Malcolm X and the Limits of the Rhetoric of Revolutionary Dissent
Author(s): Celeste Michelle Condit and John Louis Lucaites
Source: Journal of Black Studies, Vol. 23, No. 3 (Mar., 1993), pp. 291-313
Published by: Sage Publications, Inc.
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MALCOLM X AND THE
LIMITS OF THE RHETORIC
OF REVOLUTIONARY DISSENT
CELESTE MICHELLE CONDIT
University
ofGeorgia
JOHNLOUIS LUCAITES
IndianaUniversity
inMalcolm
The correlation
betweentherecentrevivalofinterest
X amongAmerica's Black male youthand theLos Angeles riotsof
1992 shouldnotsurprise
us.' Afterall,theLos Angelesriotswere
racistjuridicalsystemand
(allegedly)precipitated
byaninherently
a racistjudicialdecision.Anditwas MalcolmX, America'smost
andrelentless
dissident
ofthe1960s,who
thorough
revolutionary
loudlyimploredhis Black brothers
and sistersto use "all means
necessary"to bringaboutsocialandpoliticaljusticeandequality
forBlack America.Indeedit does nottakemuchimagination
to
hearMalcolmX respondtotheverdictintheRodneyKingcase in
wordssimilarto thoseused to expresshis outragefollowingthe
murder
offourBlackchildren
inthebombing
ofthe16thSt.Baptist
Church in Birmingham,Alabama, only 2 weeks afterthe 1963
marchon Washington:
It's timeforNegroesto defendthemselves
... thisdoesn'tmean
forming
rifleclubsandgoingoutlookingforpeople,butitis time,
in 1964,ifyouarea man,toletthatman[theWhiteman]know.If
he's notgoingtodohisjob inrunning
thegovernment
andproviding
you and me withtheprotection
thatourtaxesare supposedto be
AUTHORS'NOTE:An earlierversionof thisarticlewas presentedbeforethe
BlackCaucusoftheSpeechCommunication
AssociationNationalConvention.
JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES, Vol.23 No. 3, March1993 291-313
C) 1993Sage Publications,
Inc.
291
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292
JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MARCH 1993
for,sincehe spendsall thosebillionsforhisdefense
he
budget,
certainly
can'tbegrudge
youandmespending
$12 or $15 fora
single-shot
ordouble-action.
I hopeyouunderstand.
Don'tgo out
shooting
people,butanytime,
brothers
andsisters,
andespecially
themenin thisaudience-someof youwearing
Congressional
MedalsofHonor,
withshoulders
thiswide,chests
thisbig,muscles
thatbig-anytimeyouandI sitaround
andreadwhere
they
bomb
a church
andmurder
incoldblood,notsomegrownups,
butfour
little
girlswhiletheywerepraying
tothesamegodthewhiteman
taught
them
toprayto,andyouandI seethegovernment
godown
andcan'tfindwhodidit.... No,ifyounever
time
seemeanother
inyourlife,ifI dieinthemorning,
I'll diesaying
onething:
the
ballotorthebullet,
theballotorthebullet.(MalcolmX, 1965e,
pp.43-44).
The phrase"theballotor the bullet"servesas the titlefor
Malcolm X's mostwell-knownspeech,originallydeliveredon
on numerous
occasions
April3, 1964,andsubsequently
presented
untilthetimeofhis assassination
on February
21, 1965 (Benson,
1987,p. 319). It was one ofhis mostmilitant
and for
statements,
thatreasonit drewa greatdeal of attention
fromtheWhitemass
mediaand theWhitepoliticalestablishment,
whichinterpreted
it
as an appealfortheviolentoverthrow
To
oftheU.S. government.
reduceMalcolmX's dissidenceto thatone speech-let alonethat
one phrase-however,is to treatitas a staticandsimple(perhaps
evensimplistic)
Black
responseto thecircumstances
confronting
Americain the 1960s. It is also to assumethathis appeal for
was an appealtouseviolencetotearaparttheprevailing
revolution
social and politicalstructures
of theUnitedStatesof America.It
was noneoftheabove.Rather,
"theballotorthebullet"constitutes
ofone stageinthecomplexrhetorical
onlya portion
development
ofhisdissentfromtheAmericandreamofequality,
a dissentthat
ultimately
entailedtherather
peacefulgoal ofradicallyredrawing
theideologicalboundaries
ofAmericanlifeto constitute
a viable
spaceforAmerica'sBlackcitizens.2
It is,ofcourse,impossible
toknowwhether
ornotMalcolmX's
revolutionary
visionwould ever have produceda positiveand
peacefulprogram
ofpoliticalactioncapableofeffectively
organizing,motivating,
anddirecting
BlackAmericaagainstthesystem
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Condit,Lucaites/MALCOLM X
293
thatoppressedit,forhe was robbedoftheopportunity
totryatthe
age of 39. However,it was notonlytimethatconspiredagainst
to effect
MalcolmX's efforts
a radicallychangedAmerica,forhe
was also constrained
bytheinherent
characteristics
ofrevolutionaryrhetoric
itself,thatis, thepowerof languageto advanceor
restrict
socialandpoliticalchange.To understand
thesuccessesand
failures
ofMalcolmX's dissension,
as wellas thefullrelevanceof
his lifeandwordsforcontemporary
thatwe
times,itis necessary
examinetherhetorical
dimensions
ofhisdissentwithsomecare.
MalcolmX's dissidence
developedinfourmajorstagesthroughouthis life.In whatfollows,we considereach of thosestagesin
turn
beforefocusing
attention
onthelessonshisleadership
provides
ofdissent.3
us as a livingexemplarofthelimitsoftherhetoric
DISSENT WITHOUT VISION: MALCOLM LITTLE ACTS OUT
Malcolm X, originallynamedMalcolm Little,was born in
ofsevenchildren,
Omaha,Nebraska,on May 19, 1925,thefourth
and
to Earl andLouisa Little.His childhoodwas bothtumultuous
anda vocal,militant
unstable.EarlLittlewas a preacher
supporter
ofMarcusGarveyandtheBacktoAfricamovement.
His militance
earnedhimthebitterenmityof local Whitesupremacists
who,
himin
undertheguiseof theBlack Legion,allegedlymurdered
Lansing,Michigan,in 1931. In 1938,at theage of 13, Malcolm
was placed in the firstof severalWhitefosterhomes; shortly
hismother,
thereafter,
Louisa,was declaredinsaneandinstitutionalizedby Whitesocialworkers.
