help in capacity building or
institutional building.
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
67
2.2 Eastern Himalaya
Arunachal Pradesh
Feasibility of Introducing
Group Certification for
Swertia chirayita in
Western Arunachal
Pradesh, Eastern
Himalaya
Introduction
The state of Arunachal Pradesh is
situated in the Eastern Himalayas a
priority ecoregion and a biologically
rich 'hotspot'. Arunachal Pradesh
accounts for 2.54% of the total
geographical area of India and is a
custodian of more than 23.52% of the
flowering plants (Hegde 2002).
Arunachal Pradesh can be termed as
nature's repository of medicinal
plants (Haridasan et al. 1989) and
from the preliminary studies
undertaken so far around 500
medicinal plants have been recorded
from the region. The rich biological
resources of the region are being
utilised by nearly one million
population comprising of 25 major
tribes and 110 sub-tribes of the state
as a source of livelihood. With the
increase in the aspiration of local
people to improve their economic
condition and lifestyle, the pressure
on the available forest resources,
mainly NTFPs has increased manifold
in an unsustainable manner.
According to the survey conducted
by Mac Alpine Thorpe Warrie,
Commonwealth Consultant in 1997,
the global market for herbal products
is estimated at Rs. 36,000 crores
which is expected to grow to
Rs.1,60,000 crores by 2010 AD. Of
this, the present share of European
market is Rs. 10,800 crores. India's
share of this market is less than one
percent (Borthakur 2003). China is
the biggest producer as well as
exporter of medicinal plants,
accounting for 30% of total world
trade in 1991, followed by Korea,
USA, India and Chile. Hamburg is the
world-trading center in medicinal
plants (Iqbal 2003).
Map : Tawang, West Kameng & East Kameng District, Arunachal Pradesh
68
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
To ensure sustainable management
of forest resources, which are being
used as a source of income, Forest
Certification is one of the most
advanced and effective tools.
Certification is done by various
certifying agencies like Forest
Stewardship Council (FSC) and Pan
European Forest Certification
Scheme (PEFC) which provide written
assurance that the forest produce
that are in trade are as per specific
standards, on the basis of an audit
conducted on agreed principles. As
opposed to the quality of forest
products, certification primarily
addresses the quality of forest
management (Chatterjee et al. 2003)
This project therefore aims to analyze
the general pattern of extraction and
marketing of Chirayita in West
Kameng district of Arunachal
Pradesh as per the FSC Principle and
Criteria needed to be fulfilled for
introducing Certification. Presently
traders from outside the state come
and engage the poor and unaware
villagers for indiscriminate collection
of these plants from the wild for a
paltry amount which has resulted
near extinction of certain important
medicinal plants. Indiscriminate
collection of medicinal plants from
wild and marketing through
middlemen due to the lack of
necessary knowledge of the market
setup and actual value of the
medicinal plants has resulted in
minimum economic benefit for the
local villagers. Detailed analysis of
the pattern of collection and
marketing of Chirayita from the state
upto the year 2001-2002 is expected
to help to come out with a few
recommendations for changes which
are necessary to introduce Group
Certification to the Chirayita
gatherers. This in turn will ensure
sustainable management of Chirayita
and other medicinal plants available
in the state.
Chirayita trade in
Arunachal Pradesh:
An Overview
The state of Arunachal Pradesh
harbours a very rich stock of
economically high valued medicinal
plants in wild condition like Taxus
baccata, Coptis teeta, Acorus
calamus, Picrorhiza kurroa, Swertia
chirayita, Andrographis paniculata
etc. Local communities of the state
with limited scope of livelihood are
engaged in the trade of these plants
to improve their economic condition.
Most of the Chirayita for marketing
from the state are being harvested
from West Kameng district. The
whole process of marketing has many
players at different levels such as
agents from pharmaceutical
companies, retailers from Assam,
local contractors, local subcontractors and harvesters.
