LITHUANIAN UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES
FACULTY OF PHILOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH PHILOLOGY
Skaistė SADAUNINKAITĖ
EXPRESSION OF THE CONCEPT OF HAPPINESS IN ENGLISH
AND LITHUANIAN ZOOMORPHIC IDIOMS
MA Paper
Academic Advisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. L. Selmistraitis
Vilnius, 2013
LIETUVOS EDUKOLOGIJOS UNIVERSITETAS
FILOLOGIJOS FAKULTETAS
ANGLŲ FILOLOGIJOS KATEDRA
LAIMĖS KONCEPTO REIŠKIMAS ANGLŲ IR LIETUVIŲ
KALBOS FRAZEOLOGIZMUOSE
Magistro darbas
Humanitariniai mokslai, filologija
Magistro darbo autorė Skaistė Saduninkaitė
Patvirtinu, kad darbas atliktas
savarankiškai, naudojant tik darbe
nurodytus šaltinius
___________________________
(Parašas, data)
Vadovas doc. dr. Linas Selmistraitis
___________________________
(Parašas, data
2
LITHUANIAN UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATIONAL SCIENCES
FACULTY OF PHILOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH PHILOLOGY
EXPRESSION OF THE CONCEPT OF HAPPINESS IN ENGLISH
AND LITHUANIAN ZOOMORPHIC IDIOMS
This MA paper is submitted in partial fulfillment of
requirements for the degree of the MA in English Philology
By Skaistė Sadauninkaitė
I declare that this study is my own and does not contain any unacknowledged work from any
source.
(Signature)
(Date)
Academic Advisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. L. Selmistraitis
(Signature)
(Date
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CONTENTS
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………………… 5
INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………..………….6
1. THEORETICAL ESTABLISHMENT OF IDIOMS……………………………………..9
1.1. Overview of existing definitions of idioms…………….…………………………….9
1.2. Form and structural classification……...……………………………………………13
1.3. Meaning and semantic classification………………………………………………..14
1.4. Idiom formation peculiarities and cultural influence………………………………..18
2. THE ROLE OF ANIMALS IN HUMAN LIFE…………………………………………23
3. THE CONCEPT OF HAPPINESS IN ANCIENT AND MODERN TIMES …………..26
4.
EXPRESSION OF HAPPINESS THROUGH ENGLISH AND LITHUANIAN
ZOOMORPHIC IDIOMS………………………………………………………………..31
4.1. Animals that are used in the English and Lithuanian idioms to express happiness…31
4.1.1. Peculiarities of the idioms that comprise the constituent of a vertebrate…….33
4.1.1.1. Idioms that comprise the constituent of a domestic mammal…………...33
4.1.1.2. Idioms that comprise the constituent of a wild mammal………………..40
4.1.1.3. Idioms that comprise the constituent of a domestic bird………………..43
4.1.1.4. Idioms that comprise the constituent of a wild bird…………………….44
4.1.1.5. Idioms that comprise the constituent of a reptile……………………….49
4.1.1.6. Idioms that comprise the constituent of a fish………………………….50
4.1.2.
Peculiarities of the idioms that comprise the constituent of an invertebrate...51
4.1.2.1. Idioms that comprise the constituent of an insect……………………….51
4.1.2.2. Idioms that comprise the constituent of a mollusk………………………52
4.2. Investigation of aspects of human happiness expressed through English and
Lithuanian zoomorphic idioms……………………………………………………...54
CONCLUSIONS ………………………………………………………………………………..64
SUMMARY in Lithuanian………………...…………………………………………………….67
REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………..69
SOURCES……………………………………………………………………………………….73
APPENDICES……………………………………………………………………………….......74
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ABSTRACT
The aim of the research was to investigate the aspects of happiness and the way they are
expressed through Lithuanian and English zoomorphic idioms. The research focused on the
theoretical background of idiom peculiarities, establishment of the aspects of happiness, their
investigation and comparison within the zoomorphic idioms of both languages. To carry out the
research, 135 zoomorphic idioms were collected: 50 English idioms and 85 Lithuanian idioms.
Qualitative, descriptive and quantitative methods of analysis were mainly employed in the
research. The analysis revealed that 45 animal names were employed to express happiness in
both languages. English idioms comprised 25 animal names, and 33 animal names were found in
Lithuanian idioms. Despite the fact that 13 animal names (bull, calf, cat, cow, dog, horse, sheep,
eagle, bird, dove, fish, bee, and duckling) coincided in both languages, the patterns of
equivalence expressing the same aspect of happiness were not abundant. Although there were 3
total and 12 partial equivalents distinguished among 10 semantic groups of happiness, zero
equivalence was prevailing. This confirms the fact that Lithuanian and English cultures are
different. As a result, the hypothesis was proved that different animals express different aspects
of happiness in both comparable languages. Further studies involving Lithuanian and English
corpora must be conducted to investigate the actual usage of zoomorphic idioms in both
languages.
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INTRODUCTION
This thesis covers the area of idiomaticity. A significant number of linguists have been
thoroughly investigating this linguistic area for more than six decades starting with early 1950s.
Profound works were carried out by the Western linguists and the Russian scholars. The Russian
scholars use the term of phraseological units; meanwhile the Western linguists adopt the term of
idioms. Although this area is well described, idioms still pose challenges for non-native
speakers, foreign language teachers and translators especially because of their meaning which
can not be inferred from the function of the components. Moreover, sometimes it is challenging
to find equivalents of the idioms in the target language or similar idioms because they can be
culture specific. This research covers the small part of idioms; particularly it deals with
investigation of zoomorphic idioms reflecting different aspects of happiness.
Hypothesis
In the aspects of happiness, different animal species in English and Lithuanian zoomorphic
idioms are employed to express happiness.
Novelty of the research
The concept of animals often tends to appear in everyday language, especially the figurative
one and idioms are not an exception. Since no research has been carried out before, I assume that
this research will reveal useful aspects of zoomorphic idiom behaviour in Lithuanian and English
languages.
Significance of the research
This research is proposed to extend the existing knowledge in the field of idiomaticity,
particularly the one concerning happiness expressed through zoomorphic idioms. This research
will mitigate misunderstandings and other embarrassing situations in cross-cultural
communication that might emerge because of native and non native speakers’ different use of
idioms to express their thoughts. Thus, the revealed differences and similarities can bring more
clarity in cross-cultural communication. Moreover, the research can be beneficial for other
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contrastive studies related to idioms in English and Lithuanian languages, for foreign language
teachers and for translation studies.
The aim and the objectives of the research
The aim of the research is to investigate the aspects of happiness and the way they are
expressed through Lithuanian and English zoomorphic idioms. To achieve this aim, the
following objectives were applied:
1. To introduce significant researches in the field of idiomaticity;
2. To delineate the relationship between human beings and animals through the history of
mankind;
3. To distinguish aspects of happiness;
4. To collect the zoomorphic idioms that comprise different aspects of happiness in
Lithuanian and English;
5. To reveal what aspects of happiness and how many of them are expressed by each
animal species in both languages;
6. To provide explanations for the choice of a particular animal species to express a certain
aspect of happiness in the idioms;
7. To group zoomorphic idioms of both languages according to the different aspects of
happiness and to compare their level of equivalence.
Methodology
Qualitative analysis was used to provide the theoretical background for the research.
Descriptive method was used to describe the origin and the roots of idioms in this research.
Quantitative analysis was employed to count the frequency of occurrences of animal species and
different aspects of happiness in the idioms. Zoomorphic idioms that reveal happiness were
collected from the Lithuanian and English Idiom dictionaries. Using the method of contrastive
juxtaposition, similarities and differences of the idioms were compared.
The scope of the research
Samples with zoomorphic idioms were selected from several sources. The corpus was
collected from Lithuanian and English dictionaries of idioms: Frazeologijos Žodynas (2001, 886
7
pages) for idioms in Lithuanian, Longman Dictionary of Idioms (2000, 398 pages) and Oxford
Dictionary of Idioms (1989, 504 pages) for idioms in English.
The research consists of two major chapters: theoretical and practical. The first subchapter of
the theory includes definitions of the idioms suggested both by the Western and Russian
scholars. Moreover, it provides both structural and semantic classifications as well as the ways of
idiom formation. The concepts that are comprised in the term of an animal and relation between
the human and animals are examined in the following subchapter of the theory. The third
subchapter deals with the definition of happiness which is investigated from perspectives of
ancient and modern times.
The practical chapter deals with the closer analysis of zoomorphic idioms of both languages.
All idioms are grouped according to the incorporated animal name in the first subchapter. It
facilitates to make generalizations about the frequency of occurrences of a particular animal
name in the idioms. Symbolic meaning and explanation for the choice of that particular animal is
given in this subchapter, too. Furthermore, Lithuanian and English idioms are classified
according to their equivalence referring to the concept of happiness in the second subchapter.
This helps to distinguish tendencies about the animals that are most frequently incorporated in
the idioms of both languages to express a certain aspect of happiness. Moreover, total, partial
and zero equivalents are indicated in this subchapter. This enables to observe similarities and
differences of zoomorphic idioms in Lithuanian and English.
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1. THEORETICAL ESTABLISHMENT OF IDIOMS
1.1. Overview of existing definitions of idioms
There is no a single conventionally accepted definition of an idiom. It would be easier to
define the idiom, if it consisted of one word, what is almost impossible in terms of idiomaticity.
If the idiom consists of two words, then the number of properties doubles, because two idioms
may reveal individual structure or behaviour. The more lexemes the phrase has, the more
properties it possesses. Existing definitions convey similar meaning as they define the same
phenomenon, only the constituents of the definitions retain divergent expressions, which make
them distinct from all the rest. Each definition reveals additional aspects and emphasizes
particular properties of idioms.
Although there is little agreement how to define an idiom, linguists adopted a number of
definitions which should be accounted. Seidl and McMordie rely on the idiom’s characteristic of
stability. According to them, an idiom is a number of words which, taken together, mean
something different from the individual words of the idiom when they stand alone (Seidl
&McMordie, 1983:4). Other linguists define idioms in a similar way stressing how the meaning
should be perceived. Thus, Fromkin and Rodman define idioms as “phrases whose meaning is
not the combination of all meanings of the individual words” ( Fromkin, Rodman, 1998:236).
They indicate that idioms tend to be frozen in form and do not readily enter into other
combinations or allow the word order to change. Katamba also agrees that the syntax of an
idiom phrase cannot be changed or composed. Moreover, the meaning cannot be deduced from
the meanings of the words the phrases contain (Katamba, 2005:76). Jackson and Ze Amvel
tackle the idiom from a morphological perspective arguing that “an idiom may be defined as a
phrase, the meaning of which cannot be predicted from the individual meanings of the
morphemes it comprises” (Jackson, Ze Amvel, 2001: 65). Therefore, an idiom can be described
as a multiword lexeme. According to Moon, an idiom is a general term for many kinds of
multiword item, whether semantically opaque or not. She presents idioms from double
perspectives: firstly, idiom is a particular manner of expressing something in language, music or
art, which characterizes a person or group. Secondly, an idiom is a particular lexical collocation
or phrasal lexeme, peculiar to a language (Moon, 1998:4). Mel’čuk claims that idioms form a
minute particle of a larger set of non-free phrases or phrasemes. An idiom differs from a
phraseme in that “it is a multilexemic expression E whose meaning cannot be deduced from the
meanings of the constituent lexemes of E, their semantically loaded morphological
9
characteristics and their syntactic configuration” (Mel‘čuk, 2006:1). Idiom definition by Gläser
comprises a number of idiom properties. It states that “a phraseological unit is a lexicalized,
reproducible bilexemic or polylexemic word group in common use, which has relative syntactic
and semantic stability, may be idiomatized, may carry connotations, and may have an emphatic
or intensifying function in a text (…) whose meaning cannot be derived from the meanings of its
constituents. Thus, an idiom is characterized by a specific choice and combination of semantic
components (or semantic markers) carried by its constituents” (Cowie, 1998 :125).
The definition suggested by Fernando and Flavell embraces majority of properties that are
typical for the idioms as well. An idiomatic construction should have the following five
properties:
 its meaning is not the compositional sum of its constituents;
 it is a unit that either has a homonymous literal counterpart or at least individual
constituents that are literal, although the expression as a whole would not be
interpreted literally;
 it is transformationally deficient in one or another way;
 it forms part of set of expressions in a given language;
 it is traditionally used (institutionalised).
The first three characteristics are the most relevant while the last two are secondary ones
(Fernando and Flavell, 1981:48).