Malcolmwas an intelligent
child
in the
and,whilelivingin fosterhomes,he managedto flourish
largelyWhiteschoolshe attended,
untiltheeighthgrade.Itwas at
thattime,he laterrecalledin his Autobiography,
thathe first
confronted
hisexclusionfromtheWhiteAmericandreamthat"all
men are createdequal." In spiteof his academicexcellence,a
well-intentioned
Whiteteacherprovidedhimwithbrutalcareer
guidancewhenMalcolmsuggested
thathe wouldliketobecomea
lawyer:
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294
JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MARCH 1993
I remember,
andleanedbackinhis
[Theteacher]lookedsurprised,
chairandclaspedhishandsbehindhishead.He kindofhalf-smiled
needsis forus tobe realistic.
andsaid,"Malcolm,oneoflife'sfirst
me,now.Weall herelikeyou,youknowthat.
Don't misunderstand
A lawyer-that's
aboutbeinga nigger.
Butyou'vegottobe realistic
no realisticgoal fora nigger.You needto thinkaboutsomething
youcan be. You'regoodwithyourhands-makingthings.Everyshopwork.Whydon'tyou plan on
bodyadmiresyourcarpentry
. . . It was thenthatI begantochangeinside.(Malcolm
carpentry."
X & Haley,1966,pp. 36-37)
to
thatMalcolmstoppedtrying
thisincident
Itwas notlongafter
onitsown
equality
dreamofsocialandpolitical
liveWhiteAmerica's
I havedonesincethen,I havedriven
He notedthat"whatever
terms.
myselftobecomea successat it.... I was goingtobecomeoneof
themostdepravedparasiticalhustlersamongNew York'seight
millionpeople"(MalcolmX & Haley,1966,pp. 38, 75).
himselfas "DetroitRed,"
Malcolm,now identifying
Whether
actuallysucceededin hisdesireto beatWhiteAmericaat itsown
thefactthathe
butthereis no disputing
gameis widelycontested,
orthatheran
andburglar
gambler,
doperunner,
becamea procurer,
rid
completely
everyhustleavailabletohim.He hadnot,however,
He
structure.
ofWhiteAmerica'ssocialvaluesorsymbolic
himself
his hair,and did virtually
pickedup Whitewomen,straightened
thesymbolsofWhite,
hecouldtoappeartoaccommodate
anything
As he later
property.
America,thatis,topossessmaterial
capitalist
"I loved the
putit,he was caughtin a perniciouscontradiction:
devil . . . I was tryingas hard as I could to be white" (Goldman,
at age 21, he was convictedofburglary
1982,p. 307). Eventually,
to 10 yearsinjail.
andsentenced
MalcolmLittle'scontradictory
"actingout"ofhisplaceinAmericansocietywas anintense
andvividliveddissent.He rejectedboth
theracial role assignedto him and theprevailingWhitesocial
to be White,andthesecondbyhustling
bytrying
thefirst
system,
againstit ratherthanlivingwithinit. His dissent,however,was
This kindof
limited,bothin scope and effectiveness.
extremely
ofmostofAmerica'soppressedmen(read
resort
dissentis thefirst
social and
"men"),and so it is thesortwithwhichtheprevailing
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Condit,Lucaites/MALCOLM X
295
politicalinstitutions
are mostskilledin dealing.The police and
prisonstructures
wereboundtocaptureandcontainMalcolmifhe
wenttoofar,andtheyusedhimtotheirownpurposeswhenhe did
not,assigningto himand his womenall theillegalityand all the
ofWhiteAmerica.Moreover,
riskfortheimmoral
sexualpractices
Malcolm'sliveddissentwas powerlessto changethesystemin
whichhe livedin anyway,forhis veryexistencedependedupon
themaintenance
ofthatsystem.
He survived
byexploiting
capitalist
racist
profits,
pimpingforpatriarchal
lusts,and accommodating
albeitindirectly,
it
images.As Malcolmhimselffinallyadmitted,
formof dissent(MalcolmX &
was a personally
disempowering
Haley,1966,pp. 170-184,esp. p. 173).
MalcolmLittleprovedto be an exceptionalconvict,however,
and,whilehe was in prison,his familyprovidedhimwiththe
sustenance
thatwas tolaythegroundon whichhewouldcraftand
a mythic
boththe
eventually
disseminate
visionthattranscended
toit.
WhiteAmerican
dreamandhisownactingoutinopposition
DISSENT WITH A MYTHIC VISION: SPEAKING IN5
Inprison,
MalcolmLittlewas introduced
toElijahMuhammad's
lost-found
NationofIslam.Thefounding
myth
oftheBlackMuslim
andempowered
faithlegitimized
thehistory
andcultureofBlack
society,
and,uponencountering
it,Malcolmconverted
almostimHe also begantoreadvoraciously,
mediately.
especiallyinAfrican
andAmericanhistory.
He was paroledin 1952,and shortly
thereafterhe metpersonally
withElijahMuhammad,
whodubbedhim
"MalcolmX." MalcolmX quicklybecameElijah Muhammad's
chiefminister
and was proficient
at effecting
conversions
to the
NationofIslam.His successwas insomemeasurea function
ofhis
tocraft
a countermyth
ability
totheWhiteAmerican
dream
ofequality
thatliberatedand empoweredBlack identity.
This countermyth
combinedwhatMalcolmX had learnedfromElijah Muhammad
withhisownlifeexperiences
andhisdiscoveriesaboutAmerican
slaveryandthecivilizations
ofAfrica.
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296
JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MARCH 1993
ElijahMuhammad'sreligiousvisionproclaimed
theWhiteman
a genetically
engineered
devilcreatedbya madBlackscientist
set
loose byAllahto ruleon theplanetfor6,000years.Accordingto
thisvision,thetimewas nearwhenAllahwouldpunishtheWhite
devilsfortheirindiscretions
andrestore
Blackstotheirrightful
role
of rule in theuniverse.6
MalcolmX citednaturaldisastersand
humancalamitiesas proofthattheendofWhitepowerwas near:
God is goingto punishthiswickeddevilforhis misdeedstoward
black people. Justas plagues were visitedon Pharaohso will
pestilencesand disasterbe visitedon thewhiteman.Why,it has
alreadystarted.... Theircropsaredying,theirchildren
arebeing
bornwithall kindsof deformities,
theriversand the lakes are
comingoutofthebellyof theearthto washthemaway.Notonly
that,butGod has started
slappingtheirplanesdownfromthesky.