Chirayita is much prized in India as a
powerful bitter tonic. Unlike most
other medicines of this class it does
not constipate the bowels, but tends
to produce a mild laxative affect. It
promotes the flow of bile and is used
as a tonic. In gastrointestinal
disorders, like dyspepsia/anorexia it
is used as digestive, febrifuge, and
laxative. It is particularly useful in
fever as a tonic and mild febrifuge
(Kirtikar, 1985). It is used to prevent
malaria. There is huge demand of
Chirayita in Indian System of
Medicine and was imported at a tune
of 58.22t valued at Rs.14.61 lakhs in
1995-1996 (Anon 2004).
According to Forest Statistics (Upto
Year 2000-2001), in Arunachal
Pradesh, 66.35% of the total state
revenue was generated from forest
produces. However, it has declined to
only 34.18% in the year 1999-2000.
The total revenue generated from
Chirayita between 1997-98 to 2001-02
was Rs.2,96,025. However, from the
year 2001-2002 collection of Chirayita
from wild has been banned. In the
year 2001 it was made mandatory
that all the DFOs will first develop a
Working Scheme for each forest
produce and get it approved by CCF
Central, Regional Office for North
East India, Shillong. The reason for a
high revenue generation from
Chirayita collection during 2001-02
has to be explored.
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
69
Year wise Extraction Chirayita from Arunachal
Pradesh
Year
Quantity (Ton)
1991-92
6
1992-93
-
1993-94
2
1994-95
207
1995-96
-
1996-97
-
1997-98
4.5
250 000
123
123
123
123
Quantity (Kg)
123
123 Revenue (Rs)
200 000
150 000
0
1997-98
1998-99
0
0
0
0
12345
12345
12345
12345
1234567
12345
10650
22450
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
123456
12345612345
12345
4000
28625
50 000
4500
100 000
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
12345
123456
123456
12345612345
12345
244950
Source: Forest Statistics (Upto Year 2000-2001), Arunachal Pradesh
123456712345
12345
123456
1234567
123456
1999-00
2000-01
Year
2001-02
Source: PCCF Office, Itanagar (2004)
Fig 1. Total Chirayita extracted and revenue generated from it in between 1997-98 to 2001-2002
Marketing of Chirayita is a seasonal
occupation for the local villagers
which starts in the month of
September and continues upto the
month of February. In the month of
September, traders from Assam
contact the local villagers and place
their order as per the demand in the
pharmaceutical companies. At this
70
stage the price of Chirayita at
different level gets fixed which are
also as per the demand in the
pharmaceutical companies in that
year. In the existing system the
middleman plays the most crucial
role and maximum economic benefit
of this trade goes in their favour.
While harvesters at the village level
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
mostly get only 10-20% of the actual
price in the market. Marketing of
Chirayita is being done in an
unorganized manner and so no
proper records of extraction and
selling by the local contractors are
maintained.
selected which is one of the major
points of collection of Chirayita
before giving delivery to the retailers
coming from Assam. Besides, this is
also like a central point from where
Chirayita is transported out to Assam
by two routes. The detailed
information required for the analysis
was collected from local contractors,
village headman, harvesters and
Forest Department officials.
Feasibility of Introducing
Group Certification for
Chirayita Gatherers
The nature and dynamics of the
medicinal plant trade in India, and
most other developing countries as
well, is very complex. A typical chain
of such transactions starts with the
collection of the medicinal plant
materials in the wild, through tribal
and villagers, including women and
children, followed by local level
consolidation of these collections by
a network of local traders/handlers
and delivery at 'road-head' centers.
The material collected at such roadhead centre then flows down to the
local and regional wholesale markets,
the latter generally located in bigger
towns/cities (Ved 2004).
Chirayita Trade in
Shergaon Village
Since most of the Chirayita are being
harvested from common forest land
and more than one individual are
involved in the process, within the
state, starting from harvesting to
collecting and giving delivery to
retailers coming from Assam, Group
Certification is the only option that
can be explored. Hence the
subsequent section of this report is
directed towards understanding the
entire chain of Chirayita market within
the state to analyze the feasibility of
introducing Group Certification to the
gatherers of Chirayita thereby
promoting sustainable management
of its stocks available in the state.
The survey was based on 10 Forest
Stewardship Council (FSC) Principles
and Criteria, which are followed to
conduct the audit for issuing
Certificates.