Nunberg, Sag and Wasow distinguish prototypical idioms and other opposite categories
like formulae, fixed phrases, collocations, clichés, sayings, proverbs, and allusions. Prototypical
idioms such as kick the bucket are differentiated according to their distinct properties, which are
as follows:
 Conventionality: Idioms are conventionalized and their meaning cannot be predicted on
the basis of knowledge of the independent principles that establish the use of their
constituents when they appear in isolation from one another;
 Inflexibility: Idioms are not susceptible to free composition; therefore, there is a limited
number of syntactic frames or constructions in which idioms can appear;
 Figuration: Idioms typically involve metaphors (take the bull by the horns), metonymies
(lend a hand, count heads), hyperboles (not worth the paper it’s printed on), or other
kinds of figuration;
 Proverbiality: Idioms are often used to describe or implicitly to explain the situation of
particular social interest (becoming restless, talking informally, divulging a secret);
 Informality: Idioms are associated with colloquial and informal registers, popular speech
and spoken culture;
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 Affect: Idioms are typically used to imply a certain evaluation of the things they denote.
Idioms are rarely used to describe language which is recognized neutrally – buying tickets,
reading a book – although it is possible to imagine a community in which such activities were
adequately charged with social meaning to be worthy of idiomatic reference (Nunberg, Sag and
Wasow, 1994:493).
However, these properties are not necessarily obligatory to all idioms except the property of
conventionality. Some idioms may not possess such properties as figuration or informality. On
the other hand, if the phrase lacks majority of the properties mentioned above, it can be
perceived as a collocation or other fixed expression. Therefore, the distinguished features
facilitate to define idioms from other expressions (Nunberg, Sag and Wasow, 1994:493).
Characteristics that are suggested by Kvetko include features that are similarly distinguished
by other scholars:

idioms are combinations of lexical items, therefore, they have a multi-word character;

idioms are institutionalized and widely acknowledged;

idioms have fixed/stable arrangement of words;

idioms carry non-literal, fully or partially figurative and unique meaning (Kvetko,
2005:103).
According to Arnold, “phraseological units are word groups consisting of two or more
words whose combination is integrated as a unit with a specialized meaning as a whole” (Arnold,
1973:140). He emphasises their stability and unchanging nature that allow the users to apply the
idioms in speech without thinking or preparation. Therefore, from his point of view, the term set
expression is more appropriate speaking about idiomaticity (Arnold, 1973:140).
Antrushina at al. define phraseology as “a kind of picture gallery in which are collected vivid
and amusing sketches of the nation’s customs, traditions and prejudices, recollections of its past
history, scraps of folk songs and fairy-tales.” (Antrushina et al., 1985:174). Idioms are compared
to the pictures, whose parts in isolation would not have anything in common with the whole
picture. The authors maintain the point of view that idioms or phraseological units are strictly
fixed phrases and they distinguish three types of restrictions. Firstly, substitution is not possible
within the phrases otherwise the structures will lose their meaning. Secondly, new components
are not possible to be brought in phraseological units. Thirdly, phraseological units are not
variable grammatically. If these restrictions are violated, then we have free word-groups
(Antrushina et al., 1985:180).
The definitions given in the entries of dictionaries do not significantly differ from those that
are formulated by the linguists. Hornby defines an idiom on the basis of its meaning which does
not depend on the meanings of individual words of a phrase (Oxford Advanced Learner’s
11
Dictionary, 2000). Makkai describes an idiom as the assignment of a new meaning to a group of
words which already have their own meaning (A Dictionary of American English, 1987).
Longman Dictionary of Idioms refers to an idiom as a sequence of words conveying a different
meaning than it would be understood from each word separately. Idioms brighten the language,
help to emphasize meaning and to make personal observations, judgments, and explanations
lively and appealing. They are irreplaceable when it is necessary to communicate a great deal of
meaning in a few words (LDI, 2000).
Having considered these definitions, it is still difficult to bind all idioms under one category.
The boundary between the idioms and other word-groups is not comprehensible and easily
established. Lexicographer Moon applies the term “phrasal-lexemes” to indicate pure idioms,
proverbs, similes, institutionalized metaphors, formulae, sayings and various collocations. She
excludes from this category phrasal verbs, compound nouns, adjectives and verbs, such as civil
servant, selfraising or freeze-dry (Cowie, 1998:79). Svensen, on the contrary, suggests that
idioms compile particular group of words in which routine formulas, proverbs and similes are
eliminated. Nevertheless, dictionaries tend to treat all these fixed word combinations equally
with idioms (Svensen, 2009:191). Gläser introduces the term ‘phrasicon’ of a language that
represents all phraseological units that include idioms, phrases, word-like and sentence-like set
phrases. Idioms form the majority and may be regarded as the prototype of the phraseological
unit. Meanwhile, non-idioms have transparent meanings and contain technical terms, onymic
entities (i.e. phrases which are proper names), clishés, paraphrasal verbs and other set
expressions. Sentence-like phraseological units comprise irreversible binomials, stereotyped
comparisons, proverbial sayings, fragments of proverbs, allusions and fragments of quotations
(Cowie, 1998:126).
Some linguists highlight idiom links with conceptual metaphors. Consequently, Gibbs
proposes a theory of immediate metaphor and idiom comprehension, according to which,
conceptual metaphors are tightly linked to idioms. This view arises from the fact that idioms
initially might have been metaphorical, but over the time they lost metaphoricity and now exist
in our mental lexicons as frozen, lexical items. Gibbs claims that “idioms do not exist as separate
semantic units within the lexicon, but they reflect coherent system of metaphorical concepts”
(Gibbs et al., 1997:142). He gives an example of conceptual metaphor ANGER IS HEATED
FLUID IN A CONTAINER that motivates the idioms ‘blow your stack’, ‘flip your lid’, ‘hit the
ceiling’, ‘get hot under the collar’, ‘lose your cool’ and ‘get steamed up’. These idioms refer to
particular events related to anger and conceptual mappings between different source and target
domains form our conceptualization for anger. Therefore, preexisting conceptual metaphors
influence on how people perceive idiomatic meaning (Gibbs et al., 1997:142).
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In this research I will apply the idiom definition which encompasses the majority of idiom’s
characteristics. The idiom can be described as a complex group of words whose meaning is
comparable to that of a single lexical item and which cannot be deduced from its separate
constituents. Idioms are conventionally accepted and figuratively used in societies. These word
groups are inflexible and rarely open to grammatical or lexical changes.
1.2. Form and structural classification
Although many linguists claim that idioms are considered to have fixed or frozen nature, this
characteristic is often argued by some linguists. Hornby in the introduction of the Oxford
Advanced Learner’s dictionary claims that some constituents are less fixed in a phrase than
others. Such constituents can be easily replaced by other words having similar connotations, e.g.
in the idiom be a bag full of nerves, the word bag can be replaced by the word bundle.
Consequently, an idiom has two acceptable variants which are be a bag/bundle of nerves. Nerve
is a fixed full word in the phrase which is impossible to change without alterations in the
meaning. Sometimes several alternatives are available in an idiom, e.g. in the expression
disappear into thin air, it is possible to use the words vanish, melt or evaporate instead of the
word disappear (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 2000).
Svensen distinguishes grammatical and lexical variations of idioms. Grammatical
variation is related to tense variation in idioms consisting of a verb phrase: he loses heart, lost
heart, has lost heart, had lost heart. Although passivization and change in number of a noun do
not occur often, however, it is possible. Such grammatical variations are used to express
purposeful stylistic intention. In terms of lexical variation, Svensen’s point of view coincides
with Hornby’s. According to Svensen, lexical variation is related to synonymy. Some words can
be replaced by other words under the condition that the meaning of the idiom remains
unchanged: put a bold/brave/good face. Moreover, addition or removal of the words in an idiom
is also possible: wash one’s (dirty) linen (in public) ( Svensen, 2009:189).
Ginzburg et al. also emphasize lexical stability that sometimes can be partly violated.
Although the components are usually irreplaceable, some variance is allowed: lexical (e.g. a
skeleton in the cupboard – a skeleton in the closet), grammatical (e.g. to be in deep water – to be
in deep waters), positional (e.g. head over ears – over head and ears), quantitative (e.g. to lead
somebody a dance – to lead somebody a pretty dance), mixed variants (e.g. raise (stir up) a
hornets’ nest about one’s ears – arouse (stir up) the nest of hornets) (Ginzburg et al., 1979:85).
Although variation in form of idioms is rarely possible under normal circumstances, the
user sometimes is allowed to change the structure for stylistic purposes. Some minute
13
rearrangements may be used to achieve humorous effect. These rearrangements are mainly
noticed at the lexical level:
1. change the order of the words in it ( e.g. the short and the long of it);
2. delete a word from it (e.g. spill beans);
3. add a word to it ( e.g. the very long and short of it);
4. replace a word with another ( e.g. the tall and the short of it; bury a hatchet);
5. change in the grammatical structure (e.g. the music was faced) (Baker, 2006:63).
Arnold also allows variation within the phraseological units and divides them into the
following categories according to the degree of substitution within the phrase:
1. Set expressions (e.g. the great vowel shift, cold war) – no substitution is possible
within the elements of expression without semantic change;
2. Semi-fixed combinations (e.g. go to school) – substitution is permitted of any elements
without semantic change;
3. Free phrases (e.g. to cut bread, to cut cheese) – substitution of elements is permitted
(Arnold, 1973).
Although idioms are rarely classified according to their length, this measure can also help
to extract the distinctive information about idioms. A large part of idioms comprise the entire
clause such as to fly off the handle, ‘lose control over oneself’ or to blow one’s stack, ‘to become
very angry’. They usually do not carry the meaning which could be easily understood from the
separate constituents of the phrase. Moreover, it is necessary to use more than one word in order
to paraphrase them. However, some idioms may consist merely of one word. Then the word is
used in a surprisingly different meaning from the original one, e.g. lemon can be used to denote
bad watches, cars, or machines in general, and dog which is used to describe a bad date or a bad
exam (A Dictionary of American English, 1987).
1.3. Meaning and semantic classification
The semantic analysis shows that all words have a dual lexical meaning that is expressed
by denotational and connotational components. Denotational meaning facilitates communication
as it is closely related to the primary function of the words to denote things or concepts of the
real world. Additionally, connotational meaning renders emotive evaluation and stylistic value of
the word (Ginzburg et al., 1997:20). Connotational meaning is especially well expressed in
idioms. Moreover, idioms possess cultural connotations that will be described later on (Cowie,
1981: 59).
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Because of expressive connotational meaning, idioms are characterized by many linguists
as being ambiguous and carrying metaphorical meaning. However, the degree of transparency of
idioms, in terms of their meaning, differs. Profound knowledge is not necessary to decode the
meaning of some idioms; meanwhile others require much more efforts and particular
information. Consequently, Jackson and Ze Amvel distinguish ‘full’ idioms and ‘partial idioms’.
Full idioms are compared to frozen metaphors. They are not readily apparent to most speakers of
modern English, and they are often disputed (e.g. kick the bucket). Partial idioms include words
which carry their usual meaning together with the words that are peculiar to that particular
structure. They give an example of the idiom ‘red hair’. The word hair has its usual meaning of
the fine filaments growing from the human head, and the word red is used idiomatically as it
does not denote the strict colour term. Moreover, the degree of idiomaticity can vary within the
range of partial idioms (Jackson, Ze Amvel, 2001: 66).
Svensen also admits that there are different degrees of metaphoricity. He describes
idioms that have non-literal meaning as full idioms and divides them into two kinds: partly
compositional idioms and non-compositional idioms. Partly compositional idioms are
susceptible to partial analysis, e.g. spill the beans means ‘to reveal something which should have
been secret’. The word spill can be associated with revelation and the word bean can represent
the secrets. Non-compositional idioms are unsusceptible to analysis. For instance, none of the
components can be associated with the components of the meaning of the idiom saw logs which
means ‘to snore during sleep’. Furthermore, Svensen distinguishes semi-idioms that are called as
partial idioms by Jackson and Ze Amvel. According to Svensen, semi-idioms carry a semi-literal
meaning, which can be partly deduced from the meanings of their components because one of
them has retained its literal meaning ( Svensen, 2009:190).
Antrushina et al. present the classification system developed by Vinogradov which is
based on semantic cohesion between the components of phraseological units. That means the
greater distance from the real meaning, the bigger degree of its semantic cohesion. As a result,
three classes of phraseological units are distinguished:
1)
Phraseological combinations – these are word-groups with a partially changed
meaning and the meaning can be easily recognized from its constituents (e.g. to be good at
something, to have a bite, to take something for granted);
2)
Phraseological unities - these are word-groups with a completely changed
meaning and the meaning of a word does not correspond to its constituent parts. Nevertheless,
they are motivated, that means the meaning of the whole unit can be deduced from constituent
elements with the help of metaphors which the units are based on (e.g. to lose one’s head – to be
15
at a loss what to do, to be out of one’s mind; the last drop/straw – the final culminating
circumstance that makes a situation unbearable);
3)
Phraseological fusions - these are word-groups with a completely changed and
demotivated meaning when it is not possible to deduce the meaning of the unit from its
constituent parts (e.g. neck and crop – entirely, all together, thoroughly; at sixes and sevens – in
confusion or in disagreement (Antrushina et al., 1985:189).
Cowie uses other terms for the same categories indicated by Vinogradov. He uses terms
of pure idiom instead of phraseological fusion, figurative idiom instead of phraseological unity
and restricted collocation instead of phraseological combination. This enumeration stretches
from restricted collocability to free collocability (Cowie, 1981:217).
