Victor N. Dublyansky and Yuri V. Dublyansky-The Problem of Condensation in Karst Studies. Journal of Cave and Karst Studies 60(1): 3-17.
THE PROBLEM OF CONDENSATION IN KARST STUDIES
VICTOR N. DUBLYANSKY
Simferopol University. 4, Yaltinskaya str., Simferopol, Crimea, 333036, UKRAINE
YURI V. DUBLYANSKY
Institute of Mineralogy & Petrography, Russian Academy of Sciences, Siberian Branch, 3 University Avenue,
Novosibirsk, 630090, RUSSIA
Condensation in karst occurs over a wide range of natural settings, at latitudes from 25º to 70º and altitudes from sea level to 2600 m. In summer (April through September), condensation introduces a significant amount of water into the karst massifs (from 0.1% to as much as 20% of the total dry-season
runoff). Contrary to common belief, in winter evaporation does not withdraw appreciable amounts of
water from the massifs. Evaporating at depth, the water condenses near the surface within the epikarstic
zone or on the snow cover and flows back. Condensation can sustain springs during prolonged dry periods (such as summer and winter) when there is no recharge by liquid precipitation.
Condensation can play a significant role in speleogenesis, and many forms of cave macro-, meso-, and
micromorphologies are attributable to condensation corrosion. It can be particularly efficient in the latter stages of hydrothermal cave development (during partial dewatering) when the temperature and the
humidity gradients are highest. Coupled with evaporation, air convection, and aerosol mass transfer,
condensation can play a crucial role in the formation of a number of speleothems, as well as create peculiar patterns of cave microclimate.
Early statements advocating the condensation of moisture
in caves can be found in texts of the ancient Greek philosophers Thales of Miletus, Empedocles, and Aristotle (VI-IV
BC). Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (I AD) stated his belief that the
moisture can condense from the vapors of hot waters rising
from depth of the Earth (Fedoseev, 1975). During the following fifteen centuries, the natural phenomena were interpreted
in accordance with theological dogmas. Only in XVI-XVIII
AD, the European philosophers Georgius Agricola, Rene
Descartes, and Athanasius Kircher brought back into scientific
use the ideas of ancient natural philosophy. Eventually, O.
Volger offered a more or less comprehensive hypothesis about
formation of groundwater by condensation process (Volger,
1877). The hypothesis, however, came under severe criticism
(Hann, 1880) and, after relatively short debate, was abandoned. It was A. Lebedev who revived the ideas of Volger in a
series of publications of 1908-1926. The latter went largely
unnoticed outside Russia due to the unfavorable historic background: World War I and Russian revolutions.
According to the concept of Lebedev (1936), the vapor
moves from areas with elevated partial vapor pressure and air
temperature to the areas with lower values of these parameters.
For more than 70 years, the concept of Lebedev provided the
basis for studies of natural condensation; only recently several
papers suggesting re-consideration of the concept have been
published (Tkachenko, 1978; Kuldzhaev, 1989). Applied to
karst, the concept of Lebedev implies that condensation should
occur in caves during warm seasons, and that evaporation must
prevail there during cold seasons (Fig. 1).
Shestakov (1989) compiled a bibliography of more than
Copyright © 1998 by The National Speleological Society
Figure 1. Potential of condensation and evaporation in the
karst massifs of the Crimea Mountains (after Dublyankky
& Lomaev, 1980; generalized). Many other karst massifs
of the former Soviet Union exhibit similar patterns, though
the concrete values of all parameters may vary. eS is the
absolute humidity on the surface; eU is the absolute humidity underground; (eS-eU) - is the gradient of the absolute
humidity of the air entering the cave; t - is the duration of
condensation period. Condensation occurs when es > eu.
1,000 papers on condensation. About 10% of the researchers
believe that only evaporation of soil- and ground water occurs
and that condensation of atmospheric moisture underground is
not possible; 40% think that the input of water due to summer
Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, April 1998 • 3
PROBLEM OF CONDENSATION IN KARST STUDIES
condensation is balanced by water withdrawal due to winter
evaporation; and ∼50% consider the condensate an important
component of the water balance, but abstain from numerical
estimations.
Difficulties involved in quantifying the condensation are
reflected in method and reference sources, which state that:
“due to the fact that quantitative determination of condensation
is difficult and time consuming, it is not expedient to take it
into account in water balance studies” (Borevsky et al., 1976:
120); or: “due to practical difficulties in determining the condensation, the latter is conventionally lumped with the precipitation and the evaporation” (Pinneker, 1980: 89).
There is no agreement regarding the role of condensation
among karst researchers, either. By way of example: Martel
(1894) rejected the very possibility of it; Trombe (1952) and
Gvozdetsky (1954) believed that it plays significant role in
speleogenesis; and Gergedava (1970) assigned to condensation
the leading role in speleogenesis.
By and large, the importance of condensation in karst and
other hydrogeological processes seems to be underestimated.
For instance, a fundamental review on karst geomorphology
and hydrology by Ford and Williams (1989) only mentions
seasonal condensation (p. 469) and condensation corrosion,
mostly in hypogenic settings (p. 309). Meanwhile, the longstanding karst studies in the Crimea, Caucasus, and some other
regions of the former Soviet Union reveal an important role of
condensation in both formation of karst waters, and speleogenesis. Being published mostly in Russian, these data remain
largely unavailable to the non-Russian researchers. This
prompted us to prepare the present review.
Restricted volume of the paper does not allow us to present all
pertinent references (many more references can be found in the
bibliographic index by Shestakov, 1989), or to give detailed
data on physical and geographical settings of studied objects
(instead, we use statistical generalizations, such as the mean
values and the coefficients of variation, Cv); as well as to provide all pertinent details about the methods used (in many
instances we only outline their rationales). This should be
viewed as an unavoidable shortcoming of a review paper.
DIFFERENT LEVELS OF CONDENSATION STUDIES
The discordant opinions about condensation, quite common in
karst literature, often resulted from the difference in study
methods and approaches. The latter strongly depend on the
scale of studies. For the sake of simplicity, we will discuss separately four levels of condensation studies: global, regional,
local, and object levels. It should be born in mind that the data
and results obtained at one level cannot always be directly
translated onto another level.