The top of the chain is occupied by
'Local Contractors' who are financially
sound and can afford to pay the
Royalty to Forest Department for the
'Collection Permit' and can engage
labour to do the collection for them.
There are around nine contractors in
Shergaon village. According to the
local contractors, in the year 20032004 the demand of Chirayita was
low. These contractors have very
good networking with the retailers'
from Assam and they are the people
who receive the orders from the
retailers.
For the study local communities
engaged in Chirayita trade from
Shergaon village of West Kameng
district of the state have been
Role of Local Communities
and their socio economy in
context to Chirayita Trade
For the local villagers Chirayita trade
is seasonal and a secondary means
of earning a livelihood. It is traded in
an unorganized manner and the
number of people involved in this
trade every year vary as per the
demand in the market. But the whole
market chain has certain levels in
each of which different people with
different job types are involved.
For the collection of Chirayita
available within the jurisdiction of
their village, they either directly
purchase from local villagers who
independently collect Chirayita from
the forest or engage local as well as
migrant labourer to collect Chirayita
for them. But to collect the same
from other villages they appoint subagents locally called 'Sardars' on
commission basis. The villages from
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
71
where contractors of Shergaon village
collect Chirayita are Morsing,
Tenzingao, Jigao etc.
The mode of payments vary at in
each level. For direct purchase made
from local villagers cash payment is
made immediately after receiving the
Chirayita. Payments to the local
labourers who are employed only in
the harvesting season are also made
in cash only but a part of that are
paid in advance.
However, in the case of migrant
labourer, a part of the total payment
is made by giving them required
rations for the period. After the
harvested Chirayita is delivered to the
contractors, the balance payment,
after deducting the cost of rations,
are made by cash. Among the
migrant labourer, there are two
groups, one is of the permanent kind
which works with the contractor
during the off season on their fields,
farms etc. The other group comes
from different places and works only
during the harvesting season of
Chirayita as seasonal labourer. The
commission for the sardars who
collect Chirayita from other villages is
Rs. 5 per kilogram (kg).
In this trade, the harvester gets the
lowest profit while the profit margin
increases as the level goes higher.
In the year 2001, the local harvesters
and hired labourer received Rs.90 per
kg and Rs.35 per kg, respectively.
The permanent hired labourer and the
seasonal labourer gets the lowest
price for the harvested Chirayita. The
middlemen like local contractors and
retailers receive most of the higher
benefits. In 2002 the local harvester
received Rs.30-Rs.40 per kg,
respectively from the local
contractors, which is about 27% of
the price at which the retailers at
Assam sell Chirayita to agents
coming from various pharmaceutical
companies.
During 2001-2002, the local
contractors received Rs.140-Rs.210
per kg and Rs. 85-Rs.145 per kg from
the retailers at Assam. According to
72
the information collected from three
retailers from Tezpur, the rate of
Chirayita at Tezpur in 2001 was
Rs.300 per kg.
Chirayita Trade in
context to Legal System
All the National Acts (Indian Forest
Act 1927, Wild Life Protection Act
1972, Biodiversity Act, 2002 etc.) and
State Acts (Assam Forest Regulation
Act, 1891) are applicable. However,
Arunachal Pradesh is a tribal state
and about 74% of the total forest
cover of the district is under
Unclassed State Forest (USF)
category, which are under the control
of local communities, and local
Customary Laws prevail as well.
A. Rules and Regulation of
Forest Department:
As per the Forest Department rules
all the people willing to be involved in
the trade have to procure a
Collection Permit from the state
Forest Department. Every year, the
Divisional Forest Officer (DFO) of the
Forest Division asks for the
availability report of Chirayita from
each forest range. The assessment
report of the available stock of
Chirayita in the various Forest
Ranges is submitted to the DFO of
the respective Forest Division.
Depending on the availability of
Chirayita, the number of Collection
Permits are issued. Nearly 80% of the
total stock of Chirayita is allowed for
collection and the remaining 20% are
kept as a mother plant for seeding/
propagation of Chirayita for
regeneration.
After the assessment report is
available, the local villagers can
apply for a Collection Permit. They
have to obtain a certificate of
permanent residentship from the
Administrative Officer (CO/EAC) of
the area and a letter of
recommendation from the Gaonbura
(Village Headman) of the village.