In addition to this, Antrushina et al. present one more classification developed by
Smirnitsky. This classification is based on the structure and semantics of phraseological units;
therefore, both the number and significance of their constituents are important. Accordingly, two
major classes are distinguished:
1) One-summit units – these are word-groups with one meaningful constituent
element (e.g. to give up, to put out, to take in);
2) Two-summit and multi-summit units – they have two or more meaningful
constituents (e.g. common sense, to fish in troubled waters).
These two classes are further subdivided into subgroups according to the distribution of
semantic and grammatical centres:
1. One-summit units:
1.1. Verbal-adverbial units – the semantic and grammatical centre is in the first
constituent (e.g. to give up);
1.2. Verbal-adverbial units – the grammatical centre is in the first constituent and
the semantic centre is in the second constituent (e.g. to be tired);
1.3. Prepositional–substantive units – they are equivalent either to adverb or to
copulas and have their semantic centre in the substantive constituent without grammatical
centre (e.g. by heart, by means of).
2. Two-summit and multi-summit units:
2.1. Attributive-substantive two-summit units equivalent to nouns (e.g. black art);
2.2. Verbal- substantive two-summit units equivalent to verbs (e.g. to take the
floor);
2.3. Phraseological repetitions equivalent to adverbs (e.g. now or never);
2.4. Adverbial multi-summit units (e.g. every other day) (Antrushina et al.,
1985:192).
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Lithuanian linguists distinguish two major types of idioms according to their semantics:
unmotivated and motivated phraseological units. The same aspect can be observed in structural
classification of phraseological units introduced by Vinogradov. Motivation is determined by
two factors:
1. Relation between the meaning of the phrase and the meaning of separate constituents of
that phrase;
2. Relation between the image that is formed by the whole phrase and the image that is
created by its constituents separately.
Bearing these factors in mind, it is possible to define the unmotivated and motivated
phraseological units. Unmotivated phraseological units are the ones whose meaning is remote
from the meaning of its separate constituents. The image that is created by the individual
constituents of the phraseological unit is improbable and has no relation with the image that is
formed by the whole phrase as a unit. Such unmotivated units are called idioms. These
unmotivated units are called phraseological fusions in the classification suggested by
Vinogradov. The meaning of constituents is faded and components are semantically empty when
taken separately. Motivated phraseological units, on the contrary, carry the meaning that can be
easily associated with the meaning of separate components. Consequently, they are further
subdivided into tropical phraseological units (fixed word-groups that are often used figuratively,
e.g. Graibyti žemę), comparative phraseological units (emotive, descriptive similes that are
conventionally used) and phraseological combinations (phrases that have similar meaning to the
meaning of their components, e.g. vargais negalais) (Jakaitienė, 2009:286-289). Vinogradov
also distinguishes phraseological combinations in his classification. Moreover, the tropical
phraseological units introduced by Jakaitienė correspond to the phraseological unities introduced
by Vinogradov. These similarities reveal that Jakaitienė refers to the classification introduced by
the Russian scholars.
Idioms possess relations that can be compared to relations between words. They can have
synonyms, antonyms, homonyms and be combined according to semantic or lexical criteria into
semantic fields or idiomatic families. Homonymous relations are less common between idioms
in comparison to words. Homonymous idiomatic expressions (hit the roof/ceiling is used to
describe a situation when prices increase suddenly and rapidly or when a person becomes angry
and starts shouting at someone) have different meanings and distinctive figurativeness and
motivation (Kvetko, 1999:108). Antonymous relations tend to occur more frequently. They are
based on the contrasting figurativeness and motivation (e.g. have (got) money to burn – not have
(got) two pennies/cents to rub together). Idioms that convey pure negation ( e.g. be in the red –
be out of the red; have (got) money to burn – not have (got) money to burn) are considered as
17
negative forms rather than real antonyms (Kvetko, 1999:108). Synonyms are based on different
figurative meanings (e.g. bleed someone dry/white and take someone to the cleaners).
Paradigmatic and syntagmatic variants are variants of the same idiom. Idiomatic semantic fields
combine idioms with similar semantic features.
1.4. Idiom formation peculiarities and cultural influence
Formation of idioms is an ongoing process and it is closely related to environment and
different phenomena occurring in everyday life. Some idioms are newly created and survive for a
long time, some of them become obsolete and not used any more. In the initial phase of
formation idioms usually have literal meaning that constantly acquires figurative meaning.
Finally, an idiom is formed whose meaning is different from the meaning of its individual
constituents ( Svensen, 2009:190).
Ordinary people rather than linguists create them spontaneously or unconsciously in
particular situations. Hockett states that a speaker might say some novel utterance that is new
both for the hearer and for the speaker. In spite of the uniqueness of the utterance, they both can
understand it. Hockett claims that an utterance becomes an idiom under two fundamental
conditions: there should be something unusual either about its structure or about the attendant
circumstances. Sometimes both conditions can be fulfilled to make the utterance unforgettable
and idiomatic (Hockett, 1965:304). Some utterances may remain idiomatic only in the closed
circle of people who are acquainted with the context when that utterance was pronounced. Other
utterances, on the contrary, may become widely used and conventionally understood. Any
context, formal or informal, linguistic or non-linguistic, in which a phrase is understood as an
idiom, is called the defining context (Hockett, 1965:305).
Different sources from every day life give rise to idiom formation. Many idioms come
from home life (e.g. to be born with a silver spoon in one’s mouth). Other idioms are related to
food and cooking (e.g. out of the frying pan into the fire), agricultural life (e.g. to lead someone
up the garden path) or military life (e.g. to cross swords with someone). Moreover, a significant
number of idioms include parts of the body, animals and colours (e.g. to turn the other cheek, a
snake in the grass, a white lie) (Seidl, McMordie, 1983:5). In addition to this, there is a number
of sayings that come from trades and professions, from courts of kings, churches, cathedrals and
gambling houses. A lot of sayings came from the sea, because England took a prominent place in
maritime trading for many centuries. Consequently, the speech of the sailors became common in
the British ports. Some sayings came from the battlefields, from the hunt or the fisherman’s boat.
Many appeared from the loom and the spindle, because weaving became an important industry in
18
England. Some sayings derived from the games and sports which include children’s games,
outdoor and indoor sports, games for boys and men, games for skill and chance (Funk, 2001:14).
Makkai explains this phenomenon of idiomaticity in relation to the language changes.
Newly developed concepts require other expressions for them. However, instead of creating an
entirely new combination of sounds, people employ some already existing words whose
combination renders a new sense. He admits that this fact is common for all languages in the
world (A Dictionary of American English, 1987).
In addition to the arguments above, it is even possible to find the words in some idioms
that are not used in everyday speech any more. For example, the idiom to buy a pig in a poke
means ‘to buy something which one has not inspected previously and which is worth less than
one paid for it.’ The word poke is substituted by another word sack and in present-day English it
is no longer used. Although such occurrence is observed relatively rarely, it proves that idioms
exist longer than individual words (Seidl, McMordie, 1983:5).
Such anomalies are also emphasized by Smith. From his point of view, folk language had
great influence on idiom formation. Consequently, majority of idioms have retained
authentication of grammatical freedom, which was in common use in ordinary people’s language
in the previous century and earlier. Therefore, lexical and grammatical discrepancies between
modern English and idioms can be clarified in terms of early idioms’ formation. Archaic words
that are not used separately in the language (e.g. in one’s behoof meaning ‘in behalf of someone’,
hither and thither meaning ‘everywhere’), words with obsolete meaning that are used in the
language with other meaning (e.g. at first blush meaning ‘at first sight’ where the word blush
used to mean ‘impression’ but now its meaning has changed into ‘the red colour that spreads
over your face when you are embarrassed’) and change in function of speech categories (e.g.
verbs or adverbs obtain noun function in the idioms to be in the know, whys and wherefores, ups
and downs) are manifestation of idiom links with people everyday life (Smith, 1958:28).
Not only do the idioms come from folklore, but they also originate from other early
sources. The Bible provides the plethora of contemporary idioms (e.g. a voice crying in the
wilderness, horse stumbles that has four legs). Loan-translations from Latin are used (e.g. the
end crowns the work, never look a gift horse in the mouth) as well as from French (e.g. the game
is not worth the candle, all cats are grey in the dark, dance on a volcano) or German (e.g. blood
and iron). Numerous examples come from literary texts, especially those that are written by
Shakespeare (e.g. ‘A horse! A horse! My Kingdom for a horse!’ – words taken from the play
‘Richard III’; ‘something is rotten in the state of Denmark’ – words taken from the play
‘Hamlet’; ‘the beginning of the end’ – words taken from the ‘A Midsummer Night's Dream’), or
from speeches and articles written by famous people (e.g. ‘time is money’ by Benjamin Franklin,
19
‘all men are born equal’ by Tom Jefferson, ‘time is on our side’ by William L. Gladstone, ‘my
house is my castle’ by Edward Coke) (Drotvinas, 2011:3). Furthermore, we often do not know
the name of the author or speaker who used a particular expression. Some idioms come from
Native-American customs (e.g. bury the hatchet) or from African-American speech (e.g. chill
out). Some idioms became popular because of their rhyme (e.g. snug as a bug in a rug) or they
have alliteration (e.g. spick and span). Moreover, some idioms originated as colloquialisms or
slang (casual, playful, non-standard language). Some were well-known proverbs and sayings.
Some popular idioms began as traditional sayings used in particular regions of the country and
spoken in local dialects. Many came from other countries or were used in ancient times.
All arguments stated above reveal that phraseology is a good example of the correlation
between language and culture. Teliya et al. affirm that idioms carry a lot of cultural information,
comprising social, moral, political and other values. Subconscious knowledge includes
standards, stereotypes, mythologies, rituals, general habits and other cultural patterns. When they
appear in the lexicon, they act as ‘direct’ cultural signs (e.g. proverbs, sayings, idioms).
Therefore, Teliya et al. distinguish quasi-standards, quasi-stereotypes or quasi-symbols. These
lexical units acquire this quasi- status when they occur under influence of cultural interpretations
(Cowie, 1998:57).
Culture penetrates the idioms through cultural semes, cultural concepts, cultural
connotations, cultural background and discourse stereotypes:
 The cultural seme reflects general knowledge about the realia which usually can
be found in the encyclopaedic dictionaries with etymological and cultural
commentaries.
 Cultural concepts are abstract notions that map and construct the world-picture in
a culturally specific way. Although cultural concepts mainly coincide in European
languages, idioms show a high degree of cultural specificity.
 Cultural connotations are especially vivid in idioms and they are usually invoked
by cultural semes. Cultural connotations can be derived from allusion to cultural
realia (e.g. ‘to thrust oneself against the Y-shaped spear’, i.e. to provoke a
dangerous situation) or from cultural concepts, where cultural connotations can
be generated by metaphor. Cultural connotations can also arise from the
interpretation of subconcepts. However, a considerable number of idiographic
fields should be studied in order to reveal cultural connotations (i.e. idioms,
proverbs, sayings).
20
 Cultural background can be associated with a historical situation, a political
movement or a fashionable trend (e.g. ‘a Russian birch tree’ is identified by
native speakers as a symbol of the motherland).
 Discourse stereotypes are related to repetition, reinterpretation, multiplication and
creation of new texts. These texts have a huge influence over the culture and they
affect language as well. Thus, some idioms and collocations require deeper
knowledge of a text in which the concept was first described (Cowie, 1998:5862).
Additionally, cultural differences affect the process of idiom translation across languages.
Translators often face the problem of non-equivalence at word level which means that there is no
direct equivalent for a word in the target language which occurs in the source text. However, in
terms of idiomaticity, it is even more complicated to find equivalents for idioms in the target
language because of their limited variation and lack of transparency. Moreover, an idiom in the
source language may have a close equivalent in the target language which looks identical on the
surface level but actually is misleading and having totally or partially different meaning.
Therefore, it is said that idiom translation deals with equivalence above the word level (Baker,
2006:66).
Baker distinguishes four difficulties in idiom translation. Firstly, an idiom may have no
equivalent in the target language. In this case, the meaning can be expressed by means of a single
word or transparent fixed expression. Such idioms without identical counterparts are usually
culture-specific. Secondly, an idiom may have a similar counterpart in the target language, but its
context of use may be different. Thirdly, an idiom may be used in the source text in both its
literal and idiomatic senses at the same time. In this case, if the target language does not possess
a similar equivalent encompassing both literal and idiomatic meaning, it is highly probable that
translation will not render the effectiveness of the source text or it will be inaccurate. Fourthly,
the context, in which the idioms are used, may be different in the source and target languages
(Baker, 2006:69).
Varga and Groszler suggest that equivalence is a translation technique which presupposes
representing a term or set phrase in the source language into a different term in the target
language, but preserving the correspondence with the same reality. The linguists distinguish the
following types of equivalence:
1) cognitive (depends on the semantics of the text and the translator’s knowledge);
2) emotional (intuitive);
3) denotative (conveying the information advanced by the source language text);
21
4) connotative (preserving the style, the language register, the sociolect, the
geographical distribution of the expression);
5) standard or normative (according to the genre of the text, e.g. a textbook, an
advertisement, etc.);
6) pragmatic or dynamic (adapted to the knowledge of the reader in order to be
understood) (Varga, Groszler, 2008:370).