STUDY OF CONDENSATION ON THE GLOBAL LEVEL
The possibility of condensation can be assessed on the
global scale in dependence on latitudes and altitudes. The
attempt of such assessment was done by Dublyanskaya and
Dublyansky (1989) (Fig. 2). They used data on latitudinal distribution of absolute humidity of the air (Khromov &
Mamontova, 1963) along with the data on humidity in caves
located at different latitudes and altitudes (by Moore and
Sullivan (1978) with corrections by the data of other
researchers). During the warm period (July) condensation can
occur at latitudes from 25º to 70º; at lower latitudes evaporation prevails. During the cold period (January), evaporation
prevails in caves at any latitude. The rates of condensation and
evaporation change with altitude.
Naturally, Figure 2 is a broad generalization; it depicts only
the possibility of condensation. Processes occurring in real
caves depend on climatic zone in which the cave is located,
position of the cave within karst massif, passage of frontal systems, and many other factors. Also, Figure 2 implies that the
input of water from summer condensation is counterbalanced
by its withdrawal during winter evaporation. However, the
local-level studies of condensation suggest that this does not
happen in natural settings (see section “Winter condensation”
below).
STUDY OF CONDENSATION ON THE REGIONAL LEVEL
Fig. 2. Possibility of condensation in karst during warm
(July) and cold (January) seasons at different latitudes L
and altitudes above sea level H. Condensation occurs when
(es - eu) > 0 (after Dublyanskaya & Dublyansky, 1989).
4 • Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, April 1998
The regional-level studies deal with condensation within
mountainous constructions (e.g., the Crimea) or individual
karst massifs (e.g., Chatirdag massif, one of nine karst massifs
of the Crimea). At this level, the following features are suggestive of condensation.
Low-discharge springs. Such springs exist within isolated
karst-erosional or structure-denudational remnants which are
located close to mountain summits, crests, and passes. In such
settings, the recharge via infiltration is insignificant, which
suggest condensation as the source of waters (Slavianov, 1955;
DUBLYANSKY AND DUBLYANSKY
Figure 3. Discharge hydrographs (schematized). a according to the model of the drainage of stored water; b according to the condensation model. Inset shows the daily
oscillations of the hydrograph during a period of condensation recharge (dry season; August-September on this
graph). The values shown in the inset correspond to actual
values measured for the Krasnopeshernaya River in the
Crimea.
Protasov, 1959; Dublyansky, 1977; Dublyansky et al., 1985).
Constant summer discharges of karst springs. During
summer dry season, karst springs display hydrographs which
may be approximated by smooth recession curves. This type of
hydrograph is normally interpreted by a model of drainage of
karst in which water drains from storage in caves, fissures, and
pores. A number of expressions approximate the observed
recession curves; the one most frequently used is:
Qt = Q0 e-αt
spring) and governs the systematic daily variations around this
level. A similar pattern was observed in springs located at different altitudes. It does not depend on the presence and composition of vegetation, which could induce “evapotranspirational” cyclicity of discharge. Also, the relation between the
discharge of springs and the variations of the gravitational field
caused by the interaction of the Earth, the Moon, and the Sun,
reported by Kinzikeev (1993), has not been confirmed in the
Krasnaya Cave area. Thus, we believe that condensation provides the most appropriate explanation for the observed patterns of the dry-season discharges.
Meteorological data. The senior author, for a number of
years, monitored the discharges of several springs which were
suspected to be fed by condensation, along with meteorological parameters (Dublyansky, 1977). A strong correlation was
found between dry-season discharge (nil precipitation during 1
to 4 months), and meteorological parameters for 15 springs in
the Crimea and 6 springs in Western Caucasus located at altitudes from 30 to 1800 m and having discharge from 0.012 to
8.660 L s-1. Systematic diurnal variations of discharge, Q, and
water temperature, Tw, which were correlated with changes in
dynamic parameters of the air, controlling condensation (that
is, temperature of the air, TA, and its absolute humidity, es) were
observed during warm seasons (June-August) over a period
from 1965 through 1994. These relations have statistically significant values of the coefficient of correlation (0.77-0.99 ±
0.05-0.21). The response of Q and Tw to the changes of TA and
es is normally delayed; hence, a travel-time correction (retardation ∆t) must be applied. The latter ranges from 1 to 15 hours
for different springs (Fig. 4 and Table 1). Tw changes during a
day almost synchronously with Q and does not show appreciable correlation with TA. One may assume that water controls
(1)
where Q is the discharge [m3 s-1] at times t and 0, t is the time
elapsed [days], and α is the recession coefficient [T-1] (Ford &
Williams, 1989; p. 196). Quite often, however, after reaching a
certain minimum at n⋅10-2-n⋅100 l s-1, the falling hydrograph
limb levels off and remains horizontal (Fig. 3) for a long period of time (1 to 4 months). This has been reported by Jenko
(1959) as a “precise constancy of dry-season discharges” in
karst springs of the Dinaric Karst (Yugoslavia). Similar patterns were found for karst springs in the Crimea, the Caucasus,
and some other karst areas of the former Soviet Union
(Dublyansky et al., 1984; 1985; 1989).
The analysis of daily hydrographs of the
Krasnopeshchernaya River in the Crimea (fed by karst springs
withdrawing water from the Dolgorukov karst massif, with its
13.7-km-long Krasnaya Cave) performed for the period from
1963 through 1988 revealed a fine structure of dry-season discharges. Having average daily value of 6 l s-1, the discharge
exhibits regular daily variations, increasing from 4 to 8 l s-1 and
then lowering again (Fig. 3, inset). Thus, the drainage of stored
water is overprinted by a certain dynamic process, which stabilizes the discharge of springs at some level (specific to each
Figure 4. Daily variations of the discharge, Q, and the temperature, TW, of a condensation-fed spring as compared
with variation of absolute humidity of the atmospheric air,
es. t - is the lag time (travel time).
Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, April 1998 • 5
PROBLEM OF CONDENSATION IN KARST STUDIES
Table 1
Discharge and water temperature in the condensation-fed springs in limestone massifs of the Crimea and Caucasus, and correlation
between the discharge, Q, and absolute air humidity, e
Spring name
Altitude Period of
m
observations
Mean discharge Q
l s-1
CV
Crimea
Mean TW
ºC
CV
Lag time Coefficient of correlation
hours
between Q and e
Ay-Petri
Beshtekne
Beshtekne
Pahkal-Kaya
Chatirdag
Alushta
Alushta
Mangup
Kizil-Koba
Aleshina Voda
Red Cave #33
Petrovski-1
Preduschelnoye
Petrovski-2
Yanishar
Opuka
1100
1000
980
960
920
920
730
575
550
550
510
420
380
330
160
30
0.012
6.100
0.770
0.014
0.008
0.054
0.181
0.370
8.560
2.350
1.460
0.110
0.700
0.104
0.020
0.105
7.2
6.5
7.7
10.1
12.4
6.5
8.5
10.6
9.8
9.6
9.6
10.9
10.5
11.2
13.3
0.04
0.01
0.03
0.04
0.26
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.04
0.01
0.02
0.02
2
3
3
6
4
3
3
4
15
6
8
2
4
14
18
10
0.95±0.09
0.78±0.17
0.72±0.11
0.80±0.12
0.57±0.16
0.86±0.09
0.85±0.13
0.92±0.12
0.81±0.07
0.85±0.14
0.81±0.16
0.74±0.16
0.83±0.21
0.75±0.18
0.96±0.02
0.73±0.18
July 1-2, 1959
June 26-27, 1989
July 8-9, 1989
June 27-28, 1994
June 20-21, 1995
July 20-21, 1991
July 20-21, 1991
July 25-26, 1971
Aug 24-25, 1965
Aug 25-26, 1965
June 26-27, 1984
June 18-19, 1986
Aug 2-3, 1989
July 9-10, 1991
May 1-2, 1988
July 2, 1991
0.03
0.07
0.05
0.07
0.20
0.04
0.02
0.06
0.22
0.17
0.02
0.05
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.04
Caucasus
Bagia
Gelgeluk
Alek
Alek
Proval
Akhun
1800
1780
960
920
600
210
July 12-13, 1983
July 19-20, 1984
Aug 5-6, 1971
Aug 6-7, 1971
Aug 21-22, 1975
July 27-28, 1976
0.220
1.400
0.220
0.170
0.830
0.030
0.01
0.03
0.03
0.04
0.04
0.05
8.5
4.1
9.2
9.6
30.0
8.9
0.11
0.02
0.06
0.05
0.03
0.02
1
5
5
5
16
7
0.99±0.05
0.92±0.09
0.88±0.07
0.92±0.09
0.72±0.19
0.87±0.14
Mean
-
-
1.132
0.05
10.1
0.03
6
0.84±0.12
temperature during condensation, as the specific heat capacity
of water (1 cal g-1 degree-1) is 4 to 6 times as large as the specific heat capacity of karstifiable rocks (e.g., 0.16-0.24 cal g-1
degree-1 for limestone and 0.20-0.25 cal g-1 degree-1 for gypsum).
Geological engineering data. Much about condensation
associated with construction works within karst terrains (residential and industrial buildings, asphalt and concrete covers,
embankments, airdrome runways, etc.) has been published
(Vedernikov & Larina, 1985). Condensation is viewed as a
major factor in the rise of the groundwater (underflooding)
within urbanized territories (Riazanova, 1987).
At the regional level, three groups of methods are used for
quantitative determinations of condensation: (1) water balance
studies; (2) calculation methods; and (3) microclimatic methods.
Water balance studies. A number of attempts have been
undertaken for the Crimea Mountains to estimate condensation
using water balance equation: [condensation = precipitation (evapotranspiration+runoff)] (Golovkinsky, 1894; Vasilievski
and Zheltov, 1932; Glukhov, 1963). The calculated values varied from 0.7 to 25.0% of the rainfall. This approach is inap-
6 • Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, April 1998
propriate, as the calculated values are of the same magnitude
as are estimated errors for other constituents of the water balance (15-20%).
Calculation methods. In 1938 through 1986 a number of
researchers suggested methods for calculation of condensation
within karst massifs. Most of those methods have important
shortcomings: some of them contain terms which hardly can
be determined; other are suitable for too general or, vice versa,
too particular calculations. By way of illustration we present
one of the suggested methods. Sitnikov (1986) studied the
dynamics of moisture- and salt transfer in the aeration zone
and suggested the following for estimation of condensation:
(2)
where q is the condensation on or evaporation from a surface
[m day-1]; β is a coefficient accounting for the state of water on
(from) the surface of which condensation (evaporation) occurs
[m day-1]; σ is a coefficient accounting for the effective surface
of condensation (evaporation) [parts of unity]; γL is the density
DUBLYANSKY AND DUBLYANSKY
Karst massif
Surface
area
mm
km2
The amount of condensed water
% of yearly total
Contribution to runoff l s-1 km-2
precipitation
Annual
Per warm season
Western Carpathians
Table 2.
Condensation
as related to
recharge of
some karst
massifs of
Ukraine,
Russia, and
Georgia (after
Dublyansky,
1977;
Dublyansky
and Kiknadze,
1984;
Dublyansky et
al., 1985; and
Vakhrushev,
1993).
Calculations
are by equation
(3).
Ugolsk
12.0
1
0.1
0.02
0.11
2.46
0.81
0.86
2.38
1.85
1.15
5.00
2.94
3.09
5.30
9.60
1.70
Crimea
Aipetri
Dolgorukov
Karabi
Chatirdag
Inner Range
Opuka
97.7
79.5
217.4
23.4
293.0
2.7
77
25
27
69
11
36
6.4
3.0
3.2
7.2
2.0
9.1
Western Caucasus
Kavminvody
Alek-Akhtsu
Dzikhra-Vorontsov
Akhshtir-Akhun
Arabika
Bzib
Khipsa
Gumishkha
Duripsh
495.0
28.8
38.0
19.0
517.8
297.8
186.8
263.5
40.9
Mean
CV
8
82
41
22
134
121
149
61
4
1.2
3.4
1.9
1.1
5.6
4.8
5.8
3.1
0.1
0.25
2.60
1.85
0.69
4.27
3.85
4.72
1.95
0.12
0.68
6.12
4.20
1.40
9.36
8.40
10.13
4.37
0.28
54
0.87
3.5
0.73
1.86
0.79
4.54
0.75
of water [kg m-3]; PL and Pw are the pressure of water [Pa]; and
PAT is the atmospheric pressure [Pa]. This equation can be used
for covered karst, but is not applicable to the directly exposed
karst or to individual caves.