(Lomax,1968,p. 125)
rhetorical
PerhapsMalcolmX's mostpowerful
weaponwas his
of Blacks through
a revisionary
recharacterization
Black history
he frequently
(see Lucaites& Condit,1990).As partofthiseffort,
disseminated
aboutAmericanslaveryandabout
scholarly
findings
theAfrican
theconventional
Whiteimageofthe
past,transforming
African
as a "savage"tothatofa "king."So, forexample,hewould
ofyearsagotheblackmaninAfrica
frequently
notethat"thousands
was livinginpalaces,theblackmaninAfricawas wearingsilk,the
blackmaninAfricawas cookingandseasoninghisfood,theblack
man in Africahas [sic] masteredthe artsand the sciences . .. he
knewthecourseof thestarsand theuniversebeforethemanin
Europeknewthattheearthwasn'tflat"(Lomax,1968,p. 75). As
MalcolmX laterrealized,bychallenging
theoriginsofthenegative
he accharacterizations
of Blacksconstructed
by Whiterhetoric,
therevisionof
tivelyrevisedtheimageofAfricaandthusspurred
a positiveand affirming
Black Americanidentity
(MalcolmX,
1965b,p. 168; see also MalcolmX, 1970,pp. 160-161).
The visionarticulated
by MalcolmX thatderivedfromElijah
Muhammad'smythwas powerful.
It dissentedfrom300 yearsof
basic characterizations
aboutthenatureof Black Americansand
theirrightto theAmericandream.Confirming
theBlack experi-
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Condit,Lucaites/MALCOLM X
297
betweenBlacks and Whites,
ence, it reversedthe relationship
ofa noble
devilandBlacksas members
casting"Whitey"
as a crafty
a doubtMalcolmX's most
and powerfulrace.This was without
and successfulrhetoric
withBlackaudiences,especially
powerful
helpingto convertthouthoselivingin America'surbanghettos,
shortperiodoftime.
sandstotheNationofIslamina relatively
Elijah Muhammad'smythwas also, however,a dissentthat
cameat the
foritself.Itsauthenticity
constructed
greatlimitations
It
ways of thinking.
fromthis-worldly
priceof disengagement
thatplacedevidenceandcausality
required
a mythic
consciousness
forcollecremovedthepossibility
outsidehumantime.It thereby
required
tivehumanactionintheworld.Indeed,ElijahMuhammad
hispeopletowithdraw
frompoliticalaction.Anditwasinthisconthepasreluctant
MalcolmX rearticulated
textthatan increasingly
sivestancethat
leftactiontoAllahalone:"Butas GodmadePharaoh's
magiciansbow beforeMoses,and thescribesand Phariseesbow
bothathome
beforeJesus,He planstodaytomakeall opposition,
thatis nowbeingtaughtby the
and abroad,bow beforethetruth
HonorableElijahMuhammad"(MalcolmX, 1968/1991a,
p. 119).
no
Malcolm
X
could
take
of thisrhetoric,
Withinthe structure
"whichGod Himself
actionotherthantowarnofthenewsystem,
is preparing
p. 117).
toestablish"(MalcolmX, 1968/1991a,
ofthemyth
wasthesolution
Perhapsthemosttellinginadequacy
it proposedto theBlack man'sproblem.MalcolmX arguedthat,
untilAllah acted,Whitesshouldestablisha separatenationfor
oftheUnitedStatesof
Blackswithinthegeographical
boundaries
byseveralestablished
Americabygranting
themthelandcontained
states.Social and politicalpoliciesconceivedsolelythrougha
andthiswas clearly
visionaretypically
doomedtofailure,
mythic
thecase here.Such a proposalwas onlyone shortstepremoved
in the 1920s,
fromMarcusGarvey'sappealsforpan-Africanism
and,as mostoftheBlackspeakerswhoarguedagainstMalcolmX
unrealin debateduringthisperiodindicated,
itwas an altogether
isticsolutiontotheproblemofracialdisharmony
inAmerica.
X
The dissentconstructed
by theElijahMuhammad-Malcolm
wasclearlymorepowerful
andeffective
thanthatofMalcolm
myth
Little'searlieracting-out
period.It providedrealgroundsforper-
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298
JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MARCH 1993
sonalempowerment,
bothbyestablishing
a historically
grounded
senseof selfhoodand by buildinga tightly
knitcommunity
that
circulated
Black economicresourcesamongotherBlacks.In important
ways,however,itremainedmerelya reflection
of White
America'ssystemof values.Black Muslimswerenotto smoke,
takedrugs,orswear,buttheyworkedhardinsmallbusiness
drink,
as well as on factory
enterprises
assemblylines,andtheirwomen
weresilentservants.
ElijahMuhammad'svisionreproduced
capitalismand patriarchy,
even as it mounteda challengeto White
racism.Mostimportant,
thestepoutofthehereandnowthatgave
ittherhetorical
spaceto revisethepopularimagesofBlacksalso
leftit powerlessto act in thehereand now.Aftera decade,the
ofthisdissentbegantochafeonMalcolmX's fertile
limitations
and
activeintellect,
anditgradually
ledtoa newstageinhisrhetoric
of
dissent.
A DISSENTING RHETORIC: MALCOLM X SPEAKS OUT
withElijah
In 1963, Malcolm X brokeoffhis relationship
in New York
Muhammadand beganhis own Muslimministry
City's Harlem.The breakupwas precipitated
by a numberof
ofElijahMuhammad's
different
factors.
In part,itwas a function
growingenvyoverMalcolmX's publicsuccessesandhisincreasandperingpopularity
amongtheBlackpopulation.
Additionally,
ofMalcolmX's
moreimportant,
itwas a function
hapsultimately
ofthefounding
dissatisfaction
withthelimitations
increasing
myth
theopportunities
for
of theNationof Islam,whichundermined
cause forthe
social and politicalactivism.The mostimmediate
ruptureoccurredin November1963, whenElijah Muhammad
hisorderstoremainsilenton
censuredMalcolmX fordisobeying
the subjectof PresidentKennedy'sassassination.Not onlydid
Malcolm X ignoretheseorders,but,in a question-and-answer
he referred
a speechdeliveredin Manhattan,
to
periodfollowing
and potentially
termsas
theassassination
in insulting
incendiary
"thechickenscominghometo roost"(MalcolmX, 1971,p. 20).
toMalcolmX thatthecensurewas tobe
Whenitbecameapparent
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Condit,Lucaites/MALCOLM X
299
effectively
permanent,
he announcedthe creationof his own,
independent
MuslimMosque,Inc.,as a pulpitfora substantially
newBlackIslamicvision(see MalcolmX, 1965a,pp. 20-22).