In conclusion, cultural information concealed in the idioms make them specific to many
nations and countries around the world. Therefore, non-native speakers find idioms difficult to
understand. They lack lingo-cultural competence which is acquired by native speakers together
with knowledge of their mother tongue (Cowie, 1998:60).
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2. THE ROLE OF ANIMALS IN HUMAN LIFE
Animals have always played a significant role in people’s life and consequently, took an
important part in shaping their value system. Myths, legends, fairytales and fables are the
primary sources that help to understand the treatment of animals. The close link between people
and animals is that they can transform from one group into another in the fairytales. People
become ravens (“The Seven Ravens” by Brothers Grimms), swans (“The Wild Swans” by Hans
Christian Andersen), lambs or wolves (“The Man Who Became a Wolf”, a Lithuanian tale);
meanwhile, frogs (“The Tale of the Queen Who Sought a Drink From a Certain Well” by J. F.
Campbell), serpents (“Egle, the Queen of Serpents”, a Lithuanian tale), hedgehogs (“Hans the
Hedgehog” by Brothers Grimms) turn out to be spelled young women or men.
A number of cultures have their totems which they have been worshiping since ancestry.
Totems are understood as animals or plants playing a special role in the history of the tribes.
Moreover, totems are perceived as guardians that often appear in the dreams or trances of the
members of the tribes. The wolf played a significant role among the Indo-Europeans. Therefore,
warriors sought to possess the spirit of the wolf and the legends of the werewolves emphasize the
importance of the wolf totem. In addition to this, the myth of Rome’s foundation also stresses the
wolf’s role. According to it, mother wolf suckled Romulus and Remus, the legendary founders of
Rome. Among people of the Far North, totems were most frequently birds. For the Native
Americans of the Northwest coast, the favourite totem was the raven and sometimes the bear; the
southern tribes worshiped the coyote, beaver, or jaguar (Sax, 2001: xii). Other authors claim that
animals such as Wolf, Deer, Bear, Eagle, Hawk, Snake, Turtle, Butterfly and sometimes Bee are
most frequently alike to appear as animal totems especially within the native North American
cultures (Lupa, 2012 :15).
The prehistoric cave paintings of France and Spain are one of the most ancient works of
art. In comparison to human figures, animal figures were painted with special care. This is
because people worshipped them. The paintings were usually dedicated to divine animals,
especially bulls, also vultures, foxes, and others. Some animals, on the contrary, were believed to
be demonic. In Britain, people believed that the demon was frequently a cat, snake, toad, lizard,
spider or dog. Consequently, cats might be burned along with a convicted witch. A suspect was
forced to sit in the room with a hole in the door. Any creature that approached the suspected
witch was considered to be familiar with her (Sax, 2001: xv).
Among the Celtic traditions, animals served as a bridge between the world of the divine
and the earthly world. On the level of the earthy world animals were represented as the deities
23
possessing the primal power. Meanwhile, on the spiritual level the best qualities of animals were
exalted. The Celts used particular rituals to acquire the qualities of animals. For example, if one
wanted to become brave and strong, one could align themselves with a bear. Or if one wished
knowledge, he could choose a salmon. Furthermore, a number of animals were held sacred and
Celtic shamans attempted to transform into these animals. Some animals were associated with
the Otherworld and belonged only to the deities. They were the deer, the pig, and the dog. They
were brought to humans after the Otherworld battle (McCoy, 2004:20).
Relation between the man and the dog has always been very strong and visible
throughout the history. Paintings, legends, tales and novels reveal that the dog has always been
next to the man. Although the dog is often treated as the best friend of a man and the same time
it is distinguished as being very intelligent, most uses of this concept are pejorative, i.e. when
someone is compared to the dog, he/she are understood as being dirty, tired, hungry, etc.
(Selmistraitis, Rinkauskaitė, 2011:33). Moreover, nowadays the bigger part of society perceives
the dog as a dangerous and dirty animal because of unexpected attacks on people, spread of
diseases and parasites, organic pollution in the streets and public parks (Serpell, 1995:2).
A horse takes an exceptional place in relationship with a man as well. The horse has been
serving a man in war, mobility, productivity, agriculture, development of all kinds since the third
millennium BC. In religious myth and magical folk-tale, horses take their place as symbols of
speed and power, courage and loyalty, beauty and nobility. Moreover, horses have always been
associated with gods and heroes in both Europe and Asia. Traces of ancient horse symbolism
survive in the medieval literature and the folklore of many countries (Johns, 2006:24). The horse
also symbolizes freedom and in many cultures it is linked as an emblem of life-force. In addition
to this, the color of the horse has a symbolic meaning as well. A black horse symbolizes mystery,
death, night, secret, messenger of esoteric knowledge; meanwhile, a white horse is understood as
light, sun, day, vitality, messenger of birth (Venefica, 2012).
Cattle occupy a prominent place in people’s lives because majority of nations were
stockbreeders in ancient times. Cattle provided people with meat, milk and hide. Moreover, they
were the instant source of income. Cattle were especially important in the Celtic culture. They
were an important economic resource to the Celts who were mainly stockbreeders. Therefore,
many Celtic divinities and rituals were related to cattle. A cow is often treated as a symbol of
fertility, nurturing and power (Monaghan, 2004:78). The cow is also a symbol of abundance,
patience and holiness. Moreover, it is considered India’s most sacred animal. Other domestic
inhabitants also nurture positive relations with humans. A goat represents vitality, fertility,
creativity, abundance and lust. A goose is considered to be a guardian, wind, the sun, war,
24
inspiration and happiness. Bees imply immortality, rebirth, industry, order, purity, soul, secret
wisdom, community. They are messengers between the worlds (http://www.incredibleart.org).
Varga and Groszler also emphasize special relationships between domestic animals and a
man. Herd animals such as horses, cattle, are associated with fertility and gain positive
coordinates. Simultaneously, they preserve specific features of their behaviour that are
emphasized and revealed metaphorically, e.g. as strong as a horse/ox (very strong), eat like a
horse (eat a lot), hold one’s horses (to wait, be patient), as gentle as a lamb (very gentle), the
black sheep of the family (the worst or the most unpopular member of a family), a cash cow
(profitable business). Meanwhile, the snake and the wolf maintain negative associations, e.g. a
snake in the grass (a treacherous person), a wolf in sheep’s clothing (a person who pretends to be
good). Serpents also symbolize trouble outcomes and infertility (Varga, Groszler, 2008: 370).
Doves have always carried a strong symbolic meaning throughout most histories, cultures
and myth. A dove symbolizes love, grace, promise, devotion, divinity, holiness, sacrifice,
maternal, purification, messenger, hopefulness. Consequently, mother figures are often
represented with doves. Aphrodite, the goddess-mother of love, is often depicted together with
these divine birds. That reveals the sense of higher love: a love that is as large as the goddess
herself. The Mother Mary in Christian legend is also portrayed in the presence of doves, what
shows devotion, purity and piece (Venefica, 2012).
In conclusion, animals can be understood differently in various cultures because of
diverse experiences in the course of history. However, happiness and its aspects, such as joy,
prosperity, abundance, are usually represented through the following animal concepts. A
butterfly, a dolphin, an otter and a hummingbird are believed to be the representatives of joy and
happiness. Meanwhile, prosperity and abundance are related to the concepts of a dragonfly, a
frog, a buffalo and a kingfisher (http://www.spiritfeather.com). Furthermore, other sources
provide additional interpretations, claiming that a bat and a goose symbolize happiness, an otter
is associated with joy, whereas, a bull, a deer, an eagle and a goat reveal wealth and prosperity
(http://www.incredibleart.org).
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3.
THE CONCEPT OF HAPPINESS IN ANCIENT AND MODERN TIMES
Happiness is a highly controversial and questionable concept which has bothered people
since ancient times. A significant number of researches and existent theories of happiness reveal
that this issue has always been vastly valued in society. Aristotle, one of the greatest thinkers in
the history of western science and philosophy, presents a theory of happiness. He speaks about
achievement of eudaimonia which is roughly translated into happiness. Eudaimonia is not an
emotional state; it is more about being all that you can, fulfilling your potential. Aristotle
distinguishes pleasures from happiness. Pleasures, wealth and a good reputation have some
value, however they are not valued enough to replace the chief good for which humanity should
aim. To be an ultimate end, an act must be self-sufficient and final, “that which is always
desirable in itself and never for the sake of something else,” and it must be attainable by man.
Aristotle claims that happiness is the end which meets all these requirements. It is easy enough to
see that we desire money, pleasure, and honor only because we believe that these goods will
make us happy. It seems that all other goods are a means towards obtaining happiness, while
happiness is always an end in itself (http://www.pursuit-of-happiness.org/history-ofhappiness/aristotle/). According to Aristotle, “the function of man is to live a certain kind of life,
and this activity implies a rational principle, and the function of a good man is the good and
noble performance of these, and if any action is well performed it is performed in accord with
the appropriate excellence: if this is the case, then happiness turns out to be an activity of the
soul in accordance with virtue“(Aristotle). Human virtue is related to soul rather then body.
Therefore, happiness could be called an activity of soul. Happiness consists of achieving health,
wealth, knowledge, friends; everything that lead to the perfection of human nature and to the
enrichment of human life (Aristotle).
Aristotle distinguishes two major kinds of happiness. First of all, there is a social or
political happiness, which consists in the exercise of the moral virtues and characterizes the good
life of the free citizen. Another kind of happiness encompasses theoretical life. It consists in pure
contemplation of ultimate causes. Contemplation is the activity that enhances and discovers
virtues. Carried out constantly it allows people to reach their potential. This way of life is
superior to social happiness because it is more stable, pleasant and self-sufficient. This is a
higher form of happiness. The virtues are practiced because they give expression to our feelings
(such as fairness, honesty, generosity, well-being) and desires (such as praise, friendship,
kindness, affection and esteem) (Aristotle).
Medieval thinkers accepted Aristotelian analysis of happiness: they also agree that the
ultimate goal of action is happiness. The problem is whether human action is powerful enough to
26
attain this ultimate goal; whether human perfection is to be understood as a gift of God or as an
achievement of man. According to the Christian view, God alone is the source of the true
perfection; human achievement cannot be compared on the same scale ( Kretzmann, 2000: 674).
Another philosopher Immanuel Kant defines happiness “as the state of a rational being in
the world in the whole of whose existence everything goes according to his wish and will” (Kant,
1788). He draws a distinction between happiness and pleasures. Happiness is not the virtuous
feeling associated with living a moral life. It means getting what you want. He refers to
happiness as belonging to the principle of self-love or private happiness (Kant, 1788).
In modern times a number of researches are carried out that provide more view on the
conditions of happiness. Happiness is understood as how much one likes the life one lives, or it
is the degree to which one evaluates one’s life-as-a-whole positively. Subjective evaluation is
closely related to mental state of the experimental subject. There are three theories that give an
explanation for how people evaluate life. Self point theory supports the idea that the evaluation is
a stable attitude towards life. It focuses more on those mental processes that preserve this
attitude. Comparison theory sees evaluation as a continuous judgment process involving the
comparison of perceptions of life-as-it-is with notions of how-life-should be. Affect theory sees
happiness as a continuous mental process as well, but now as an evaluation of how well one feels
most frequently (Veenhoven, 2006:3).
Veenhoven defines the concept of happiness as being synonymous with ‘quality of life’
or ‘well-being’ when used in a broad sense. In this meaning it denotes that life is good, but does
not specify what is good about life. The word is also used in more specific ways, which can be
clarified with the help of the classification of qualities of life presented in Figure 1:
Figure 1
Four qualities of life
Outer qualities
Inner qualities
Life-chances
Livability of environment
Life-ability of the person
Life-results
Utility of life
Satisfaction
This classification of meanings depends on two distinctions. Vertically there is a
difference between chances for good life and actual outcomes of life. Horizontally there is a
distinction between ‘external’ and ‘internal’ qualities. Together, these distinctions mark four
qualities of life, all of which have been denoted by the word ‘happiness’. Livability of the
environment comprises good living conditions and well-being. Life-ability of the person is
similar to livability in that it denotes quality of life as well. In addition to this, it includes the
notion of how well we are equipped to cope with the problems of life. Utility of life represents
27
the notion of usefulness of life that moral advisors particularly emphasize. Satisfaction with life
is related to the conscious point of view of the respondent and his subjective appreciation of life.
This notion reflects happiness most precisely (Veenhoven, 2006:4).