Along with this letter, applicants fill
up a form for the procurement of the
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
Chain of harvesting and collection of Chirayita at
local level from Shergaon Village.
Harvester Group
Direct
Seller
From Bhutan
From West Kameng, India
Local Villagers
from Bhutan
Harvesters selling to
Royal Bhutan Forest
Department for Auction
Harvester from the
Village of Contractors
Harvester from other
villages
Employed
Local
Labourer of
Contractor
Employed
Migrant
Labourer of
Contractor
Local
villagers
selling
through
Sardars of
Contractors
Direct
Seller
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
73
Collection Permit and submit it to the
Range Office. The Range Officer then
forwards the application to the
Divisional Forest Office for
permission to issue the Permit from
the DFO. Once the Divisional Forest
Officer gives the clearance, the
Range Officer issues the permit to the
applicant. The applicant has to pay
the total amount of royalty in advance
to the Range Officer prior to availing
the permit.
After collecting, drying and packing
the Chirayita, the contractors have to
procure a Transit Pass from the
Forest Department to transport the
material out of the state. The Forest
Department (FD) issues a Transit
Permit after physically verifiying the
weight of the collected Chirayita. This
should be equal to the quantity of
Chirayita allowed for collection by the
FD as mentioned in the Collection
Permit.
However, since 2001, the DFO has to
prepare a Working Scheme with
regard to each forest produce. The
Collection Permit, is first forwarded to
the PCCF Office, Itanagar, from there
it goes to CCF Central, the Regional
Office for North-East India, Shillong.
Only after the Working Scheme is
approved that DFO can issue a
Collection Permit to the local
villagers.
B. Customary Laws
Arunachal Pradesh is a tribal state,
so while solving any dispute Local
Customary Laws prevail in the
villages. Most of the Customary Laws
are for crimes like theft, murder, or
marriage and property dispute etc.
No specific laws regulate the
collection and marketing of forest
produces, to ensure their sustainable
management. But in 2001-2002, in
Shergaon village, the Village Council
passed a resolution to restrict
harvesting of Chirayita before the first
week of November to ensure that the
mature seeds of the plants are
properly dispersed to ensure
sufficient regeneration of the plants in
successive years. A fine of Rs. 5000
was levied on any person violating
the law. So far there has been no
record of violation of this resolution.
Shergaon village has been divided
into two blocks, one in the eastern
side of the river Dublokho and other
one in the western side of the river.
According to the local law, the
contractors can send their labourer
for harvesting Chirayita only in the
western side of the river but they
cannot send more than two labourers
to the eastern side of the river. This is
because the Chirayita on the east is
for the local villagers who cannot
afford to hire labourer for harvesting.
All the migrant labourers have strict
instructions to sell the Chirayita that
they harvest only to the local villagers
and not directly to the traders coming
from outside.
Constraints and Gaps for
Introducing Group
Certification
Some of the major constraints and
gaps in the existing system of
Chirayita marketing for introducing
Group Certification is discussed
below.
Unorganised Marketing
Bundles of harvested Swertia Chirayita
74
The marketing of Chirayita in
Arunachal Pradesh is done in an
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
as Forest Department officials. As a
result local traders rely on standards
set by buyers. For introducing group
certification in the area, first we will
have to ensure a market for the local
villagers for sustained income and
higher benefits from sale of certified
products.
unorganised manner. Number of
people in the trade depends on the
demand of the species in the market.
Moreover this is a seasonal source of
earning for the villagers, and they
consider it as a secondary income.
Therefore identifying a particular
group for Group Certification will be
difficult.
Probable Interventions
Illegal Marketing
Chirayita is illegally traded along with
other commodities, such as
vegetables and items of day to day
use, which the Forest Officials are not
authorized to check. Moreover, most
of the villagers can hardly afford to
pay in advance the royalty for the
Collection Permit and hence prefer to
avoid legal procedures.