Microclimatic method. It is based on the equation introduced by Obolensky (1944) and modified by Dublyansky
(1969):
A = V ε (es-eu) t J
(3)
where A is the amount of condensate [g]; V is the volume of the
active part of the karst massif [m3] (estimated from topographic and geologic maps and considering the depth of caves); ε is
the fissuration and karst porosity [parts of unity] (estimated by
geological, geophysical, or hydrochemical methods by density
of fissuration and the volume of caves); (es-eu) is the difference
of absolute humidities on the surface and underground [g m-3]
(determined by meteorological and climate data; see Fig. 1); t
is the duration of condensation period [day] (see Fig. 1); J is
the frequency of air exchange [day-1] (estimated by air flow
velocities measured in caves and scaled to the average fissure
and/or cave dimensions; Dublyansky, 1969).
This method has several apparent shortcomings. For
instance, it is difficult to determine ε and J accurately. Also, the
diffusion of water vapor, which does not depend on air movement, is not considered. In actual practice, nevertheless, it
gives satisfactory results. It has been calibrated on a monitored
massif of the Krasnaya Cave (the Crimea) and gave fair agreement (±10%) with the values obtained by an independent
method (measurement of the dry-season spring discharges).
The microclimatic method was used to determine the role
of condensation in recharge of karst waters within 16 karst
massifs of the former Soviet Union (Table 2). The data imply
that condensation accounts for 0.1 to as much as 9.1% of the
total annual precipitation (mean 3.5%, Cv = 0.73). The average yearly condensation runoff is 1.86 l s-1 km-2 (Cv = 0.79).
Because condensation occurs only during the warm season, it
is worthwhile to calculate seasonal (warm-season) runoff. Its
mean value for the massifs studied is 4.54 l s-1 km-2. Calculated
values show good correlation with the dry-season discharges
of springs located within the massifs (coefficient of correlation
r = 0.7-0.8).
Microclimatic calculations reveal some interesting peculiarities of condensation in karst massifs located at different
altitudes (Fig. 5). Equation (3) comprises both static (V, e) and
dynamic (t, es, eu, and, J) members. The values of the term (eseu) decrease with increasing altitude, whereas those of t
increase. The coupled effect is the appearance of the conden-
Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, April 1998 • 7
PROBLEM OF CONDENSATION IN KARST STUDIES
Figure 5. The dynamic parameter of condensation, t (eSeU), as related to altitude above sea level, H. Data for the
Bzib massif, Western Caucasus.
sation minimum at 800-1600 m and of two maximums below
800 and above 1600 m.
Naturally, the results presented in this section do not give an
exhaustive account of all aspects of regional level condensation studies. For instance, of particular interest are the annual
patterns of condensation in karst massifs located within different altitude zones having different vegetation cover; condensation in high altitude karst massifs; change of condensation pattern due to passage of frontal systems, etc. These problems are
not yet explored adequately.
STUDY OF CONDENSATION ON THE LOCAL LEVEL
The local level deals with individual caves as well as with
small karst remnants feeding karst springs.
8 • Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, April 1998
Historical and archeological data. Water which condensed on naturally collapsed rock or within man-made piles
of gravel was used for water supply in ancient and medieval
settlements in Southern Europe and Central Asia (Zibold,
1904; Tugarinov, 1955; Klimochkin, 1973; Firsov, 1990;
Vakhrushev, 1993). Destruction of such structures, as well as
destruction of small isolated limestone remnants (e.g., their
quarrying for gravel during road construction) led to decrease
in discharge or even cessation of condensation-fed springs
(e.g., Gaspra Isar and Morcheka springs in the Crimea).
Observations and microclimatic studies in caves. Studies
through the past thirty years have revealed condensation in
caves of varied location, morphology, and microclimate, as
well as in underground mines (Ustinova, 1956; Protasov, 1959;
Prokofiev, 1964; Lukin, 1969; Andrieux, 1970; Eremenko &
Kolpashnikov, 1974; Dublyansky, 1977; Ginet, 1977;
Racovitca & Viemann, 1984).
The possibility that there may be condensation occurring in
a cave may be estimated by measuring the difference between
absolute humidity on the surface and underground (es-eu).
Microclimatic observations from 290 caves of the Crimea and
Western Caucasus (more than 10,000 measurements and 5,000
continuous daily records of air pressure, temperature, and
humidity) demonstrated the existence of condensation and
revealed its daily, weekly, and monthly variations (Dubljanski
& Sockova, 1977; Tsikarishvili, 1981; Dublyansky et al.,
1989). Condensation was observed in caves during the warm
season (maximum in July and August). Evaporation prevails
during the cold season, though in some particular settings condensation also can occur. The diurnal pattern of condensation
is controlled by change of the temperature and humidity on the
surface (maximum at 10 a.m. - 4 p.m. and minimum at 10 p.m.
- 2 a.m.).
Condensation and chemosorption in caves and underground mines in hygroscopic rocks (massive halite and potash
deposits) were reported by Maksimovich (1963), Eremenko
and Kolpashnikov (1974), and Beltukov (1989). Korotkevich
(1970) demonstrated that at relative humidity close to 100%,
the rate of condensation there may be as high as 180-225 mm
yr-1.
Calculations of the amount of condensation in Kungur Ice
Cave, Urals were performed by Lukin (1969). He calculated
that some 2⋅105 m3 of air passes through a cave per day. Each
cubic meter of air leaves behind some 4.6 g of condensed water
(which yields on a daily basis 920 kg). For five caves in the
Crimea, Ustinova (1956) obtained somewhat lower values of 3
g m-3 at a rate of air exchange of 0.3⋅105 m3 day-1.
Detailed microclimatic studies carried out between 1960
and 1970 in 157 caves of the Crimea (Dublyansky et al., 1989)
yielded an average value of condensation 19.9 g m-3 (Cv =
1.45). Condensation reaches a maximum of 75.8 g m-3 in July
in vertical shafts; values of 0.7-4.0 g m-3 were measured in
open caves located on the plateau, which agrees with earlier
results by Ustinova (1956). Jameson and Calvin Alexander
(1989) reported condensation rates of 30-90 g m-2 day-1 on ver-
DUBLYANSKY AND DUBLYANSKY
tical surfaces and 45-200 g m-2 day-1 on horizontal surfaces in
Snedegar’s Cave in West Virginia. Similar studies have been
carried out in caves of Romania, France, and some other countries (Andrieux, 1970, Racovitca & Viemann, 1984).