Other researchers distinguish certain patterns of behaviour that increase happiness. These
are as follows: nurturing relationships, acts of kindness, cultivating optimism, savoring,
committing to goals, developing new ways to cope, gratitude, flow, avoiding worry, forgiveness,
and physical exercise. In addition to this, some statistically significant gender differences were
obvious in the surveys assessing happiness. Overall, women scored much higher than men in
assessing happiness. Women scored higher than men on cultivating optimism, gratitude,
nurturing relationships and healthy eating. Men scored considerably higher than women on flow
and avoiding worry. To be precise, flow activities were reported to be playing video games.
Spiritual activities and mediation were also included in the survey; however, they failed because
they showed the weakest correlation with happiness (Warner, Vroman, 2011:1069).
The Oxford Happiness Inventory and the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire were
constructed to measure happiness and well-being among people between the age of 13 and 68. A
large number of factors related to happiness were included in the questionnaire. Eight of 29
appeared to be most popular among the respondents, and consequently, they strongly correlate
with happiness:
1. life is rewarding;
2. mentally alert;
3. pleased with self;
4. find beauty in things;
5. satisfied with life;
6. can organize time;
7. look attractive;
8. happy memories.
These factors are related to satisfaction with life, usefulness, sociability, positive outlook,
well-being, cheerfulness and self-esteem (Hills, Argyle, 2002:1079). Similar factors are
distinguished by Veenhoven, too.
Dictionaries define the word happiness as the state of being happy. Furthermore, the word
happy refers to someone who has feelings of pleasure, usually because something nice has
happened or because they feel satisfied with their life (Collins Cobuild Advanced Learner’s
English Dictionary, 2005:661). This word also encompasses the feeling of not worrying about
anything (Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners, 2002:647). Furthermore, the
word happy implies contentment, fortune, suitable or felicitous behavior or thoughts,
28
willingness, pleasure and success (Dictionary or English Language and Culture, 1992:597).
Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian Language gives a similar explanation which confirms
that happiness is the state of well-being, satisfaction and joy. It is also understood as success
(Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian Language, 2000:350).
In terms of statistical researches of social and economic well-being, happiness is
frequently measured relying on Gross Domestic Product, which is the market value of all
officially recognized final goods and services produced within a country in a given period of
time. However, GDP does not always reflect the true level of nation’s happiness. Therefore, the
King of a tiny Himalayan kingdom of Bhutan, Jigme Singye Wangchuck, proposed an idea of
Gross National Happiness in 1972. It is also known as the index of happiness. There are the
following nine domains distinguished that reflect the main values of Gross National Happiness:
psychological wellbeing, health, education, time use, cultural diversity and resilience, good
governance, community vitality, ecological diversity and resilience, and living standards.
Consequently, it comprises “peoples' sense of being well-governed, their relationship with the
environment, satisfaction with the pace of economic development, a sense of cultural and
national belonging“(http://www.telegraph.co.uk).
There are a number of surveys carried out in the world to distinguish the happiest and the
least happy nations. According to the survey carried out by the NationMaster, Lithuania is in the
44th place out of 50 countries. Meanwhile the United Kingdom is in the 9th place and the United
States are in the 13th place. This statistics is collected from responses to the survey question
whether people perceive themselves as very happy, quite happy, not very happy, or not at all
happy taking all things into consideration. The statistics was obtained via the following formula:
the percentage of people who rated themselves as either "quite happy" or "very happy" minus the
percentage of people who rated themselves as either "not very happy" or "not at all happy".
However, the criteria are not indicated in the survey because people evaluate happiness
according to their own standards. Furthermore, analyzing the statistics of Lithuania vs the United
Kingdom, it becomes obvious that the British surpass the Lithuanians in overall evaluation of
happiness 8 times. The Lithuanians overtake the British 5 times in the evaluation as being not
very happy or not happy at all (http://www.nationmaster.com). According to the survey carried
out by Forbes in 2010, Lithuania occupies the 63rd place out of 155 countries; meanwhile, the
UK takes the 17th place and the USA occurs in the 14th place. The data reveal that the
relationship between income and well-being is closely linked (www.forbes.com).
The surveys indicate that happiness has increased in the most countries. The main reason
for that is considered to be the economic growth. It is associated with psychological changes that
influence people’s happiness. In other words, changes in societal-level stimulate changes in
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individual-level values. When the economic situation is not stable, the biggest emphasis is given
on economic and physical security. When economy develops, the emphasis shifts from the
priority to survive toward the priority of self-expression values, particularly, participation,
freedom of expression and quality of life (Inglehart et al., 2008:265). The belief that one has free
choice and control over one’s life is closely linked with happiness (Johnson and Krueger,
2006:683).
However, happiness is a relative issue because people use standards and previous
situations in order to evaluate the degree of their happiness. Researches reveal that people tend to
compare themselves to others, particularly the ones of similar age and social class. This type of
comparison encompasses job prestige and the material level of living. Consequently, people feel
happier when they perceive themselves relatively wealthier than others. Nevertheless, collective
changes or social progress do not affect happiness of individuals because the happiness of one
requires the unhappiness of another. Moreover, the comparison of living conditions has influence
on evaluation of happiness, too. The more improvement in people’s lives, the happier they are.
However, such evaluation is frequently relative because it tends to be based on current trends,
fashion and other people’s opinion. According to Veenhoven, happiness is related more to
optimism or pessimism rather than the conditions of life. As a result, happiness is affected by
different factors that are closely related to the particular situation and personality (Veenhoven,
1990: 5).
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4. EXPRESSION OF HAPPINESS THROUGH ENGLISH AND LITHUANIAN
ZOOMORPHIC IDIOMS
4.1. Animals that are used in the English and Lithuanian idioms to express
happiness
The core emphasis is given to zoomorphic idioms in this research, i.e. to idioms
comprising the concept of any animal. However, the term animal brings some ambiguity in the
linguistic analysis because people tend to employ this term in naming any kind of creatures,
except plants, in everyday situations. People of different cultures conceptualize the living beings
differently. Therefore, it is necessary to establish boundaries in semantic ranking of the word
animal. Folk biology or ethnobiology attempts to produce the systems of names and categories
(nomenclature) of living beings used by ordinary people in different cultures.
The English folk taxonomy relies on the principle that ranking encompasses several
levels, e.g. animals are various creatures, dogs are animals of one kind, and poodles are dogs of
one kind. It is obvious from here that there exist four levels of ranking (creature, animal, dog,
poodle). The first and the most general category (creature) is called the unique beginner. The
subsequent category is called a category of life-forms such as animal, bird and fish. These lifeforms include a significant number of different kinds of animals (cats, dogs, horses, tigers),
birds (sparrows, parrots, eagles) and fish (trout, salmon, cod). The individual kinds of each lifeform (cats, sparrows, trout) are called generics or folk genera. The generic level is considered to
be the basic level and it is most commonly accepted by people psychologically. Moreover, the
individual name of this category is called ‘primary lexeme’ because it can function as a single
word. Furthermore, the generic level comprises sub-kinds, i.e. the generic dog can be subdivided
into poodle, terrier or spaniel. These names are easily understood when they are used alone in
the speech; however, this quality is only observed speaking about dogs. Terms of other sub-kinds
are rarely used independently. For example, the generic cat can be subdivided into Burmese cat,
Siamese cat rather than Burmese or Siamese. This level of subdivision is called specifics.
Lexemes of this level are called ‘secondary lexemes’ because they do not usually stand alone in
people’s speech. Nevertheless, there are categories such as spiders, snakes and ants whose status
is not clear from linguistic point of view, although people refer to them as animals, too.
(Goddard, 2011:197).
In this research, zoomorphic idioms will comprise all living things except plants under
the category of animals including birds, fish, insects and snakes. Although it is unusual to hear
somebody referring to a swallow or a bee as an animal, a semi-scientific explanation can be
31
provided. There is an assumption that the entire natural world can be roughly divided into the
‘animal kingdom’ and ‘plant or vegetable kingdom’. Despite the fact that scientists do not
approve this division, ordinary people still use the term animal to denote any living being in
colloquial English (Goddard, 2011:198).
There are 135 zoomorphic idioms collected in English and Lithuanian for the analysis of
this research. Lithuanian idioms are more abundant in numbers than the English ones. There are
85 zoomorphic idioms in Lithuanian (63%) and 50 idioms are in English (37%). Distribution of
the idioms in both languages can be observed in the Appendix No 1.
Zoomorphic idioms of both languages include various animal species, which encompass
animal names related to their age or gender. To avoid discrepancy, all animal names were taken
into consideration in this research, except the synonymous names. Consequently, the analysis
revealed that 45 animal names are employed to express happiness in both languages. The
following 25 animal names are found in English idioms: bull, calf, cat, cow, dog, horse, pig, hog,
sheep, lion, elephant, bird, catbird, lark, eagle, dove, duck, duckling, goose, ant, bee, bug, fish,
clam, and whale. Meanwhile, Lithuanian idioms encompass a wider range of animal names than
the English ones. There are 33 names of animals used to depict happiness. They are as follows:
bull, calf, cat, cow, dog, horse, mare, sheep, goat, she-goat, marten, hare, mole, fox, bear, wolf,
bird, she-bird, dove, eagle, cuckoo, crane, swan, swallow, nightingale, sparrow, duckling,
rooster, hen, lizard, fish, bee, and fly. In addition to this, Lithuanian idioms often include
different genders of animal species, such as a stallion and a mare, a rooster and a hen, a bull and
a cow.
It is more convenient to analyze zoomorphic idioms when they are organized into smaller
groups considering the animal name they comprise. I adopted a classification of animals which is
based on the presence or absence of the vertebra. Consequently, there were two major groups
distinguished: vertebrates and invertebrates. Vertebrates were further subdivided into smaller
subgroups: domestic and wild mammals, domestic and wild birds, reptiles and fish. Invertebrates
include the following subclasses: insects and mollusks. This classification will clearly reveal
which animal names are attributed to describe aspects of happiness.
In this chapter animal names that are found in English and Lithuanian idioms will be
juxtaposed. Additionally, symbolic meaning of the incorporated animals and relation between
the idiom and a particular animal name will be provided.
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4.1.1. Peculiarities of the idioms that comprise the constituent of a vertebrate
4.1.1.1. Idioms that comprise the constituent of a domestic mammal
Bull / ox
Strong as a bull
Used in order to emphasize that someone is
very strong and healthy.
Strong as an ox
Used in order to emphasize that someone is
very strong and healthy.
Calf
The golden calf
The pursuit or idolization of material wealth.
Jautis
Jaučio ragas ne pyragas
Apie vyrų pajėgumą, stiprumą.
Jaučio sprandas
Stipruolis.
Jaučio sveikatą turėti
Būti labai stipriam
Veršis
Aukso veršis
Stabas, materialinės vertybės.
Many ancient cultures worshiped the bull and had a well-expressed the bull-cult. This
animal was sacred for people of ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece and Rome. Many legends
represent gods in the shape of a bull because of its power and virility. The Egyptian bull deity
was Apis. The Indian god Shiva was often accompanied by a bull. The Greek god Zeus made
himself look like a bull when he fell in love with Europa, the daughter of a king (Leeming,
2005:57). In the Celtic mythology the bull symbolizes virility, sovereignity, and wealth (McCoy,
2004:21). Moreover, the bull stands for physical strength and power, therefore, both English and
Lithuanian idioms with the bull express good health and physical power.
The idiom the golden calf has Biblical motif. There is written in the Old Testament that
while God was talking with Moses on Mount Sinai, the Israelites decided not to listen to their
strict leader any more. Since they were stockbreeders, they made a calf of gold and started to
worship it:
“3 And all the people brake off the golden earrings which were in their ears, and
brought them unto Aaron.
4 And he received them at their hand, and fashioned it with a graving tool, after he had made it a
molten calf: and they said, These be thy gods, O Israel, which brought thee up out of the land of
Egypt.
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5 And when Aaron saw it, he built an altar before it; and Aaron made proclamation, and said,
To morrow is a feast to the LORD.
6 And they rose up early on the morrow, and offered burnt offerings, and brought peace
offerings; and the people sat down to eat and to drink, and rose up to play.
7 And the LORD said unto Moses, Go, get thee down; for thy people, which thou broughtest out
of the land of Egypt, have corrupted themselves:
8 They have turned aside quickly out of the way which I commanded them: they have made them
a molten calf, and have worshipped it, and have sacrificed thereunto, and said, These be thy
gods, O Israel, which have brought thee up out of the land of Egypt“(Bible, Exodus32).
Nowadays, to worship the golden calf means to idolize wealth and material values. Some people
understand the concept of happiness in this way.
Cat
Like the cat that ate the canary
Used about someone who is very pleased about
something that they have done or something
that has happened to them.
Like the cat that got the cream
Used about someone who is very pleased about
something that they have done or something
that has happened to them.
Look like the cat that swallowed the canary
To appear as if one had just had a great
success.
A grin like a Cheshire cat
A very wide smile.
Be the cat's whiskers
To be better than everyone else.
The cat’s whiskers
Used in order to say that smo is or thinks they
are, very good or special.
Katė
Katės amžius
Ilgas gyvenimas.
Katės pieno nebuvo
Sakoma apie gausius ir įvairius valgius.
Kaip katė
Apie labai meilų.