Constraints faced by
Forest Department
Enforcement of the laws is a difficult
task for the Forest Department as a
result of the shortage of well-trained
staff, tough geographical terrain and
Customary Laws.Due to lack of
infrastructure, the Forest Department
finds it difficult to make an
assessment of resource availability
for developing an effective
management plan.
To overcome the constraints
mentioned above and to make
certification a reality some major
changes are required in the existing
system. First of all it is necessary to
develop a mechanism to make the
monitoring more effective and to
check the indiscriminate collection
and marketing of Chirayita. Secondly
there is need to develop a simple and
transparent market system where the
villagers at the ground level get
maximum benefits. For this the focus
should be mainly on capacity
building of local villagers, to monitor
all activities related to the extraction
of Chirayita from wild and also to
market it in a systematic way. Based
on the findings of the survey, two
probable interventions have been
proposed which are mentioned
below.
Development of Village
Cooperative Society/Self
Help Group
Uncertainty of Market
The price of medicinal plants in the
market keeps fluctuating frequently
and for villagers involved in its trade
the risk factor is always very high.
The involvement of middleman in the
trade reduces the profit margins for
the local villagers. As the local
villagers are not directly in contact
with the pharmaceutical companies,
they are bound to depend on
middlemen. As a consequence of this
the middlemen and retailers in Assam
have developed a monopoly over the
trade.
Another issue of concern is that the
pharmaceutical companies do not
convey quality specifications followed
by them, to the local traders as well
In this model it has been proposed to
establish village level cooperative
societies, which will be under the
jurisdiction of the Village Panchayat
or Village Council members. The
members of the management body of
the society and all the employees will
be selected and appointed by the
Village Panchayat or Village Council
members. This will help in developing
a sound and systematic strategy for
collection and marketing of Chirayita.
In the proposed system, the local
contractors who can afford to get
Collection Permits from the Forest
Departments can obtain it on their
own but they will in turn sell the
harvested products only to the
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
75
Society. The poor local villagers who
cannot afford to get the permit from
the Forest Department, will get one
with the help of the Society who will
then engage the villagers to do the
collection for them. Here it will be the
duty of the Society to ensure that
collection is done strictly as per
norms set by the Forest Department.
The Society will thus act as the main
source of collection of Chirayita by
paying all the collectors a preapproved price fixed as per the
market demand. After this the Society
will also do the rest of the marketing.
The Society will also help check the
illegal collection and marketing of
forest resources since it will be
operational at village level and will be
in a better position to monitor all the
activities taking place at the village
level. The authorities of the Society
will be held responsible for any illegal
activity and will have to give an
explanation to the Forest
Department. To nullify the chances of
transporting products that have been
collected illegally, use of the society
vehicle can be made mandatory and
will be considered as legal.
Since the marketing of Chirayita is
seasonal, the Society may also
provide a base for the local villagers
to market local products like
handicrafts, agricultural products,
horticulture products and various
other forest products. Thus the
Society may play multiple roles to
develop the economy of the village,
based on the natural resources
available.
Capacity Building of FDA
and VFMC
In 2000, the Ministry of Environment
and Forest (MoEF), Government of
India, proposed to take up an
integrated approach through the
institution of Forest Development
Agency (FDA for the conservation of
forests and wildlife and to improve
the implementation of various
schemes). FDA will be a registered
76
society under the Societies
Registration Act at the Territorial/
Wildlife Forest Division level. The
Samanvit Gram Vanikaran Samirddhi
Yojana (SGVSY), an umbrella scheme
will integrate the common
afforestation and eco-development
efforts of various ongoing schemes,
which will be implemented by the
agency through Village Forest
Management Committee (VFMC) and
Eco-development Committee (EDC).
VFMCs will be constituted in each
village falling within the jurisdiction of
respective FDAs. These VFMC/EDCs
will also be registered bodies. Each
FDA will incorporate 25-50 villages
within its jurisdiction.
The FDA will consider each Forest
Range as a territorial unit for planning
and development. It will draw up a
comprehensive microplan integrating
community land development, agroforestry, horticulture, dairy farming,
sericulture, weaving, cultivation of
medicinal plants and its marketing
and development of permanent
community assets. This will be mainly
for the local villagers so as to
minimize their dependence on forest
resources and to increase their
income.