This thirdphaseof MalcolmX's dissentlastedfromMarch8,
1964,tohisdeparture
forMecca 5 weekslateron April13 andwas
dominatedby appeals for "unity,""Black nationalism,"and
the
Morespecifically,
he publiclycharacterized
"humanrights."7
citing
shifting
natureofhisdissentas a newwayofseeing,literally
ofBlacks"tolookatthethingnot
thecapacityofa newgeneration
as theywishitwere,butas itactuallyis" (MalcolmX, 1968/1991b,
ofIslamhadfallen
p. 135).ThescalesofElijahMuhammad's
myth
fromMalcolmX's eyes.
The visionof realitywithwhichMalcolmX replacedElijah
viMuhammad'smythdid notentirely
rejecthis priorrhetorical
sionbuttransformed
itto accommodate
theworldof experiences
facedbyAmerica'sBlacks.He thussubstituted
thestoryofWhite
ofBlacksforthestoryofAllah,recalling
America'senslavement
forhisBlackaudiencesthattheyhadnotcometo Americaon the
buthad beenuprootedfromtheirAfricanhomelands
Mayflower
and brought
to the"New World"in chains.8Andwhentheslave
in theNew World,theywere
shipson whichtheytraveledarrived
forcedto"pullplowslikehorses"andwere"boughtandsoldfrom
one plantation
to thenextlikeyou sell chickensorlikeyousell a
bag ofpotatoes"(MalcolmX, 1967,p. 65; see also 1965j,pp.4-5).
In one particularly
he would
trenchant
rendition
of thenarrative,
recall a book in whichhe had read that"GeorgeWashington
exchangeda blackmanfora bag of molasses"(see MalcolmX,
1967,p. 65).
This slave narrative
had been searedintoMalcolmX's consciousnesssincethetimeofhisprisonreadings.
Itwas anextremely
powerful
narrative,
especiallyforhisprimary
audience,America's
disaffected
Black maleyouth,andhe had employeditwitheffect
fromtheverybeginning
of hisministry
in thesecondstageofhis
dissent.Here,however,
he shifted
itsrhetorical
function,
makingit
the centralindictment
of WhiteAmerica.It was no longerthe
devilish,
geneticoriginofWhitesthatconstituted
their
evil,buttheir
veryactions.Actualsinreplacedoriginalsin,a pointhe frequently
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300 JOURNAL
OF BLACKSTUDIES/MARCH1993
emphasized
as hedemonstrated
thattheenslavement
ofBlackswas
notsimplya matter
ofAmerica'spast,butwas everybitas alivein
1963 as it had been in 1763. So, forexample,he placed great
emphasisonthe"enslavement"
perpetrated
bytheefforts
ofsouthernDixiecratstoblocktheintroduction
ofcivilrights
legislation
in
the halls of Congress,as well as theefforts
of northern
White
politicians
to gerrymander
congressional
districts
in orderto neutralizeconcentrations
of Black voters(see Malcolm X, 1965e,
pp. 28-30; 1965f,pp. 54-57; 1968/1991b,
pp. 138-140).
he transcended
In likemanner,
thestanding
Black Islamicdemandforterritorial
statehood.
Atthepressconference
announcing
theformation
oftheMoslemMosque,Inc.,he declared:"SeparationbacktoAfricais stilla long-range
andwhileitis yet
program,
tomaterialize,
22 millionofourpeoplewhoarestillhereinAmerica
needbetter
food,clothing,
housing,
educationandjobs rightnow"
(MalcolmX, 1965a,p. 20). Themethod
heworkedoutforthe"right
itintheseterms:
now"was "Blacknationalism."
He characterized
ofblacknationalism
The politicalphilosophy
meansthattheblack
man shouldcontrolthe politicsand the politiciansof his own
of black nationalism
community.... The economicphilosophy
[means]thatwe shouldcontroltheeconomyof ourcommunity.
thestores
ofourcommunity?
...
Whyshouldwhitepeoplebe running
Thesocialphilosophy
ofblacknationalism
onlymeansthatwe have
to get together
and removetheevils,thevices,alcoholism,drug
themoralfiberofour
addictionandotherevilsthataredestroying
community.
(MalcolmX, 1965e,pp. 38-39)
and
In so doing,hetransferred
ofBlackpolitics,
control
economics,
commufromAllahandWhiteAmericatoa reconstituted
morality
Blacks. He
nityof socially and economicallyself-dependent
butin an active,
foundedthiscommunity,
notin divinecreation,
of thesocialandculturalrootsof the
participatory
understanding
Blackworld:
Wehavetoteachourpeoplesomething
roots.We
aboutourcultural
havetoteachthemsomething
oftheirgloriouscivilizations
before
and broughtover to this
theywere kidnappedby yourgrandfathers
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Condit,Lucaites/MALCOLM X
301
aboutthegloriouscivilization
country.
Once ourpeoplearetaught
theywon'tany longerbe
thatexistedon theAfricancontinent,
ofourcultural
roots
ashamedofwhotheyare.... . The restoration
willrestore
to theblackpeoplein thiscountry.
dignity
andhistory
p. 142)
(MalcolmX, 1968/1991b,
especiallyimportant
duringthisphase of his
It was, therefore,
dissentthathe standforunityamongBlacks.Indeed,thiswas the
fromtheearlierMalcolmX whohad
transformation
mostclear-cut
civilrights
leadersas UncleTomswho
mainline
viciouslyattacked
had sold out theirrace in orderto "drinksome coffee-witha
the Moslem
cracker"(MalcolmX, 1965d,p. 124). In forming
Mosque,Inc.,he announced:
We must
I'm notoutto fightotherNegroleadersororganizations.