Calculations of condensation. Several methods of condensation calculation in caves have been suggested; each method
based on different theoretical premises. Mucke, Völker, and
Wadewitz (1983) suggested an empirical equation for calculation of condensation:
m = (25 + 20W) (XS -XL),
(4)
where m is the condensation rate [g m-2 hour-1]; W is the velocity of the air motion [m s-1]; Xs is the saturation humidity in the
boundary layer between air and cave wall [g kg-1]; and XL is the
humidity of the bulk of the air at the same temperature [g kg1].
Eraso (1969) pointed out that when warm air enters a cave,
it cools down and a part of its moisture can condense. The
decrease of the temperature is defined as:
∆T = (K - I)(1000CPγ )-1
(5)
where ∆T is the decrease of temperature [ºC]; K and I are the
heat content of moist- and dry air masses [kcal m-3]; CP is the
specific heat capacity of the air [cal g-1 degree-1]; and γ is the
air density [kg m-3]. A similar approach was independently
developed by Dublyansky and Iliukhin (1981).
Golod (1981) has developed a mathematical model of coupled aero-, thermo-, and hydrodynamic processes in caves. He
assumed that condensation, being a low-intensity process,
occurs at an equilibrium (along the curve of saturation). This
allows calculation of condensation by:
PH = P0 exp [µn LK/R] [(TB - T0)/(TB T0)]
(6)
dQK = ρL LK dVK,
(7)
and
where PH is the pressure of saturated vapor; P0 and T0 are the
pressure and the temperature at the triple point; µn is the molecular weight of the vapor; LK is the specific heat of condensation; R is the universal gas constant; TB is the absolute temperature; dQK is the heat released in process of condensation; dVK
is the amount of condensed water; and ρL is the density of the
liquid phase.
Comprehensive thermodynamic calculations of condensation processes were performed by Bruent and Vidal (1981) in
order to develop methods of protecting the Paleolithic paintings in the Lascaux Cave, France. The air conditioning system
was constructed in the cave on the basis of these calculations.
Winter condensation. The local-level studies of condensation fostered some fundamentally new ideas about the forma-
Figure 6. The pattern of air and moisture circulation characteristic of cold-season condensation setting. a - snow; b movement of water in form of vapor; c - movement of
water under the influence of gravity; T - the temperature
of the cave air; e - absolute humidity.
tion of ground waters. The problem of special interest is the
winter condensation (distillation). The warm-season condensation in caves is accompanied by an input of moisture from the
outside atmosphere. The cold-season evaporation, however,
does not remove all moisture from the rocks: the water evaporated deep within a karst massif condenses within the
epikarstic zone or on the snow pack (Fig. 6). Thus, there occurs
an “internal circulation of moisture”, which does not increase
the total amount of water stored in the massif, but significantly increases the residence time of water in the rock and thus
enhances condensation-related karstification. Winter condensation sustains the runoff from high-mountain karst massifs
during periods when they are devoid of recharge by liquid precipitation.
Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, April 1998 • 9
PROBLEM OF CONDENSATION IN KARST STUDIES
Figure 7. Condensation in a hydrothermal cave: a - thermal lake; b - movement of water vapor; c - movement of
water as a liquid under the influence of gravity (after
Szunyogh, 1982).
The winter condensation could be the mechanism, which
prevents the large-scale removal of the moisture from karst
massifs by evaporation during cold seasons. The surface area
of open cave entrances through which such removal can take
place is negligible relative to the total surface area of karst
massifs.
Existence of winter condensation was confirmed by targeted observations in karst massifs of the Western Caucasus
(Dublyansky et al., 1985). On some of them, the snow cover
lies during 3-5 months and its thickness reaches 6-12 m (e.g.,
Bzib massif). There exists only insignificant runoff in caves; it
is well correlated with the changes of negative air temperatures
on the surface. Detailed microclimatic surveys have shown
that this runoff cannot be accounted for by melting of snow at
its base due to geothermal flux. The karst massifs are deeply
cooled fragments of the Earth’s crust, where the “normal”
10 • Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, April 1998
geothermal gradient begins to control the rock temperatures
only at great depths.
Winter condensation was also determined in the PinegoKuloy karst region, Northern Russia, where Malkov and Frantz
(1981) reported formation of condensate drops during 11 days,
when outside air temperature varied from -7º to -42ºC.
Hydrothermal condensation. A special case of condensation in caves is hydrothermal condensation occurring above the
surface of underground thermal waters during the partial dewatering stage of hydrothermal caves (Fig. 7). Such a mechanism
is believed to be responsible for the carving of peculiar spherical niches known in caves of Hungary (Müller, 1974), Italy
(Cigna & Forti, 1986), and elsewhere. Theoretical consideration (Szunyogh, 1982; 1990, Dublyansky, 1987) as well as laboratory experimentations (Dreibrodt, 1994, pers. comm.) have
shown that condensation in such a system is a naturally attenuating process: it slows down due to the low rate of heat transfer through the bedrock. In natural settings, however,
hydrothermal condensation may become a powerful influence
in karst formation if cooling of the bedrock occurs due to even
minor ventilation. The latter is quite probable, as such caves
develop not far from the topographic surface within the zone of
aeration. A prominent example of such convection-condensation-corrosion is known in Grotta Giusti, Italy. The cave contains a lake of thermal water having a temperature of 32-34ºC,
while the temperature of the rock in the upper level of the cave
is 20ºC. The rate of condensation in this cave was estimated to
be 8,640 l day-1, and the estimated amount of bedrock CaCO3
dissolved was 630 g day-1 (Cigna & Forti, 1986).
Study of condensation on the local level reveals many
interesting problems, which require special detailed studies.
Examples of such particular problems are: formation of condensation moisture in “mixing fogs”, condensation in narrow
passages due to increase of velocity of the air flow (accompanied by decrease of the pressure and temperature), influence of
cave ice on condensation (sublimation), evaporation from the
surface of inflowing water and further re-distribution of the
moisture in the cave, and many others.