Kaip katės
Apie meiliai žiūrintį.
Katino dienos
Patogus, lengvas gyvenimas.
Kaip katinas
Meiliai, meilus.
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A cat is frequently depicted negatively in the symbolism. In Celtic mythology cats were
not worshipped although there are many references to them. They had a function of a guardian of
the Otherworld because they were considered to be the best secret keepers. Moreover, black cats
were associated with evil and they were sacrificed. The concept of a cat appears in one more
threatening belief that cat-like monsters live in dark caves (McCoy, 2004:21). The idiom a grin
like a Cheshire cat comes from the book “Alice‘s Adventures in Wonderland” by Lewis Carrol,
in which the grinning cat disappeared gradually from the Alice‘s view and the grin was the last
to vanish. In addition to this, there are more popular explanations for this idiom. One of them is
that a prosperous family in Cheshire employed a painter to paint the crest with a lion rampant on
the signboard of the inns. However, the painter was not sure about the lion‘s appearance,
therefore, it became like a grinning cat.
Cow
Cash cow
The part of a business that always produces a
lot of money over a long period of time.
Sacred cow
Something that is regarded by some people
with such respect and veneration that they do
not like it being criticized by anyone in any
way.
Karvė
Auksinė karvutė
Nuolatinis pelnymosi šaltinis.
Dvi karves melžti
Iš dviejų šaltinių pelnytis.
Melžiama karvė
Nuolatinis pelnymosi šaltinis.
Karvė įkėlė koją
Sakoma namuose atsiradus pieno.
Karvę melžti
Turėti naudos.
A cow always represents positive power. It embodies maternal energy that comes from
the Earth. In ancient Egyptian mythology, Hathor, an ancient goddess of joy, was worshipped as
a cow-deity. She was considered the nourisher of all things. Moreover, a cow with four stars
symbolized the dome of the sky. The Sumerians emphasized the similarity between milk and
moonlight. In addition to this, because of its horns and womanliness, the cow embodied the
world of the Moon. In India the cow is considered the most sacred animal and it is a symbol of
abundance and harvest there (Biedermann, 2002:186). In Norse mythology the cow provided
nourishment for the giants, among whom was Ymir, the ruler of the First World. The cow
symbolized wealth for the Vikings because it could be taken on the longboats to other lands. It
35
was very convenient because the Vikings could have milk on the journey and they could start a
herd in the new land. Furthermore, the cow is the principal herd animal of the Celts. The cow
symbolizes fertility, rebirth and strength (Eason, 2008:88). Therefore, the idioms related to the
cow both in English and Lithuanian deal with prosperity and means of livelihood.
Dog
Every dog has its day
Used in order to say that even the most
unimportant person has a time in their life
when they are successful and noticed.
Lucky dog
A lucky person.
Love me, love my dog.
If you love someone, you should accept
everything and everyone that the person loves.
There's life in the old dog yet.
Something that you say which means that
although someone is old, they still have
enough energy to do things.
The top dog
The most important and powerful person in a
group.
Šuo
Šuns amžių
Ilgai.
Šuns rankas ir kojas turėti
Būti darbščiam ir greitam.
Kaip šuniui bėgti
Lengva atlikti.
A dog is known for being the first tame animal. The relationship between the dog and the
man is very strong and there is a plethora of situation in which the dog accompanies the man.
This relationship dates back to the prehistoric times when the dog was an irreplaceable helper in
hunting, guarding persons and property, herding and protection of livestock. Nowadays dogs
play a significant part in dangerous rescue operations, help the police and disabled people to
fulfill various tasks. Dogs frequently appear in myths and legends all over the world because of
their ancient association with humanity. They are of a dual nature: on one hand, they can be
playful, affectionate and the best human friends, on the other hand, they are carnivores that
behave in a wolfish way, have their own independent hierarchy outside the homes (Johns,
2008:16). In Christianity, the dog expresses loyalty and alertness. For example, the dog of St.
Roch brought bread to the saint and remained at his side. As a symbol of faithfulness in
marriage, the dog is often shown at the feet or in the lap of married women (Ferguson, 1959:15).
36
Moreover, the dog is sometimes depicted as a guard of the Otherworld. They were sacrificed to
the dead because they were believed to have an ability of showing the way there (Biedermann,
2002: 421).
However, negative characteristics of the dog outweigh positive traits. Consequently, the
number of the idioms expressing happiness through the concept of a dog is considerably lower
than the number of the idioms expressing unhappiness. The idiom Love me, love my dog indicate
strong relationship between the man and the dog which was formed in the course of history. The
top dog reveals the importance of hierarchy among the dogs. The idiom šuns rankas ir kojas
turėti (To have dog‘s arms and legs) is based on the dog‘s ability to fulfill any task.
Horse
A dark horse
Someone who is not well known or is not
expected to win, but who surprises people by
doing very well against competitors in
business, sports or politics.
A one-horse race
A competition which one particular person or
team is very likely to win because they seem
much better than the other people competing.
Get on your high horse
to act as if you are better or more intelligent
than other people.
Strong as a horse
Used in order to emphasize that someone is
very strong and healthy.
Arklys
Sulig arkliais
Apie stiprumą.
Kaip arklys
Sveikas, stiprus.
Kaip ant dešimt arklių sėdos
Labai linksmas, laimingas.
Kaip ant devynių arklių išsėsti
Labai džiaugtis.
Kaip ant šimto arklių / Kaip ant šimto arklių
Labai patenkintas, didžiuojasi.
joja
Kaip ant šimto arklių užsėdo
Labai pradžiugo.
Kaip ant arklio joja
Gerai sekasi.
Kumelė
Bloga kumelė nepavežtų
Sakoma apie daug ką mokantį.
Kumelys
37
Kumelio pieno nebuvo
Apie gausias vaišes.
Žirgas
Kaip žirgą dovanotas
Apie labai besidžiaugiantį.
Kaip gerą žirgą gavęs
Apie labai besidžiaugiantį.
Kaip ant žirgo pasodintas
Sakoma apie labai gerą nuotaiką.
Horses, especially the white ones, had mystical associations with gods and heroes in both
Europe and Asia. In the Greek mythology, horses were creatures of Poseidon, the god of the sea,
who created them as the most beautiful of animals. Many of the horses in Greek mythology were
the offspring of the winds, what is an allusion to speed (Johns, 2006:24). A horse occupies a
special place in Lithuanian mythology. Wooden figures of horses that decorate rooftops,
bobbins, looms, beds are a quite common phenomenon in Lithuanian traditions. Moreover,
people believed that the skull of a horse, placed in the easily visible place, could guarantee
happiness, prosperity and fertility. It was also believed to have protective properties. In addition
to this, there are plenty of folk songs where a horse is depicted with love and admiration. A horse
is believed to have the divine power and white horse symbolizes love and happiness in
Lithuanian folklore (Gimbutienė, 1994:44).
Sow/pig/hog
Make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear;
To completely change something from being
make/turn a sow’s ear into a silk purse
bad to being good.
Happy like a pig in mud
Happy and content.
Live high on the hog
To have the best of everything.
In the ancient world, the sow was associated with the Great Goddess. This association
was continued in Egypt and Syria, where pigs were eaten only on ceremonial occasions. The
Egyptian sky goddess Nut and the Celtic sow goddess Ceridwen were the offspring of the Great
Goddess. Pigs were often sacrificed to most of the Greek gods. The Celts associated pigs with
the other world and ate pork only during the feasts. Furthermore, pigs play an important role in
the culture of the Pacific groups and Africa not only because it is food, but also because of their
supernatural properties. Pigs are associated with wealth and regeneration in New Guinea.
Meanwhile, in Africa wild pigs symbolize fierce, warlike behavior and the guidance for the dead
(Werness, 2006:329).
The image of pigs occurs quite often in idioms. However, these idioms usually carry a
derogative meaning since pigs are associated with greed, dirtiness and misbehavior. The idiom
38
make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear comprises two extreme oppositions from luxurious textile to
the animal with a bad reputation. Nonetheless, some nations believe that pigs bring good luck
and that they symbolize prosperity, wealth and fertility. Therefore, the idiom “happy like a pig in
mud” expresses happiness since the mud forms the natural and close environment for the pig in
which it can feel safe and satisfied. The idiom “live high on the hog” is often explained
according to the parts of a pig used for food. It is said that the best cuts of meat of a pig are
found on the upper part of the back leg. These parts were usually eaten by the wealthy people,
therefore, to live high on the hog means to have the best of everything.
Sheep
Make sheep’s eye
To look at someone in an admiring way
because you are in love with them.
Avis
Avelę kirpti
Turėti naudos.
Sheep are one of the earliest animals that were domesticated around 10,000 years ago.
They became popular because of their ability to supply people with meat, wool and skins. In
India, sheep play an important role in cultural and religious rituals. They participate in
ceremonies dedicated to Laxmi (the goddess of money). Lambs born on days of important
religious events become devotional animals and neither they nor their offspring are sold or
slaughtered, but gain status and respect on their owners (Jensen, 2009:162). Furthermore, the
sheep usually represents innocence, child-like qualities and gentleness.
Ožys/ožka
Aukso ožys
Turtuolis.
Aukso ožką rodyti
Vilioti.
Kaip iš ožio rago
Gausiai.
A goat together with a sheep is among the first species to be domesticated. A goat was
treated as a cow by poor people because it could cope with a harsh environment and poor food
quality. The same time it could provide milk, meat and skins. Goats were a visible evidence of
wealth for nomadic people (Jensen, 2009:162). A goat is also important in religious rituals. In
Lithuanian folklore the goat symbolizes man’s power and it is often sacrificed for gods. The goat
helps to predict the weather, too (Gimbutienė, 1994:48). Furthermore, all idioms are related to
the Greek myth about the goat Amalthea that nurtured the infant Zeus. His father Cronus
39
swallowed all of his children immediately after birth. However, the mother goddess Rhea
deceived Cronus by giving him a stone wrapped like a baby instead of Zeus who was further
given to the goat Amalthea to nurture him in a cave. The horns were magical: one of them
provided nectar, the other produced ambrosia. When accidentally she broke off her horn, Zeus
made it always be full of whatever its owner desired. Now it is a symbol of eternal abundance
(Butkus, 2009:70).
4.1.1.2. Idioms that comprise the constituent of a wild mammal
Elephant
Have a memory like an elephant
To be very good at remembering things,
especially things that happened to you.
An elephant is a positive animal in the symbolism. Kings rode elephants in Asia and they
were highly valued because of their wisdom. Thus, in Hinduism the god of wisdom was revealed
with the head of an elephant. In the ancient China the elephant symbolized power and
intelligence, similarly the ancient Western culture did. Its longevity made the elephant a symbol
of the death defeater (Biedermann, 2002:94). The elephant also symbolizes happiness. Moreover,
it is depicted as a bearer of the whole universe (Becker, 2000:99).
Lion
Strong as a lion
Very strong
Lion's share of something
The largest portion of something.
A lion symbolizes the reign and a number of fairytales manifest this phenomenon. The
idiom lion's share of something may refer to the financial matters, good fortune or misfortune. It
originated in the fable by Aesop in which several beasts were hunting together with the lion.
When they were to divide the spoil, the lion took the first quarter because of the royal
prerogative, the secon quarter because of his courage and the third quarter for his mate and her
cubs. When it came to the last quarter, none of the other animals wanted to argue with the lion.
As a result, the lion obtained the whole prey (Korach, 2008:8). The idiom strong as a lion is
based on the symbolic meaning of the lion which is that of strength, majesty, courage and
fortitude. Furthermore, the symbol of the lion is equated to the symbol of the dragon in the Celtic
mythology. It represents warrior gatherings and can be found on coats of arms of Irish clans.
40
This symbol is used in the literature, too. In the world of fairy tales the lion has always been the
king of the animals (Heinz, 2008:75).
Kiaunė
Didelė kiaunė
Nauda, pasisekimas.
The idiom A big marten is closely related to hunting. The marten‘s fur has always been
regarded as being exceptional and precious. However, nowadays, the fur is less valued than it
used to be. Nevertheless, the idiom didelė kiaunė retains the meaning of success and wealth.
Kiškis
Kiškio polka
Lengvas darbas.
The Aztec calendar reveals a hare as a symbol of happiness. In the ancient China the
Moon hare was perceived as a symbol of a long life. The Celts and the ancient Egyptians
associate the hare mainly with the Moon (Biedermann, 2002:199). Moreover, in Ireland, the hare
was believed to be a witch in disguise. If a hare was injured, later a witch in the neighborhood
would be found with an identical injury. In Scotland it was believed that witches took the form
of hares to steal the milk. If caught, the hare would instantly turn back into human form. In
religion a hare was seen as a sacred or ancestral animal (Matson, 2004:239).
Kurmis
Darbo kurmis
Darbštuolis.
A mole is one of the animals that impresses by its huge work and its stamina. The mole is
a very useful animal in nature because it greatly contributes to the soil‘s preparation for the
abundant harvest. The mole‘s runs form a drainage system underground. Additionally, its heaps
and hills loosen the soil and make it suitable for gardening (Partington, 1837:252). All life of the
mole revolves around the same physical work; therefore, the idiom with the mole represents
diligence.