to a commonprobfinda commonapproach,a commonsolution,
bad thattheother
everything
I've forgotten
lem.As ofthisminute,
themany
leadershavesaidaboutme,andI praytheycanalso forget
bad thingsI've saidaboutthem.(MalcolmX, 1965a,p. 20)
major
In spiteofhisnewcallforunity,
MalcolmX stillharbored
Luther
Blackleaders,suchas Martin
differences
withothernational
King,Jr.,and BayardRustin.Althoughhe sharedtheircommithe refusedto
mentsto equality,justice,freedom,and dignity,
he adamantly
rights,
and
and
civil
of
integration
thegoals
support
toabide
MalcolmX refused
ofnonviolence.
themethod
repudiated
on
itwas predicated
thegoal of"integration,"
forin hisjudgment
theWhitesupremacist
thatBlacks oughtto be inteassumption
ontwo
wasproblematic
Thisassumption
gratedintoWhiteculture.
counts.First,MalcolmX refusedto believethatWhiteAmerica
totakeplaceon anything
wouldactuallyallowsuchan integration
likea levelplayingground.Second,andperhapsmoreimportant,
ofBlackpeople,andthus
theheritage
hebelievedthatitdenigrated
theirverybeing:to becomevaluablewas to becomea versionof
thegoal of
he urgedtranscending
beingWhite.As an alternative,
andthuswarranted
"civilrights"withthegoal of "humanrights"
valuesthatexceededthe
hisargument
forequalityon international
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302
JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MARCH 1993
ideologicalboundaries
andjudicialauthority
ofAmerica'sWhitecontrolled
government.
Finally,MalcolmX arguedvehemently
for"revolution,"
andas
he repeatedlypointedout, revolutions,
includingthe heralded
AmericanRevolution,
are never"nonviolent."
In his speech"A
DeclarationofIndependence,"
deliveredon December4, 1963,he
arguedforthefirsttimeon a nationallevelthatBlack Americans
havetherighttodefendthemselves
iftheWhiteman'slaw failsto
protect
them:
it is criminalto teacha mannotto deConcerning
non-violence:
fendhimselfwhenhe is theconstant
victimofbrutalattacks.It is
legalandlawfultoowna shotgun
ora rifle.We believeinobeying
thelaw.
In areaswhereourpeoplearetheconstant
victimsofbrutality,
toprotect
andthegovernment
seemsunableorunwilling
them,we
shouldformrifleclubsthatcanbe usedtodefendourlivesandour
in timesof emergency.... We shouldbe peaceful,law
property
abiding-butthetimehas comefortheAmericanNegroto fight
he is beingunjustly
back in self-defense
wheneverand wherever
andunlawfully
attacked.
(MalcolmX, 1965a,p. 22)
MalcolmX's new vision,bornof his separationfromElijah
inthesensethatitestablished
Muhammad,
wastruly
revolutionary,
and talkingaboutthe
thebasis fora wholenewway of thinking
relationship
betweenBlacksandWhites.It was thusa revolution
theprevailing
ofidentity,
thana violentattempt
tooverthrow
rather
In constituting
revosocial andpoliticalstructures.
thisrhetorical
thepersona
lution,MalcolmX wentthedistanceby inaugurating
of a self-confident,
Black identity
thatdemandedall of therights
ever claimedby humanity.
In the shortrun,thisrhetoricwas
ineffective,
forit seemedto ask fortoo much,too quickly,and in
termsthatwereparticularly
to theprevailingWhite
threatening
In thelongrun,however,
itturned
outtobe
politicalestablishment.
MalcolmX's legacytoBlackAmerica.
Malcolm X's Moslem Mosque, Inc., did not quicklygather
converts.
Itremained
with
itspastreligious
caughtbetween
identity,
a conservative
anditsnewpoliticalactivistidentity,
constituency,
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Condit,Lucaites/MALCOLM X
303
whichcalledopenlyto America'sBlackyouth.As Lomax(1968)
pointsout,MalcolmX's call forself-defense
was nota call for
activeviolenceagainstthe "whitedevil,"and yet it had been
precisely
thiskindofaggressiveandoffensive
violenceforwhich
America'sBlackyouthhadbeenincreasingly
prepared
(p. 38). His
rhetoric
facedotherlimitations
as well.Although
he hadmanaged
to transform
important
systemvaluesby articulating
a visionthat
was personally
empowering
andbyimagining
social changeas a
discreteand attainable
goal,he had notdevelopeda positiveprogramforachieving
thatchange.As we willsuggest
Malcolm
shortly,
X wasfacedwiththeinherent
rhetoric
limitations
ofa revolutionary
of dissent:If all is to be overturned,
whatexistinglevercan be
forsuch
trusted
toperform
theoperation?
Malcolmwas searching
andtheir
an Archimedean
ofBlackAmericans
pointintheidentity
relationship
totheinternational
community
ofBlackswhenhe left
on hispilgrimage
toMecca on April13, 1964.
BEYOND DISSENT:
THE SEARCH FOR A CONSTRUCTIVE RHETORIC
In hisAutobiography,
MalcolmX creditshisApril1964tripto
Mecca withhavinga radicalizing
effect
on hissocialandpolitical
the
ofsharing
vision.He recounts,
forexample,howtheexperience
Hajj withpeopleofall colorsconvincedhimofthepossibility
for
a truly
universal
brotherhood
(MalcolmX & Haley,1966,pp. 318totheUnitedStatesfromMecca inMayof
342). Whenhereturned
thatyear,therewasa marked
inhisrhetoric.
anddramatic
alteration
The mostsalientshiftin MalcolmX's publicdiscourse,
at least
fromtheperspective
ofWhiteAmerica,was hisvirtually
complete
abandonment
oftheclaimthatall Whiteswereinherently
evil.The
Whitemedia workedhardto treatthisadmissionas a kindof
absolution
(see Capouya,1965;Handler,1964;"MalcolmX Makes
Pilgrimageto Mecca," 1964; "MalcolmX Pleased by Whites'
Attitudes
onTripTo Mecca,"1964;"MalcolmX WoosTwoRights
Leaders,"1964).However,MalcolmX was notaboutto letWhite
AmericaoffthehookjustbecauseWhitesinother
partsoftheworld
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304
JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MARCH 1993
had learnedto treatskincoloras an accidentalfactratherthana
seigneurial
emblem.Thushe noted:
In thepast,yes,I have made sweepingindictments
of all white
people.I neverwill be guiltyof thatagain-as I knownow that
somewhitepeopleare trulysincere,thatsometruly
arecapableof
towarda blackman... [but]herein America,the
beingbrotherly
seeds of racismare so deeplyrootedin thewhitepeople collectheirbeliefthattheyare"superior"
tively,
in somewayis so deeply
rooted,thatthesethings
areinthenationalwhitesubconsciousness.