In the Forest Divisions where the
above proposal has been
implemented, VFMC can act as the
primary source of collection of forest
produce from the local villagers and
contractors. The FDA can act as the
final point of collection from the
VFMCs under its jurisdiction. Thereon
the product will be sold to the
retailers and buyers coming from
outside. The mode of operation will
be almost similar to what has been
suggested in the model described
above.
At present, under Bomdila Forest
Division of West Kameng district,
within the jurisdiction of Bomdila
Forest Development Agency, 14
Village Forest Management
Committees have already been
constituted. These are :
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
I. Bomdila Range
1. Khaitan VFMC
2. Pedung VFMC
3. Sera-Dekling VFMC
II. Nafra Range
4. Rurang VFMC
5. Khellong VFMC
6. Lower Dzong VFMC
7. Jerigaon VFMC
III. Dirang Range
8. Senge VFMC
9. Duwangba-left VFMC
10. Dawangba VFMC
IV. Khuphi Range
11. Denjogona VFMC
12. Khupli VFMC
13. Jania VFMC
14. Palizi VFMC
maximum profits. Also being a
society it will be easy for them
to develop a good network,
which is always difficult for an
individual.
3.
For retailers and
pharmaceutical companies:
Presently the retailers coming
from various states and
companies have to depend on
contractors who are known to
them. Hence the entry of any
new genuine retailer in to the
market becomes very difficult.
But now as the societies will
have a permanent address the
retailers can contact members
for material enquiries. And it
will become easy for them to
place their orders and to get
the materials in time.
4.
To check illegal marketing: For
the Forest Department Officials
it is not always possible to
monitor all the activities at the
village level due to various
constraints. But as the society
will have village level workers, it
will be easier for them to
monitor all the activities. Since
the societies will be bound to
work as per the norms of Forest
Department it will become their
responsibility to ensure no
illegal activities are taking
place in the villages under their
jurisdiction. Once
transportation of materials is
permitted only in vehicles
owned by the societies the
selling of illegally harvested
materials will be get curbed.
5.
For Introducing Certification:
On adopting the above model
the marketing of Chirayita and
other medicinal plants will
become more systematic and
organised. It will also become
easy to obtain the requisite
certification. For introducing
certification the Society can be
directly targeted.
Advantages of the
Proposed Interventions
Some of the advantages of the
proposed interventions are as
follows:
A. Medicinal Plant Marketing
1.
For Local villagers: The local
villagers with poor economic
conditions and no network with
the retailers will get a chance to
earn some money by working
as per the permit taken by the
Society or VFMC from Forest
Department. The villagers will
no longer have to worry about
selling their products. Moreover
the price that they will get will
be one decided by the societies
of the state as per the market
rate of that year. So the profits
will be distributed among the
local villagers equally.
2.
For the Local Contractor:
Because of a limited knowledge
about genuine retailers, the
contractors are at present
bound to sell their materials to
existing known retailers on their
terms and conditions. But in
the new system, it will be the
job of the Society to ensure the
marketing of the materials with
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
77
B. Other Benefits
1.
It will generate employment for
the local villagers.
2.
It will give a base for the
marketing of other local
products like handicrafts,
agriculture and horticulture
crops etc.
3.
Various day to day items will be
made available to them for
which they now have to travel
to big towns.
4.
Capacity of local villagers to
manage their natural resources
in a sustainable manner and
earn a livelihood from them will
be enhanced.
Functioning of the Proposed Model
Local Contractors
Direct Local Harvesters
Village Forest Management
Committee
Village Cooperative
Society/SHG
Forest Development
Agency
Retailers and
Buyers
78
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
Summary of the information collected as per the FSC Principle
Present Status
Constraints
Principle 1: Compliance with laws and FSC Principle
All the National Acts (Indian Forest Act, Wild Life
Protection Act, Biodiversity Act etc.) and State Acts
(Assam Forest regulation Act) are complied with. But
being a tribal state Local Customary Laws prevail most.
Due to shortage of well-trained staff in the State Forest
Department and a tough geographical terrain,
enforcement of all the Govt. Laws is difficult. Besides as
Customary Laws prevail in the control of most of the
Forest Resources, the Govt. enforcement agencies have
minimum scope to regulate the things happening at the
inaccessible village level.