Lapė
Kaip laputė
Apie meilų
41
A fox is usually depicted as a cunning, especially clever and adaptable animal in majority
of the fairy tales. The Celts perceive the fox both as a guide and a master of the woods; therefore,
they associate the fox with wisdom. Although the fox symbolizes longevity and protection from
evil in Japan, it is also revealed as demonic, partially good, partially evil animal that could
metamorphose into many forms, especially human ones. Furthermore, the fox is a symbol of
healer and protector for many Native American tribes (Becker, 2000:120). The idiom might
derive from the behaviour of the fox cubs which seem to be tame and affectionate.
Meška
Kaip meškos ausyje
Gerai gyventi.
A bear is a symbolic animal. Neanderthal cave altars with carefully placed skulls of giant
bears witness that people have worshipped bears from the earliest times. The Slavs used to
celebrate the bear feasts during which bears used to be sacrificed. This tradition continued in
Belorus up to the end of the 19th century. Furthermore, bears are often depicted as human beings
in that they have an ability to stand upright. Despite this similarity, people fear bears and
respected them for their strength and physical power. If nobody threatens them, bears are
peaceful. However, they become aggressive if they are frightened (Werness, 2005:33).
Vilkas
Senas vilkas
Daug patyręs, gudrus žmogus.
Vilkas sotus ir avis sveika
Apie interesų suderinimą, išeities radimą.
Vilkas perbėgo kelią / Vilkas perbėgo per kelią
Pasisekė.
Jūros vilkas
Prityręs jūreivis.
A wolf is depicted as a curious, intelligent and playful animal, possessing fierce
protectiveness skills and hunting abilities. These animals are known for their cooperation,
coordination and clearly defined social structure. In mythology they are revealed both from the
negative and positive perspectives. They are often associated with darkness and aggression.
Simultaneously, they can be associated with the sun, light and spirit ( Werness, 2006:435).
42
4.1.1.3. Idioms that comprise the constituent of a domestic bird
Duck
To be a duck shoot
To be a very easy job or piece of work.
Easy as duck soup/duck soup
Very easy.
As a duck takes to water
Easily and naturally.
Take to something like a duck to water
To learn how to do something very quickly and
to enjoy doing it because you are naturally
good at.
Get your ducks in a row
To organize things well.
Duckling
An ugly duckling
Someone who is not as attractive, skilful etc as
other people when they are young, but who
becomes beautiful and successful later.
Ančiukas
Bjaurusis ančiukas
Sakoma, kai jaunas žmogus iš pradžių yra ne
toks patrauklus kaip kiti, bet užaugęs tampa
ypatingai gražus ir gabus.
Ducks were sacrificial animals in Egypt. In the Far East they symbolized marital
happiness. In Christian traditions, they were depicted on church portals (Becker, 2000:89).
Goose
The goose that lays golden egg/eggs
Something that brings you a lot of money.
Everything is lovely and the goose hangs high
Everything happens easily and successfully
The goose has a symbolic meaning of providence and vigilance (Ferguson, 1959:19).
The idiom The goose that lays golden egg/eggs has a reference to a fable by Aesop.
According to it, a couple owned a goose that laid a golden egg every day. However, the more
money they had, the greedier they became. Eventually, they decided to kill the goose in order to
find out what was inside. By doing this, they destroyed their daily supply.
Another idiom Everything is lovely and the goose hangs high originated in Paris. It comes
from the sport which was called a goose pulling. A goose was tied by its neck to a branch on a
tree and had to be pulled from it by a horseman.
43
Gaidys
Apie drąsų.
Kaip gaidys
In Lithuanian culture a rooster was considered being a sacred domestic bird. It was
believed that spirits, ghosts and other evil creatures were afraid of the rooster. Its crow early in
the morning used to break malicious intentions of the devils. Moreover, the rooster’s crow
helped to find the right way for the people lost in the forests at night (Dundulienė, 2006:125).
Višta
Vištų nesumindžiotas
Šaunus.
Pasodinti kaip vištą ant kiaušinių
Gerai įtaisyti gyventi.
Višta, dedanti auksinius kiaušinius
Šaltinis, teikiantis daug pinigų ir naudos
A hen is a symbol of caring and protective motherliness.
4.1.1.4. Idioms that comprise the constituent of a wild bird
Bird
An early bird catches/ gets the worm
Used in order to say that if you do something
early or before other people, you will gain an
advantage.
An old bird is not caught with chaff
Paukštis
Paukščio pieno nėra
Sakoma, kai visko pakanka.
Paukščio pieno neturi
Sakoma, kai visko pakanka.
Paukščio pieno trūksta
Sakoma, kai visko pakanka.
Paukštė
Žydroji paukštė
Įkvėpimas.
Paukštės pieno nėra
Apie visko pertekusį.
Paukštės pieno neturi
Apie visko pertekusį.
Paukštės pieno trūksta
Sakoma, kai nieko netrūksta.
44
Birds take a prominent place in the mythology and folklore of many countries. Their
powers to fly and their ability to sing inspired people to perceive them as messengers from the
supernatural worlds. Moreover, they are understood as mediators between gods and humans
(Green, 1992:181). In Lithuanian folklore birds also act as divine mediators between the sky and
the Earth. People believed that the spirits of the dead lived there. Therefore, they were believed
to have the power of life. However, different birds represented different associations. For
example, the swan, the stork and the cock symbolized fertility; the cuckoo, the dove, the
nightingale, the swallow, the falcon and the owl were believed to render the shelter for the spirits
of the dead. Furthermore, the songs denote different signs as well. The song of the cuckoo
sometimes foretells unhappiness, the cock‘s crow announced changes in the weather. Other
songs were understood as signs of happy events. Birds often appear in the folk songs, wood
carvings; that indicates their importance in human lives. Overall, birds bring people full
happiness (Gimbutienė, 1994:40).
There is a tendency that a she-bird is more frequently found in the myths, legends and
folklore than a he-bird. A she-bird is more significant because it fulfills vitally important
functions: to lay eggs and to clutch. Initially a he-bird used to be depicted as fulfilling these
functions but it did not coincide with the reality (Dundulienė, 2006:11). Therefore, the concepts
of a he-bird and a she-bird are equally used in the Lithuanian idioms. The difference is that a hebird is naturally incapable of producing milk neither literally nor figuratively. She-birds usually
do not produce milk either, however, since a correlation between fertility and milk is evident, it
is nothing strange to characterize a she-bird as producing milk. On the other hand, idioms
maintain the perception that neither he-birds nor she-birds give milk. This is a minute participle
of achieving the ultimate state of happiness.
The bluebird has always been considered as a symbol of happiness, joy and contentment.
Catbird
To be (sitting) in the catbird seat
To be in a situation where you have an
advantage.
This idiom derives from this bird‘s crafty habit of choosing a lofty position in the tree to
sing from (Partridge, 2005:247).
Eagle
A legal eagle
Used about a lawyer who is famous for being
good at his or her job.
45
Erelis
Erelio sparnai
Polėkis.
The eagle is a symbolic animal. The eagle for the Native Indians was the symbol for great
strength, leadership and vision. Furthermore, the Bible represents the eagle as a symbol of the
Resurrection. It was believed that the eagle can renew its youth by flying near the sun and then
plunging into the water. The eagle has an ability to soar until it is lost to sight and to gaze into
the blazing mid-day sun. It is also symbolizes courage, faith, and contemplation. Moreover, the
eagle is associated with generosity. It was believed that the eagle always left half its prey to the
birds that followed (Ferguson, 1959:17). However, in the Celtic culture, the eagle did not hold
much symbolic power. It is frequently used as an alternative figure for other mythological
figures. For example, Ireland‘s one-eyed Salmon of wisdom was able to shift its shape into many
other forms including the eagle. According to another British legend, a magical pig named
Henwen gave birth to eaglets. In the Celts‘ folklore, the eagle possesses the power of divination.
It was believed that eagles who lived on Mount Snowdon were oracular and had the power to
control the weather. People, who ate the eagle‘s flesh, believed they could acquire extraordinary
physical power (Monaghan, 2004:143).
Lark
Happy as a lark
Very happy
In Christianity, the lark is the symbol of the humility of priesthood because it flies high and
sings only during the flight towards Heaven (Ferguson, 1959:21).
Dove
As faithfull as a dove
Very faithfull
As gentle as a dove
Very gentle
Balandis
Balandžio pieno trūksta
Visko pertekęs.
Kepti balandžiai lekia į burną
Be rūpesčių gyvena, niekas nerūpi.
Keptais balandžiais sninga
Gyvena be rūpesčių.
Kaip balandis
Meiliai.
Kaip balandžių pora
Meiliai.
Kaip du balandžiai
Sutariant.
46
Karvelis
Karvelio pieno trūko
Visko buvo gausiai.
Keptas karvelis neatlėks pats į burną
Apie tikėjimąsi lengvo pragyvenimo.
Kepti karveliai skrenda į burną
Apie lengvą gyvenimą.
Kaip karvelių pora
Apie gyvenimą meilėje.
The dove has always been the symbol of purity and peace. Doves frequently appear in the
folklore, art, religious and spiritual traditions of many cultures. In ancient times it was believed
that the dove is the only bird into which the devil cannot transform. In Christianity, the dove
stands for the Holy Spirit in the Trinity. According to the Bible, the dove was the first creature
released from the ark by Noah during the Flood. When it returned with an olive branch in its
beak, it was a sign that the flood had ended. In Greek mythology, the dove was Athena‘s bird
and it symbolized the renewal of life, love and devotion. In ancient Japan, the dove was sacred to
the god of war and a dove with a sword announced the end of war (Gemondo, MacGregor,
2004:117). The Lithuanian’s respected the dove. The coo of the doves symbolized happiness,
fertility and success in farming. Moreover, they safeguarded against the thunder and unhappiness
(Dundulienė, 2006:123). The symbolic meaning of the dove is reiterated in the idioms; therefore,
these idioms with the concept of doves reveal love, harmony and peace in life.
Gegutė
Gegutės pieno nerasti
Būti visko pertekus.
Gegutės pieno reikia
Nieko netrūksta.
Gegutės pieno stinga
Visko pertekęs.
Gegutės pieno trūksta
Visko pertekęs.
Gegužės pieno nėra
Visko pertekęs.
Gegužės pieno trūksta
Visko pertekęs.
The cuckoo is understood contravercially in literature and mythology. On one hand, the
cuckoo is the bird of spring. It appears together with the first claps of thunder announcing the
season of heat. Since the spring is related to love, the cuckoo is also associated with love and
marriage. On the other hand, the cuckoo has reputation of being adulterer because of its unusual
behaviour (Gubernatis, 1872:231). Nevertheless, all idioms with the concept of a cuckoo reveal
the lack of the cuckoo‘s milk.
47
Gervė
Gervės pieno reikia
Visko pertekęs.
Gervės pieno stinga
Visko pertekęs.
Gervės pieno trūksta
Visko pertekęs.
People have always admired cranes because of their size, behaviour, social relations,
unique calls, graceful movements, and stately appearance. Cranes are often depicted in the arts,
mythology and legends in cultures around the world. These birds are found in prehistoric cave
paintings in Africa, Australia and Europe. Moreover, images of cranes adorned the tombs of the
ancient Egyptians. Furthermore, according to the myth, the flight of cranes inspired the god
Mercury to invent the Greek alphabet. This image occupies the most prominent place in the
Eastern countries‘ traditions, particularly in China, Korea and Japan. The cranes, especially the
Red-crowned Crane are associated with happiness, good luck, long life and marital bliss (Meine
and Archibald, 1996:13).
Gulbė
Gulbės pieno stinga
Visko pertekęs.
Gulbės pieno trūksta
Visko pertekęs.
Swans are especially graceful birds. They are frequently pictured in art, legends and
fairytales for their beauty, purity and elegance. Moreover, swans are well-known for their habit
to pair for years or for a lifetime. Thus, the swan is perceived as a symbol of love and blessing in
relationships, too. Additionally, this peculiarity could be the reason why swans appear in
heraldry in chains and other attributes. In India, the swan symbolizes returning, rebirth and
transformation. Also, the swan symbolizes memory of past lives (Werness, 2006:395). In
folklore, people are often changed into swans as a form of punishment. The swans enchant
people through their song or sing them to sleep. Therefore, they are the birds of temptation and
escape from the Otherworld. In heraldry, swans are the royal animals of hunting and chivalry
(Heinz, 1999:117).
Kregždė
Kregždės pieno reikia
Visko yra.
The swallow carries a similar mythological meaning as the cuckoo: it announces spring
and symbolizes joyfulness. In Europe the swallow is considered to be the best augury. It is a
48
mortal sin to kill them or to destroy their nests. In Germany and in Hungary, if a man destroys a
swallow‘s nest, his cow no longer gives milk, or gives it mixed with blood. Moreover, it is
advisable to have a window open, because if a swallow enters the house, it brings every kind of
happiness with it (Gubernatis, 1872:240). In Lithuanian culture the swallow was a sacred bird.