(MalcolmX & Haley,1966,pp. 362-363)
As he explaineditinan interview
intheVillageVoice(MalcolmX,
1965h,p. 213):
I haven'tchanged.I just see thingson a broaderscale.... If you
attack[theWhiteman]becausehe is white,yougivehimno out.
He can'tstopbeingwhite.We've gottogivethemana chance.He
probablywon't takeit, thesnake.But we've got to give hima
chance.
it
thisshiftdidnotgiveWhiteAmericatheabsolution
Although
MalcolmX's presought,itthoroughly
uprooted
andtransformed
viousrhetoric
of dissent.No longerwas "Black nationalism"
an
appropriate
goal.As MalcolmX (1965g)putitina 1965television
interview,
"I believein a societyin whichpeople can live like
humanbeingson thebasis of equality"(p. 197). He no longer
supporteda Black stateor opposedthe integration
implicitin
he stillthought
intermarriage.
Although
thatliberalWhitescould
besthelpthecausebyforming
Whiteconsciousness-raising
groups,
hehadtofinda newpathtoachieving
"equality,"
onethatembraced
neitherKing's nonviolent,
humbling,
identity-denying
approach
nor his own priorpath towarda revised"separatebut equal"
doctrine.
Malcolm X was killedbeforea positiveprogramof action
andplanof
congealed.Whenasked,he repeatedthathisprogram
actionwas "byanymeansnecessary"
orthathehadtobe "flexible"
or "whatever
getsresults"(see MalcolmX, 1965d,p. 132; 1965i,
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Condit,Lucaites/MALCOLM X
305
p. 223; 1965k,p. 201).Theseprograms
weretobehousedinMalcolm
of Afro-American
X's new headquarters,
theOrganization
Unity
(OAAU), foundedin June1964. That the phrase"any means
attention
necessary"
wasreallya rhetorical
sleightofhandtodivert
fromthefactthathe had yetto discoverwhatthemosteffective
of
meansof actionmightbe is indicated
by therelativeinactivity
theOAAU. Indeed,underMalcolmX's briefleadership,
theOAAU
didachieverather
dilutedrecognition
oftheproblemsofAfricaninCairo,an organiAmericans
Conference
bytheAfrican
Summit
littlemore
zationofAfrican
But
OAAU
leaders. the
accomplished
thanthat,andthepopularBlack support
foritquicklyeroded.
creativesolutions
MalcolmX's failurewas notforlackoftrying
totheproblems
facingBlackAmerica.Fourdifferent
possibilities,
each a dead end,dominated
in hislastyear.The first
histhinking
He urged
appealMalcolmX madewas to politicalinvolvement.
Blackstopromote
theirownpoliticians
andregister
tovote.Buthe
was also fullyawareof theclosedWhitecircuitthatconstituted
American
politics.On severaloccasions,hecarefully
explainedthe
waysin whichthesupposedlyliberalDemocraticpartywas controlledbytheDixiecrats,
national
makingracialprogressthrough
electionsan impossibility.
He also discussedthegerrymandering
andUncleTomming
thatmadeitdifficult
forBlackstoruneffective
localpolitics.MalcolmX waseloquentandrelentless
inhisanalysis
of the problemsfacingBlack America,but he neverspoke a
solution.Consequently,
although
he frequently
acknowledged
the
ofelectoralpolitics,he alwaysqualifiedthatrecogniimportance
tion."I believeinpoliticalaction,"he noted,"anykindofpolitical
action.... ButI don'tbelievein getting
involvedin anykindof
politicalactionwithout
sitting
downandanalyzing
thepossibilities
ofsuccessorfailure"(MalcolmX, 1965c,pp.203-204).Itwas this
commitment
thatkepthimfromeveractivelyparticipating
in a
systemof electoralpoliticsthathe believedwas constructed
to
makeitimpossibleforhimto succeed.
Unabletofigure
outhowtonegotiate
theinterests
of
effectively
BlackAmericainwhatheperceived
tobe a closedWhiteAmerican
politicalsystem,
he shifted
hisappealfroma nationalto an inter-
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306
JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MARCH 1993
nationalaudience.He intensified
his focuson humanrightsand
hopedthat,by attracting
thesupportof theUnitedNations,he
wouldbe abletoemployan international
legalfiattoovercomethe
powerofWhiteAmerican
judges,legislators,
andexecutiveswho
legal
employedtheirown versionsof legal fiat(e.g., restrictive
the
precedents,
filibustering,
etc.) to undermine
gerrymandering,
interests
ofracialjustice.He spentalmostone halfofhislastyear
fromAfrican
leadersfor
abroad,mostofitworking
togainsupport
theOAAU. He thought
thatthecase againstWhiteAmericawas
ifonlyhecouldgetitbeforethissupposedly
neutral
and
"airtight,"
ornotMalcolmX ever
justinternational
body.Itis unclearwhether
realizedthathisvisionoftheUnitedNationsas a purelyindependentinternational
bodywas also basedon an illusion,thatis, ifhe
realizedthatU.S. dollarshadpaidfortheUnitedNationsandhad
He hadto
"bought"muchofAfricathrough
variousaid programs.
know,however,
thatsomething
was workingagainsthim,forthe
himroyallyinpersonwere
verysameAfricanleaderswhotreated
forBlackAmerineverwillingtooffer
thepublicpoliticalsupport
cansthathe requested(see Lomax,1968,pp. 176-188).
It was thefrustration
he feltat theclosureof everylegitimate
avenueofsocialchangethatkepttheemphasisonpower,including
thepowerof the imageof violence,in MalcolmX's rhetorical
theimportance
of
arsenal.On numerous
occasions,he articulated
the willingnessof Blacks to fightforfreedom,as well as the
forrevolutionaries
toriskspillingblood:
necessity
untilwe lettheworldknowthatas
We willnevergetit [freedom]
otherhumanbeingshave laid downtheirlivesforfreedom-and
also takenlifeforfreedom-that
youand I are readyand willing
andequippedtodo thesamething.(MalcolmX, 19651,p. 113)
Despite the visibilityof images of violenceand revolutionin
in any
Malcolm X's speaking,however,he neverparticipated
violence.Indeed,on severaloccasions,
organizedor spontaneous
crowdsthatthreatened
toeruptintoviolence
heevenquietedunruly
(see Lomax,1968,pp. 136-137,255; MalcolmX & Haley,1966,
pp. 233-235;Perry,
1991,pp. 164-166).