STUDY OF CONDENSATION ON THE OBJECT LEVEL
These studies deal with the separate parts of caves (e.g.,
isolated rooms, near-entrance zones, etc.), condensation
devices of different design, as well as special tasks (e.g., studies of mineral formation, development of measures to preserve
ancient graffiti and paintings, etc.).
Being studied at the object level, condensation appears to
be quite a heterogenous process, and the pattern of condensation/evaporation within individual caves can be extremely
complex. In some caves, the seasonal pattern of condensation
and evaporation discussed above, can be interrupted by relatively short (from days to weeks) reversals (e.g., evaporation in
summer due to passage of frontal systems and change of air
circulation pattern).
DUBLYANSKY AND DUBLYANSKY
Table 3
The output of different types of condensation setups constructed on the surface.
Author
Years
Location
Altitude
Characteristics of the setup
Type of infilling
m asl
Volume m3
Yield
l day-1 per
each m3 of infilling
Golovkinsky, N.A.
and Peddakas, I.K
Zibold, F.I.
Khudiaev I.E.
1864-1905
300
0.04-0.14
clay, sand
0.028
1912
1931
190
480
1117.0
0.03
pebble
gravel
0.320
0.980
Beliavsky, A.Y.
Tugarinov, V.V.
Reiniuk, I.G.
1940
1951
1951-1965
Crimea,
Southern Coast
Eastern Crimea
Crimea,
Southern Coast
Kiev
Moscow area
Kolima Region
100
280
200
Protasov, V.A.
1955
400
0.01
300.0
from 0.007
to 0.016
0.25
sand, loess
gravel
sand
gravel
gravel
2.324
0.620
0.022
0.370
0.018
Klimochkin, V.V.
1958-1970
?
0.01-0.05
Dublyansky, V.N.
Pribluda, V.D.
1960
1963-1976
1100
900
900.0
22.0
sand
pebble
gravel
gravel
gravel, cobbles
0.050
0.060
0.100
0.016
0.012
Crimea,
Southern Coast
Siberia and
Kola Peninsula
Western Crimea
Western Crimea
Mean
Cv
Condensation typically occurs on the surface of the cave
bedrock, sediments (in the latter case it could be accompanied
by different kinds of sorption), or water bodies. Besides, it can
occur in the cave air itself, as warm, relatively moist surface air
enters, cools and condensation fog eventually forms. This
process can be classed as formation of aerosols (the fog particles must grow greater than ~5 µm in size to become visible).
Though this process can occur through homogenous nucleation, more often it occurs heterogeneously (condensation of
moisture on solid aerosol particles, which serve as condensation nuclei). If the water condensed on aerosol particles, its further migration inside cave will be governed by aerosol
mechanics, rather than by gas dynamics.
Dripping and splashing water (from waterfalls, flowstone,
etc.) can evaporate into cave air and be transported to other
cave locations and condense. Splashing produces relatively
large (~10 µm) hydroaerosol particles, which increases the
specific surface of the liquid and fosters evaporation. Also,
water for condensation/evaporation processes can be introduced as surface water flowing into a cave. The pattern of condensation/evaporation processes can be influenced by the airflow structure of the cave (see, e.g., data on the air flow directions inferred from the orientation of cave popcorn in Carlsbad
Cavern; Queen, 1981).
Even though the data concerning condensation on the
object level are abundant, these data are mostly descriptive,
and studies presenting numeric estimations of condensation
are quite scarce. Some examples are given below.
Studying archeology of the medieval cave towns in the
Crimea, Firsov (1990) has noticed intensive condensation
0.386
1.71
occurring in some crypts in summer. He estimated that a crypt
carved in massive limestone and having the volume of 5.5 m3
generates 0.25 l m-2 day-1 of condensate. Prokofiev (1964) was
first to perform the direct measurements of the amount of condensate forming in different rooms of Vorontsovskaya Cave in
the Western Caucasus. He used original traps for condensed
(and partly infiltrated) water. The traps yielded up to 1300 g
m-3 of water at an air exchange rate of 161.3⋅106 m3 day-1.
Similar observations were carried out in a number of caves in
Europe and Asia.
Condensation was also studied by means of lysimeters and
condensers with differing designs (metallic cones, cylinders,
boxes, casing tubes, polyethylene canisters, etc.), varying sizes
(from 0.01 to 1120 m3) and various types of filling material
(sand, gravel, pebbles, limestone boulders). They were
installed or constructed at altitudes ranging from 190 to 1100
m in the Crimea, Caucasus, Central Russia, Kola Peninsula,
and Southern and Eastern Siberia. The yield of water in these
experiments varied from 0.01 to 2.3 l day-1 from each cubic
meter of the filling material (Table 3). Attempts to use these
values directly to calculate condensation in adjacent karst massifs have failed (Glukhov, 1963; Klimochkin, 1973).
THE ROLE OF CONDENSATION IN KARST
There are several aspects of condensation in karst: (1)
increase of the amount of water moving through the rock; (2)
increase in the total volume of karst porosity; (3) formation
and destruction of cave deposits; (4) alteration of cave microclimate. The data on these processes are scarce and often con-
Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, April 1998 • 11
PROBLEM OF CONDENSATION IN KARST STUDIES
Table 4
Chemistry of condensation waters.
Parameters
Moisture
condensed on
clean surface
Stationary
drops on
the ceiling
Trails and
films on the
walls
Source
Carbonate Karst
Number of samples
Mean TDS mg l-1
Mean TDS CV
Hydrochemical type
Chemical denudation
µm×year-1
calculated at 10ºC
actual
7
106
0.58
HCO3-Ca(Mg)
55
22.0
1.15
HCO3-Ca
-
66
140.0
0.25
SO4-HCO3-Ca
-
2-19
0.5-4.0
DUBLYANSKY, 1977;
DUBLYANSKY et al., 1985;
HOMZA, RAJMAN, & RODA, 1970
KLIMOCHKIN, 1973;
NEMERIUK & PALTSEV, 1969;
MAIS & PAVUZA, 1994;
MUCKE & VOLKER, 1978;
PROKOFIEV, 1964
Carbonate Hydrothermal Karst
Chemical denudation
µm×year-1 (*)
at 60ºC
at 20ºC
SZUNYOGH, 1990
-
-
200-50
30-4
Sulfate Karst
Number of samples
Mean TDS mg l-1
Mean TDS CV
Hydrochemical type
Chemical denudation
µm×year-1
calculated at 10ºC
actual
-
5
2000
SO4-Ca
44
2100
0.27
SO4-Ca
-
-
92-730
90-121
DUBLYANSKY et al., 1984;
MALKOV & FRANTZ, 1981;
MUCKE & VOLKER, 1978
Rock Salt Karst
Number of samples
Mean TDS mg l-1
Mean TDS CV
Hydrochemical type
Chemical denudation
µm×year-1
-
17
80000
322000
0.8
Cl-Na(K) Cl-Na(K)
-
-
BELTIUKOV, 1989;
EREMENKO & KOLPASHNIKOV 1974
21,000
All samples are composite (many drops are mixed). They were typically collected at the end of a long period of nil precipitation or when the
massif was covered by snow. (*) Growth of a spherical niche slows down with increase of its diameter; TDS - total dissolved solids
troversial.