Principle 2: Tenure and User Rights and Responsibilities
In the Forest areas directly under control of the local
villagers, the Village Council has rules to ensure that the
rights of the villagers over the forest resources is
protected. In Shergaon village, the Village Council has
passed a rule that during the harvesting season of
Chirayita, in the eastern side of the river the local
contractors can send only two labour for harvesting, so
that all the villagers get equal opportunity to harvest the
Chirayita and earn some money. While on the western
side of the river local contractors can send as many
labourers as they want. Besides all the outside traders
will have to buy Chirayita from the village through local
villagers only and the Govt. can issue Harvest Permits
to only the local villagers certified by the Village Council.
As most of the forest area belongs to the community so
the local contractor can harvest as much as Chirayita
they can from any amount of area as per their capacity.
So most of the time harvesting is done as per the
demand of the market not keeping in mind sustainability
of the resource.
Principle 3: Indigenous Peoples Rights
To safeguard the rights of local people over the forest
resources, the Forest Department issues Collection
Permits and Transit Passes only to the local villagers
who produce residence proof of belonging to the
particular village from where Chirayita and other forest
products are to be harvested. Besides the Village Council
also has a set of rules to ensure proper distribution of
the forest resources among the villagers by demarcating
forest areas in to two parts, one only for villagers who
cannot afford to get Harvest Permits from the Forest
Department and the second free for the contractors.
Though the rights of local villagers over the forest
resources are well protected but the profit that they are
earning by selling these products are about 50-60% of
the actual market price in the case of the contractors
and 10-20% for the direct harvesters. Besides there is
no regulation over the quantity to be harvested to ensure
long term sustainability.
Principle 4: Community Relations and Worker's Rights
During the season most of the harvesting is done by
local villagers. Only the contractors with Permits from
the Forest Department and those with sound financial
condition can afford to engage labourer to do harvesting
for them. For the regular labour who is already working
for the contractor through the year, is asked to harvest
Chirayita during the season time. Besides they also
engage migrant labourer during the season for
harvesting Chirayita. Payments and mode of payments
vary from person to person. The regular labourer is paid
Rs.1000-1500 per month with free lodging facility while
the migrant labourer is paid daily wages of about Rs.5075/day.
The whole process is quite unorganized, and there is no
concern for the worker's rights. Since the workers are
poor and do not have an alternate option of earning they
are bound to accept what ever the employer offers them.
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
79
Present Status
Constraints
Principle 5: Benefits from the Forest
Due to the lack of any sustainable livelihood and poor
economic conditions the local people are mostly
dependent on the forest resources for survival. So far it
has been a situation where only the extraction of
resources from the forests is taking place and no effective
steps have been taken to ensure sustainability of the
resources. Among the forest resources, only those which
have high market demand are being exploited in large
scale like medicinal plants, firewood, timber etc.
As the local people are bound to depend on the available
forest resources for their economic upliftment and as
most of these resources are under the control of local
villagers, the State Forest Department is not in the
position to regulate them.
Principle 6: Environmental Impact
Central Govt. approved working schemes check the
adverse impact of NTFP harvesting on forest resources.
To ensure natural forest regeneration and to maintain
diversity at all levels, provisions are there in the Working
Plan and Working Schemes of State Forest Department.
There is a ban on harvesting of endangered and rare
species. The Forest Department also do not encourage
the plantation of exotic species.
Due to inaccessibility and as most of the forests are
under community control, first it is tough to develop
working plans for all the forest areas. This needs a lot of
resources and secondly with limited manpower working
as per the Working Plan and Working Schemes is difficult
for the Forest Department.
Principle 7: Management Plans
State Govt. has issued instructions to all the Divisional
Forest Offices of the state to Develop Working Schemes
for harvesting of NTFPs. As a result this year Bomdila
Forest Division has stopped issuing Harvest Permits to
local villagers for harvesting NTFPs from forest.
Due to lack of manpower, funds and other necessary
resources, Forest Department Officials are finding it
problematic to develop the necessary Working Scheme.