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Condit,Lucaites/MALCOLM X
307
withhis own
MalcolmX's behaviorwas consistent
Ultimately,
werepoor
success
against
his
odds
advice.He didnotactwhenthe
ruling
analyzedthecircumstances
orwhenhe hadnotyetcarefully
personal
andfrom
confronting
him.He knewprivately
thesituation
experiencewhathe wouldnotadmitpubliclyto his criticsand
As long as the struggleforracial equalityremained
detractors:
oftheUnitedStates,Blackswouldlosea violent
within
theborders
might
rhetoric
contestagainstWhites.ViolentBlackrevolutionary
Black
be thefusethatwouldtouchoffthepowderkegofmoderate
of White
the interests
but it could neverrepresent
discontent,
committhe
Islamic
America.Hence,onceMalcolmX abandoned
thattheuse ofviolenceas
herecognized
menttoBlackseparatism,
internasubstantial
a meansofsocialandpoliticalchangewithout
wouldbe futile.
tionalsupport
that"Malcolm was
Lomax noteswithsome disappointment
clearly talkingrevolution,but he would not advocate it....
The
was temrhetoric
finalMalcolmwas a manwhoserevolutionary
peredby theethicsof thecorruptsocietyhe soughtto depose"
underseverely
(MalcolmX, 1968,pp.238-241).Sucha judgment
rhetoric,
andscopeofMalcolm'srevolutionary
estimates
thenature
explicitabout
forinhisfinaldays,MalcolmX becameincreasingly
inkeepingBlackpeopleinbondage.
roleofimagery
theimportant
inwhichtheimages
themanner
On severaloccasions,heelaborated
a distorted
andcrampedcariconcoctedbythemediarepresented
andAfrica:
catureofbothBlackAmericans
and lovingtheman.... Why?The
You runawayhatingyourself
makeyoulookwrong.As longas youtake
press.The newspapers
a beating,you'reall right.As longas you getyourhead busted,
you'reall right.As longas you lethis dogs fightyou,you'reall
press.
aright.Because that'sthepress.That'stheimage-making
(MalcolmX, 1965d,p. 93; see also 1965b)
It was becausehe feltthatBlack Americansweretrappedin the
Whiteculture'simageofwhotheywerethatMalcolmX chastised
back:
to fight
hisownpeoplefortheirunwillingness
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308
JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MARCH 1993
There'sonlyone wayto be free.It's notsomething
thatsomeone
gives you. It's something
thatyou take.Nobodycan give you
independence.
Nobodycangiveyoufreedom.
Nobodycangiveyou
equalityorjusticeoranything.
Ifyou'rea man,youtakeit.If you
can'ttakeit,youdon'tdeserveit... whenall ofthesethingsareon
ourside [thecourtsandtheConstitution],
andwe stillcan'tgetit,
it'sbecausewe aren'ton ourownside.(MalcolmX, 19651,p. 111)
He wasnotblaming
thevictimso muchas hewasacknowledging
thesimplefactthatWhiteAmericahadpersuaded
BlackAmericans
into a stateof quiescenceby controlling
theirself-image.For
MalcolmX, thesolutiontothisproblemwas nottheenactment
of
violencebuttheimageorthreat
ofviolence.As heargued(Malcolm
"He [theWhiteman]willonly
X, 1965d),somewhat
prophetically,
actright
whenyoulethimknowthatyouknowhe hasmoretolose
thanyouhave.You haven'tanything
tolosebutdiscrimination
and
segregation"
(p. 103).
TOWARD CONSIDERATION OF THE
LIMITS OF THE RHETORIC OF REVOLUTIONARY DISSENT
Malcolm X was the heraldof the revolutionof Black consciousnessinthe1960s.He helpedtogiveBlackAmericatheselfconfidenceto scareWhiteAmericaintonegotiating
withit (see
Cone, 1991; Lucaites& Condit,1990).The limitsofthatrevolurhetoric
areall toocleartoday.MalcolmX didnotchange
tionary
theracistunderpinnings
ofAmerica'seconomicstructures,
nordid
hehavea verydirectimpactonaltering
America'spoliticalsystem.
Theselimits,
be locatedinMalcolmX himself,
however,
canhardly
foras a leaderhe stretched
bothhisownthoughts
andthevisionof
BlackAmericafarbeyondthesocialandpoliticalhorizonsthathad
been publiclyarticulated
priorto his expressionof them.His
to attract
inability
a largefollowing
derivedas muchas anything
fromthefactthathewasso veryfaraheadofhispeople;theyneeded
time,thetimetheywouldgetuponhisdeath,tocatchup withhim.
The limitsthatMalcolmX ultimately
facedwereinherent
to a
rhetoric
of dissentthatleaves languagein control.
revolutionary
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Condit,Lucaites/MALCOLM X
309
itselfas seekingto
Revolutionary
rhetoric
typically
characterizes
changeanentire
socialandpoliticalsystem
atonemove,rather
than
toreform
itpiecebypiece.Dissentis alwaysagainstsomething.
A
dissenter
can "talk"revolution
right
uptothepointofviolence,but
violenceis antithetical
toall ideas-indeed,itis theveryabrogation
of ideas. The ultimateact of dissentthusstandsin fundamental
of a constructive
opposition
to thecrafting
rhetoric.
Constructive
rhetorics
requirea commitment
on thepartof bothspeakersand
ina dispute)tocommonvalues,however
audiences(oropponents
ofviolence.
radical,whichholda greater
appealthantheenactment
Itwas thusnotsimplytheethicsoftheworldinwhichhe operated
thatkeptMalcolmX fromlaunching
an organized,
violentattack
itwas hisimplicit
commitment
to
againstWhiteAmerica.Rather,
rhetoric
as a meansofsocialandpoliticalactionthatledhimdown
in his
thispath.One mightlocatetherootsof thiscommitment
man.Afterall, a
earlierexperiencesas a hustlerand confidence
hustlermaysometimes
succeedby threatening
violence,butseldomaresuchthreats
Redinthe1940s,Malcolm
realized.As Detroit
X had livedin thelawlessand violentunderworld
of Harlem,a
worldlackingarticulate
itwasnota world
valuesandcommitments;
he wantedforhispeople,and,oncehe discoveredthis,he devoted
hislifeto searching
forviablealternatives.