INCREASE OF THE AMOUNT OF WATER
AVAILABLE FOR SPELEOGENESIS
Our data suggest that the share of condensation in the water
balance does not normally exceed 9% of the annual sum of
precipitation (Table 2). However, condensation occurs during
the warm season, when there is not much of precipitation. It
12 • Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, April 1998
plays, thus, an important role in the dry-season discharge of
karst springs and rivers. Winter condensation does not increase
the total amount of underground water, but prevents moisture
from escaping the subsurface and creates specific local patterns of water circulation. These general conclusions need to
be checked and numerically assessed by regional- and locallevel studies.
DUBLYANSKY AND DUBLYANSKY
DESTRUCTIVE PROCESSES
Many workers believe that condensed waters initially have
exceptionally high aggressiveness with respect to bedrock
limestone (Trombe, 1952; Gvozdetsky, 1954; Bernaskoni,
1966; Andrieux, 1970; Gergedava, 1970; Pasquini, 1973;
Ginet, 1977; Mucke & Völker, 1978). The data on the composition of condensate from different karst massifs of Eurasia are
compiled in Table 4.
Analyses were mostly performed on composite samples
(up to 10,000 individual drops) collected from cave walls,
which means these waters had the ability to dissolve the
bedrock. Condensate has quite variable mineralizations (TDS;
Cv up to 1.15), differing in karsts in different lithologies.
Condensate water collected after a certain travel (30 to 100 m;
flow as films and trails along walls) has higher mineralizations
and lower coefficients of variation Cv (0.25 to 0.60). This suggests intensive corrosion of the bedrock.
The data on samples collected on a clean cool surface (icefilled containers or refrigerators) are scarce. In some cases the
measured TDS are low (e.g., 8.27-8.31 mg l-1 in Ochtinskaya
Aragonite cave in Slovakia; Homza, Rajman, & Roda, 1970).
In other cases, surprisingly high values of TDS were obtained
(e.g., 130-170 mg l-1 in Hermanshöle in Lower Austria; Mais
& Pavuza, 1994). Tarhule-Lips (pers. comm.) has found that
the air moisture sampled in several caves of the Cayman
Braker islands (Caribbean sea) can be slightly undersaturated
to slightly supersaturated relative to bedrock limestone. This
problem warrants further rigorous study.
Numeric estimation of the share of condensation in the
water balance has been done only for one karst massif (Alek,
Western Caucasus; Dublyansky et al., 1985). The total chemical runoff due to condensation in the warm period was calculated to be 41.2 tons (16.2 m3) of limestone, which accounts for
only 3.7% of the gross value of karst denudation.
Condensation corrosion is most intensive in July (19%) and
August (16%). At present, data are insufficient to estimate the
speleogenetic role of winter condensation.
Many forms of cave macro-, meso-, and micromorphologies are attributable to condensation-corrosion. These are:
spherical chambers 1 to 3 m in diameter in hydrothermal caves
(Szunyogh, 1982; 1990); cupolas and ceiling bells (Andrieux,
1970; Mucke & Völker, 1978); solutionally widened fissures,
niches, cells, vertical gutters, rills, edge patches, drop dents,
indentations, etc. on cave walls (Bernaskoni, 1966; Eraso,
1969; Mais, 1973; Cigna & Forti, 1986; Davis & Mosch, 1988;
Beltiukov, 1989; Jameson, 1989; 1995) (Fig. 8). Condensation
corrosion often cuts through not only the bedrock, but also
cave infilling (calcite, gypsum, salt, and ores) and speleothems
(Hill & Forti, 1986).
Condensation may be particularly important in hydrothermal karst. During the stage of partial dewatering, when there is
a free water surface in air-filled caves, thermal water may
evaporate, move to the upper (cooler) parts of the cave due to
convection, and condense on the cave walls (Fig. 7). The air
Figure 8. Destructive action of condensed waters. a - primary karst cavity; b - speleothems; c - cave sediments; d morphologies caused by condensation corrosion (cupolas,
niches, facets, grooves, pits, etc.).
mass above the surface of a thermal lake is thermodynamically unstable, because the warmer (less dense) air lies below the
cooler (denser) air. Thus, air convection readily develops.
Aggressiveness of the condensate is controlled by the content
of CO2 in the cave air and by the thickness and flow pattern of
the films of condensate.
Another situation, particular to hydrothermal caves, is corrosion due to the presence of H2S in the cave air. Worthington
and Ford (1995) have shown that a high content of sulfate is
characteristic of the thermal waters which contributes to dissolution of hypogene caves. During the stage of partial dewatering, the hydrogen sulfide in thermal waters escapes into the
cave air. Some of it redissolves in films or droplets of condensate, where it is oxidized by dissolved oxygen. Produced
sulfuric acid attacks limestone converting it to gypsum, forming fragile gypsum crust on the cave walls and ceiling. Such a
mechanism, termed “replacement-solution”, was suggested by
Egemeier (1981). It is important to note that replacementsolution must be coupled with condensation (gypsum crust
does not form on dry cave walls). Many caves of fossil
hydrothermal karst exhibit morphological features which can
best be explained by the discussed mechanism. Examples of
such caves are known in Hungary (the Buda Hills), Kirghizstan
(the Tyuya-Muyun), Algeria (the Bibans), and elsewhere. The
Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, April 1998 • 13
PROBLEM OF CONDENSATION IN KARST STUDIES
process of replacement-solution is still active in caves of the
Pryor mountains, Wyoming (Egemeier, 1981) and Grotta
Grande del Vento, Italy (Cigna & Forti, 1986).