Principle 8: Monitoring and Assessment
As per the indicators mentioned in the Working Schemes
the Forest Department staff regularly monitor the status
of the forest resources.
Due to inaccessibility and poor staff strength proper
monitoring is difficult.
Principle 9: Maintenance of High Conservation Value Forest (HCVF)
Forests with HCV are usually kept untouched and
maintained as Protected Forests as per the Working Plan.
HCVF, which are under direct control of the community,
are not possible to protect since the villagers are
dependent on it for survival.
Principle 10: Plantations
Under Social Forestry Programme plantations are done
with the compensation fund that the Forest Department
receives from various agencies like BRTF, PWD, NHPC
etc. for diversion of forest areas either for road cutting,
dam construction etc.
80
Not applicable in the present context.
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
The Way Ahead :
ii)
Lessons learned from the preceeding
case studies provides future
directions to the initiatives taken so
far. These are briefly summarized as
follows :
Better practice of Raab
cultivation in Dangs
district of Gujarat in
Western Ghats
The pilot experiment to grow millet
without raab burning that is presently
causing immense damage to the
Dangs forest can be scaled up to
include many more villages where
this method of cultivation is
practiced. Vermi-composting,
development of methods to maintain
soil temperature, protection of the
watershed could be some good
practices. This would require
sustained efforts, a campaign to
motivate and sensitize the locals on
one hand, and larger involvement of
other stakeholders like the Agriculture
Science Centre, Dangs, Navsari on
the other. This initiative has to be
coupled with the promotion of
alternative means of livelihood like
handicraft development through use
of bamboo species like
Dendrocalamus strictus and
Bambusa arundinaceae.
Afforestation of
degraded land and
monitoring and
evaluation of JFM with
the Forest Protection
Committies in
Maharashtra and Gujarat
Approximately 3000 ha will be put
under the afforestation project in
Maharashtra covering around 75
villages, and measuring
approximately 50% of the JFM
villages. The medicinal plant project
will be undertaken either on village
community land or on a private land
provided for the purpose by any of
the villagers in the 100 different
villages. The involvement of the JFM
could be sought for undertaking
several voluntary works (shramdaan)
for construction of boundary works,
digging pits, procurement of
saplings, etc. Efforts will be made to
plant indigenous species for the
purpose of short and long term gains
useful for villagers. A society could
be set up for processing and
marketing the herbal products
cultivated under model project.
i)
Restoration with JFM
committees could be initiated
in Dangs forest of Gujarat.
ii)
Development of Criteria and
Indicators for sustainable forest
management. Assessment of
the success of JFM through
criteria and indicators
developed by committies
themselves in all villages.
Capacity Building of
Forest Protection
Committees in Kerala
WWF-India intends to use a twopronged strategy by implementing:
i)
A model project in each of the
JFM villages for cultivation of
medicinal and other
economically important plant
species.
A massive afforestation
programme on all the degraded
and barren community forest
land with the help of all
involved.
Two more VSS have been proposed
to be included for scaling up of the
initiative on capacity building of the
forest protection committees to cover
an area of 2500 ha. Specific activities
would include:
•
Forming Self Help Groups to
undertake activities related to
the management of NTFPs.
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
81
•
Taking initiatives related to
improving the socio-economic
conditions of the community.
•
Arranging interactive sessions
for the VSSs to gather
information through sharing of
ideas and experiences and for
encouraging their involvement
and contribution in activities
related to sustainable utilization
of Natural Resources and
Forest, management.
•
An area of focus could be
enrichment of the Gene Pool
Areas maintained by the USS
with species which are over
harvested.
Group Certification of
Swertia chirayita in
Arunachal Pradesh,
Eastern Himalaya
Our studies in Arunachal Pradesh
and in other states like Uttaranchal
and Himachal Pradesh indicate that
certification is not imminent (WWFIndia, 2004). It is however possible to
promote the best practices for
cultivation of medicinal plants. For
Arunachal Pradesh, WWF-India can
help development of management
plant for NTFPs, Swertia chirayita to
begin with.
82
Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
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Conservation with Communities in the Biodiversity ‘Hotspots’ of India
83
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