ThelimitsofMalcolmX's revolutionary
dissentwere,therefore,
limitswillingly,
ifuncomfortably,
self-imposed.
Theywerelimits
itself.A rhetor
inherent
torhetoric
takesup theburdentopersuade
how difficult
an audience,no matter
thetask,notto beat it into
submission.
Persuasion
dependsonthevaluesandbeliefsthatexist
orthatcan be reasonably
inconjunction
withan audiconstructed
ence.Italsorequiressocialandpoliticalnegotiation,
anditeschews
theactofviolenceatallcost.A rhetor
must,therefore,
finally
abjure
a truerevolution,
whichcalls foran unfettered
andabsoluterejectionofall thatis,infavorofa torturous
theconstrucpaththrough
tivevisionsof whatmightbe. Thiswas thepaththatMalcolmX
chose,anditis a paththatthosewhotodayrecallhisappealsto"the
cries
ballotor thebullet"andto "all meansnecessary"as rallying
forcontemporary
politicalactionwoulddo welltoreconsider.
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310
JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MARCH 1993
NOTES
by a numberof different
in MalcolmX has beenmotivated
1. The revivalof interest
leadingto the
of his assassination,
events.The year1990 markedthe25thanniversary
andmajorfeatures
oftheNationalMalcolmX Commemoration
Commission
establishment
Post,
in thefullrangeofnationalmedia,including
theNewYorkTimesandtheWashington
and a SixtyMinutesupdateof Mike
of themajornetworks,
the nightly
newsprograms
TheHateThatHateProduced(1959). MalcolmX hasalsobeenthe
Wallace'sdocumentary
a biography
(Perry,1991),a commarketed
books,including
subjectof severalpopularly
prehensivecomparisonof his sociopoliticalagenda withthe sociopoliticalagenda of
on MalcolmX from
Dr. MartinLutherKing,Jr.(Cone,1991),andtheFBI filesmaintained
forfilmmaker
hehasbeena pointofinterest
1953untilafter
hisdeath(Carson,1991).Finally,
betweenMalcolmX and Dr. Kingin his
a dialogicrelationship
SpikeLee, who featured
ofMalcolmX
filmbiography
a controversial
1990movieDo theRightThingandprepared
releasedin 1992justas thisessaywas goingtopress(see Fraser,1990;Mills,1990;Sterritt,
1991;Trescot,1991).
is usedhereto suggestthesensein whicha rhetoric
"positions
2. The wordconstitute
thereader[oraudience]towardspolitical,social and economicactionin thematerialand
world"(see Charland,1987,p. 141).
3. Numerousrhetorical
analysesof MalcolmX's publicdiscourseexist.In mostinof a particular
speechor small
dimensions
is focusedon therhetorical
stances,attention
(see Benson,1974;Campbell,
groupof speechesthathe deliveredoron hisautobiography
attention
is focusedon the
1970;Clasby,1974;Eakin,1976;Epps,1972).In otherinstances,
differences
in its
itas iftherewereno significant
treating
corpusof hisworkholistically,
andfunctions
toend(see Rick,1980,1981;Flick& Powell,
from
beginning
rhetorical
forms
such
1988;Illo, 1966).Ouranalysisinthisarticleis designedtobuilduponandcomplement
ofhispublicdiscourseas a marker
formsandfunctions
efforts
therhetorical
byexamining
ofhisdissentacrosstime.
4. Manyofthefactsof MalcolmX's lifearein dispute.So, forexample,accordingto
ornotEarl
record"raisesseriousquestionsas towhether
Perry(1991,pp.9-14),the"official
Little'sdeathwas accidentalorintentional.
Of course,we cannotdiscountthefactthatthe
that
establishment
officialrecordwas producedand maintained
by a Whiteinstitutional
murder.
insuppressing
theexistenceofa raciallymotivated
mightwellhavehadan interest
inindicating
recordofMalcolm
thatthehistorical
Nevertheless,
Perryandothersarecorrect
X's earlylifeis unclear.Forourpurpose,itis enoughthatMalcolmX recalledtheeventsof
his earlylifeas he did-both in hisAutobiography
(1966) and in manyof his interviews
(Clark,1963/1985,
pp. 34-35) and speeches-andemployedtheminpublicdiscourseas a
forhisdissent.
persuasiverationale
as a socialandcultural
5. Thewordmyth
is usedhereintheclassicalsenseofmythology
theobjectiveor
implications
regarding
"storyof origins"and does notentailnormative
factualtruth
ofthestory(see Doty,1986,pp. 1-40).
6. For a morecompleteexplanation
and ideologicalrootsof the
of theintellectual
seeLincoln(1961) andLomax(1963,pp.17-108).
oftheBlackMuslimfaith,
founding
myth
ofIndependence,
7. Fourspeechesunambiguously
exemplify
thisperiod:"A Declaration
March12, 1964"; thespeechdeliveredat 'The LeverettHouse Forum,March18, 1964";
"TheBallotorTheBullet,April3, 1964";and"TheBlackRevolution,
April8, 1964."The
similarities
betweenthevariousaudiencesaddressedbythesespeeches-Whitesocialists,
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Condit,Lucaites/MALCOLM X
311
Malcolmvariedhis
Whiteacademics,andlargelyBlackaudiences-suggestthat,although
consistent
in
ofhismessagewas remarkably
groups,thesubstance
tonetoadapttodifferent
thisperiod.
8. Thisthemebeganto emergein MalcolmX's publicdiscourseas earlyas November
duringthisthirdperiodofdissent.
1963(see MalcolmX, 1965j,pp. 5-6),butitflourished
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CelesteMichelleConditis an AssociateProfessor
ofSpeechCommunication
at the
University
ofGeorgia,Athens.She is theauthorofDecodingtheAbortion
Debate
and coauthorofCrafting
Equality:America'sAnglo-African
Word
JohnLouisLucaitesis an Assistant
Professor
ofSpeechCommunication
at Indiana
University,
Bloomington.
He is thecoauthorof
Crafting
Equality:America'sAngloAfricanWordand coeditorofMartinLutherKing,Jr.,and theSermonicPowerof
PublicDiscourse.
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