ACCUMULATIVE PROCESSES
Condensation coupled with evaporation and aerosol masstransfer may play a significant role in the formation of a variety of speleothems. Hypotheses for a condensation origin of
stalactites (though incorrect) were advanced by H. Jacob, E. de
Clave, and J. Beumont in the seventeenth century (Shaw,
1992). Holland et al., (1964) included a group of condensationrelated speleothems in their classification of cave formations.
Cser and Mauha (1968) suggested an aerosol origin for one
type of helictites and supported this hypothesis by means of an
elegant experiment (fragments of calcite crystals were set in a
plastic frame; 90 volts DC were applied to the base of the
frame and the latter was exposed to the cave atmosphere;
appreciable growth of crystals was observed after a severalmonth exposure). Many examples of speleothems supposedly
related to condensation are given by Hill and Forti (1986).
They suggest a condensation-related origin (along with other
possible modes of formation) for a number of subaerial
speleothems, such as: coatings and crusts (p. 29); coralloids
(popcorn, coral, grape, or knobstone shapes; p. 33); rims (p.
54); ice frost crystals (p. 83); moonmilk (p. 116); as well as to
clay vermiculations (p. 161). These speleothems are composed
of calcite, gypsum, halite, carnallite, nitrates, and some other
minerals. The list of specific formations of cave ice attributed
to condensation is even larger (Mavliudov, 1989). More and
more often, scientists resort to aerosol-condensation theory to
explain the origin of some peculiar gypsum and carbonate
speleothems (Calaforra & Forti, 1994; Turchinov, 1994;
Klimchuk, Nasedkin, & Cunningham, 1995; Dublyansky &
Pashenko, 1997).
CAVE MICROCLIMATE
The pattern of condensation in caves is controlled by cave
microclimate. There exists, also, a feedback. Condensation of
water is accompanied by significant yield of heat (585 kcal kg1). This affects cave microclimate; specifically it changes the
fields of temperature and humidity (Andrieux, 1970; Molerio,
1981; Racovitca & Viemann, 1984). One of the prominent
examples of such an impact is the short-periodic (seconds to
tens of seconds) auto-oscillations of air movement, overprinting the more long-periodic “cave breathing” of barometric
nature (Finnie & Curl, 1963; Dublyansky, 1977). Such autooscillations were reported from Krasnaya Cave in the Crimea
(Dublyansky & Sotskova, 1989).
CONCLUSION
The problem of condensation in karst is a quite complex
one. The data about condensation in the karstosphere are scat-
14 • Journal of Cave and Karst Studies, April 1998
tered in publications of karst researchers, physicists, chemists,
meteorologists, hydrogeologists, mining geologists, soil scientists, geographers, glaciologists, biospeleologists, archeologists, construction engineers, etc. These specialists consider
particular aspects of condensation and use research methods
specific to their sciences. There is no consensus in the literature on the role of condensation in formation of karst waters,
as well as on its role in formation of caves.
The problem of karst condensation can be studied with
either a hydrogeologic or speleogenetic approach. Each line of
approach is very different and the two approaches are seldom
combined. The hydrogeological aspect of condensation deals
with the role of condensation at the scale of a karst massif.
Examples of typical problems are: (1) the share of condensation in water balance; (2) the role of condensation water in
karst denudation; (3) the chemistry of condensed water; (4)
patterns of moisture and condensate migration within karst
massifs during different seasons; etc. Such a large-scale
approach makes it necessary to generalize many characteristics, such as the fissuration of rock, or the coefficients of airexchange at the scale of the karst massif, which necessarily
decreases the preciseness of the results. In the framework of
the hydrogeological approach, atmospheric moisture is considered to be a major source of water involved in condensation
(and thus, karst) processes.
The speleogenetic approach deals with the role of condensation in the development of individual caves, the carving of
smaller solutional forms, and the creation of speleothems. The
smaller scale makes it necessary to perform more precise measurements of pertinent parameters (temperature of air and condensate; humidity, chemistry of condensate, etc.). These parameters can be used in laboratory- and theoretical modeling of
cave-forming processes. The ultimate purpose of these studies
is to explore the possible role of condensation in the creation
of specific cave morphologies and speleothems, and to find the
mechanism(s) involved in these processes.
When using the speleogenetic approach, one should consider more than just the moisture brought into the cave with the
outside air. In caves containing water (lakes, streams, etc.), the
water may evaporate from water surfaces, migrate, and then
condense in different parts of the cave (Hill, 1987).
Condensation of moisture from cave air and from evaporation
of standing waters is also possible due to change of thermodynamic characteristics inside a cave (Dublyansky & Lomaev,
1980; Badino, 1995).
One important problem which has not been studied adequately yet is the relationship of condensation and cave
aerosols. The moisture in the cave air may exist as more than
just a form of vapor; it may also exist as all-water aerosol particles (hydroaerosols; Gádoros & Cser, 1986), as well as shells
on solid aerosol particles (Pashenko et al., 1993; 1996). The
laws of gas dynamics and aerosol mechanics are different, thus
the migration of water in these two forms must have different
patterns. Elevated contents of radon, typical of the cave air,
foster the radiochemical reactions between hydroaerosol parti-
DUBLYANSKY AND DUBLYANSKY
cles and gaseous components of the cave atmosphere. For
instance, radiochemical processes may convert H2S of the cave
air (even in very small amounts) into H2SO4, which dissolves
in water of hydroaerosols and drastically increases aggressiveness of the latter. It is becoming apparent that aerosols can play
a significant role in mass transfer of moisture and speleothemic
material inside caves, and can be particularly important in the
formation of speleothems (Dublyansky & Pashenko, 1997).
Although awareness of the importance of these processes is
growing, neither condensation nor cave aerosols have been
adequately (quantitatively) studied to date. The future studies
should develop a comprehensive theory of gas and aerosol
mass transfer in caves, involving evaporation, convection,
aerosol and gas mass transfer, and condensation. This problem
is an interdisciplinary one; it warrants coupled efforts of
hydrogeologists, meteorologists, physicists, and karst
researchers.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The paper has greatly benefited from thorough review and
comments of R.A. Jameson and an anonymous reviewer of the
Journal of Cave and Karst Studies.
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