People did not dissipate them from their yards and their houses. It was believed that together
with the settlement of swallows in the homesteads, people start to get on with each other better,
the evil-minded become the good-natured, and the thunder bypasses people’s homes. Moreover,
the swallow was the only bird that wished people well. While fluttering, they prayed for
prosperity and happiness for people (Dundulienė, 2006:123).
Lakštingala
Lakštingalos balsą turėti
Būti meiliam.
Lakštingalų diena
Laimingas gyvenimas.
A nightingale is a nocturnal bird. In the West, its song is linked with pain, suffering, the
anguish and ecstasy of love. Nevertheless, a nightingale is used to expresses happiness in the
idioms above.
Žvirblis
Senas žvirblis
Gudruolis.
A sparrow appears in poetry and sacred texts as a positive bird. Its habitat is close to the
human dwelling places, especially agricultural ones. Since it has a close connection with people,
a sparrow was forced to learn to foresee and avoid encounters with people and other domestic
animals that pose threat for them, i.e. a cat. As a result, the idiom senas žvirblis exhibit the
meaning of being clever and shrewd.
4.1.1.5. Idioms that comprise the constituent of a reptile
Driežas
Kaip driežas į gegužę
Meiliai.
Symbolic meaning of the lizard is often related to the sun and light because of its fondness for
the sun and warmth. However, in some hot countries the lizard has a negative meaning because it
is associated with periods of heat and drought (Becker, 2000:181). In the times of Christianity
49
the lizard acquired a positive meaning. It symbolized the revival, renewal, light and longing.
Moreover, it was believed that the soul of the dead person could materialize in the lizard
(Biedermann, 2002: 96).
4.1.1.6. Idioms that comprise the constituent of a fish
Fish
A big fish
An important or powerful person in a group or
organization.
Žuvis
Stambi žuvis
Žymus veikėjas.
Kaip žuvis vandenyje
Puikiai jaustis.
The symbol of a fish is related to fertility and the power of the internal women’s world.
In many ancient religions it was associated with goddesses of love and fertile nature. In the
cultures of the Mediterranean region the fish was understood as a symbol of happiness as well as
in the ancient China. Fish and bread are the symbols of the God’s table in Christianity. People
who change their religion into Christianity are called pisciculi (fish). However, the sainthood of
the ancient Egypt refused to eat fish because they were associated with negative myths
(Biedermann, 2002:505).
Whale
To have a whale of time
To enjoy a social event or activity very much,
for example a party, holiday, sports event, etc.
A whale of a something
1. an unusually good something;
2. an unusually large something.
According to ancient legends, the huge body of the whale was often mistaken by mariners
for an island. They anchored their ships to its side that later were dragged down to the bottom of
the sea by the great creature. As a result, the whale was started to be considered as a symbol of
the Devil. Its open mouth was often represented as the gates of Hell. Another story from the
Bible claims that Jonah was swallowed by a whale and disgorged three days later. These legends
influenced the artists of the Italian Renaissance to paint whales as dragons or great shaggy fish
(Ferguson, 1959:26).
50
4.1.2. Peculiarities of the idioms that comprise the constituent of an invertebrate
4.1.2.1. Idioms that comprise the constituent of an insect
Ant
Have ants in your pants
To feel very excited or have a lot of energy, so
that it is difficult to keep still or stay in one
place.
This idiom is related to qualities and behaviour of ants. They are sociable insects that live
in big industrious communities. Although ants are small in size, they are considered to be the
strongest creatures in the world. Their ability to carry objects many times larger than themselves
is legendary. Because ants move freely both above and underground, they are regarded as having
access to secrets (Sax, 2001:2). Ants usually do not threaten people. However, if people come
too close to the anthill, they might experience unpleasant feeling of ants‘ bites. Although it is
possible that the idiom have ants in your pants arose from this feeling, the idiom expresses
activeness, energy and positive attitude.
Bee
A busy bee / Be as busy as a bee
Used about someone who works hard and is
always cheerful.
Be the bee's knees
To be extremely good.
Bitė
Kaip bitė
Apie darbštų, apie šaunų, apie gerai veikiantį.
A bee has a strong symbolic meaning in mythology. It has always been used as an image
to represent the Mother goddess and the hive was compared to the womb of the Great Mother.
The bee often appears to represent the soul and rebirth. It was believed that bees were born from
dead bulls. This idea was known among European cultures in cluding England as well (Eason,
2008:76). Moreover, the symbolism of bees is similar to ants because of their diligence,
inexhaustible energy and life in social community. Therefore, the idioms a busy bee or be as
busy as a bee are closely related to bees‘ behaviour and way of living (Werness, 2006:40). The
idiom be the bee's knees originate from the fact that bees have sacs around their legs which are
used to transport pollen grains back to the hive. Pollen grains are used to produce honey which is
highly valued because of its fascinating property to cure different illnesses.
51
Bug
Be bitten by the bug
To become enthusiastic about a particular
activity and very eager to start doing it
yourself.
Snug as a bug (in a rug)
Used in order to say that someone is very
warm and comfortable.
The idiom snug as a bug (in a rug) is based on the physical similarity between the bug
and the baby who is ‘snug’ in the womb similarly as the bug is snug in its rug ( Thornborrow and
Wareing, 1998:228). Moreover, this idiom was created by the Irish playwright Francis
Gentleman in 1769 and used in his comedy. Later, Benjamin Franklin used the same idiom in his
letter to his friend Miss Georgiana Shipley whose pet squirrel had died. He tried to comfort her
by writing the following lines: ‘Here Skugg lies snug as a bug in a rug’ (Cryer, 2010:303).
Musė
Musės nenuskriaus/ Musės nepalies
Labai geras, gailestingas.
Flies are mainly depicted as negative creatures. They have always been considered as
bearers of evil and serious illnesses such as a plague. In Christianity the fly is a symbol of sin
(Ferguson, 1959:18). Although the fly encompasses a vast variety of negative features, there are
some people who are so compassionate that they would not cause harm to them.
4.1.2.2. Idioms that comprise the constituent of a mollusk
Clam
Happy as a clam at high tide
Happy and contented.
Happy as a clam at high water
Happy and contented.
The explanation of these idioms lies in the peculiarity of clam digging. Clams can be dug
only at low tide. At high water, clams are covered with water; therefore, they can feel safe
without the risk of being caught by some hunter.
The analysis revealed that 13 animal names coincide in both languages. They are as
follows: a bull, a calf, a cat, a cow, a dog, a horse, a sheep, an eagle, a bird, a dove, a bee, and
a duckling. However, there are some animal names that are found only in English, namely: a pig,
a duck, a goose, an elephant, a lion, a catbird, a lark, a whale, an ant, and a clam. Additionally,
52
there are some animal names that are incorporated to express happiness solely in Lithuanian
idioms. They are the following: a goat, a marten, a hare, a fox, a bear, a wolf, a cuckoo, a crane,
a swan, a swallow, a nightingale, a sparrow, a hen, a lizard. People of both cultures tend to refer
to different animal names in expressing happiness through idioms because of their different
geographical dwelling places with distinctive fauna, peculiar worldviews influenced by the
cultural and historical circumstances. This enumeration suggests that the Lithuanians employ
animals that frequently appear in their close environment: homelands, forests and fields.
Meanwhile, English idioms comprise animals that might seem exotic for the Lithuanian culture
or they might be typical for the low latitudes. Hence it is possible to conclude that the
Lithuanians prefer to lead a sedentary way of life and, consequently, Lithuanian language has a
relatively small distribution in the world. Meanwhile, English language is widely spread all
around the world with about 100 countries using this language including British Isles, British
West Indies, Canada, British Guiana, British West Africa, British East Africa, India, Australia
and New Zealand. Wide geographical distribution of English language accounts for the usage of
exotic animals in the idioms.
In addition to the stated above, there are some animals that are used in the idioms more
frequently than the other ones. A horse appears most frequently in Lithuanian idioms – 12 times
(it makes 14% of all Lithuanian idioms). Frequent usage of the concept of a horse in Lithuanian
idioms indicates the importance of this animal in people life. Agriculture has always been
domineering in Lithuania and a horse has always been the primary and multifunctional helper in
this way of farming. The United Kingdom is an agricultural country too, however,
industrialization is prevailing. A horse is quite often employed in the idioms (4 times or 8%);
nevertheless, a cat appears more frequently as it was one of the first domesticated animals. It
appears 6 times in the English idioms (it makes 12% of all English idioms). The second place of
Lithuanian idioms is occupied by a dove (10 idioms and it makes 12%). Meanwhile, English
idioms refer to the concepts of a dog and a duck. They occupy the second place (each are used in
5 idioms and it makes 10%). Pets such as a cat and a dog are especially valued in Great Britain
and they are treated as people. They are associated with positive emotions; therefore, people
employ them in idioms most frequently to express happiness. The Lithuanians use the concept of
a horse in the idioms most frequently because it has always been irreplaceable in all agricultural
works. Furthermore, a dove is related to religious matters. Lithuanians are Catholics and they
associate a dove with the Holly Spirit and the Trinity. Moreover, a dove is the symbol of
happiness, fertility and success in farming in the Lithuanian culture.
53
The frequency of occurrences of animal names in the English idioms can be observed in
the Appendix No 2.
Appendix No 3 represents the most frequent animal names in the
Lithuanian language.
4.2. Investigation of aspects of human happiness expressed through English and
Lithuanian zoomorphic idioms
Lithuanian and English idioms can be classified according to their equivalence referring
to the concept of happiness. Baker distinguishes four types of equivalence in translation. If an
idiom does not have its counterpart in the target language, its meaning can be expressed by
means of a single word or a transparent fixed expression. Secondly, an idiom may have a similar
counterpart in the target language that can be used in a different context. Thirdly, an idiom may
be used in the source text in both its literal and figurative senses simultaneously. Fourthly, the
context, in which the idioms are used, may be different in the source and target languages
(Baker, 2006:69).
Another classification, introduced by the linguist Barchudarow (1979) and adopted by
Gläser (1984), distinguishes between three levels of equivalence: complete, partial and zero
equivalence. Complete equivalence means full correspondence in structure and meaning.
Moreover, the source of such idioms also coincides in many cases. Partial equivalence maintains
that the idioms have the same meaning and different syntactic structure in the comparable
languages, or they possess identical syntactic structure but expose differences in meaning.
Finally, zero equivalence implies that idioms do not have their counterparts in the target
language (Gläser, 1984:127).
This classification will be adopted in the research with slight alterations. Since the topic
in question deals with zoomorphic idioms, the concept of an animal will be significant in
determining the equivalence, too. Thus, if the same animal species appears in the idioms of the
source language and the target language, the complete equivalence will be established. Partial
equivalence will be established if different animal species are employed in the idioms of the
source language and the target language with the same syntactic structure and the meaning. In
addition, idioms, comprising the same species of animal and the same meaning but revealing
different syntactic structure in both languages, will be considered as having partial equivalence
as well. Furthermore, the complete equivalence will be indicated with a plus sign (+). Partial
equivalence will be revealed with the sign of a plus-minus (±). The sign of a dash (—) will mark
zero equivalence.
54
It was revealed that happiness comprises various aspects such as health, wealth,
knowledge, friends, cheerfulness, success, attractive appearance and pleasures in the subchapter
‘The Concept of Happiness in Ancient and Modern Times’. The following semantic groups were
distinguished considering the meaning of the collected idioms:
1. Joy, cheerfulness, satisfaction, success and good luck;
2. Wealth, prosperity and utility;
3. Good health and physical state;
4. Relationships, sociability and agreement;
5. Knowledge and experience;
6. Longevity and energy;
7. Easy life and lightness;
8. Optimism and positive changes;
9. Acknowledgement and recognition;
10. Positive traits and being better than others.
All idioms were arranged in alphabetic order according to the animal name that is found in
them. English idioms occupy the left column of the charts and Lithuanian idioms take the right
column of the charts. Partial and complete equivalents appear in the same line.
1. Joy, cheerfulness, excitement, satisfaction, success and good luck
Like the cat that ate the canary
—
Like the cat that got the cream
—
Look like the cat that swallowed the canary
—
A grin like a Cheshire cat
—
Lucky dog
—
Happy like a pig in mud
—
Happy as a lark
±Lakštingalų diena
To have a whale of time
—
A whale of a something
—
Have ants in your pants
—
Be the bee's knees
—
Be bitten by the bug
—
Snug as a bug (in a rug)
—
Happy as a clam at high tide/ Happy as a clam ±Kaip žuvis vandenyje
at high water
55
—
Kaip ant dešimt arklių sėdos
—
Kaip ant devynių arklių išsėsti
—
Kaip ant šimto arklių / Kaip ant šimto arklių
joja
—
Kaip ant arklio joja
—
Kaip žirgą dovanotas
—
Kaip gerą žirgą gavęs
—
Kaip ant žirgo pasodintas
—
Vilkas perbėgo kelią / Vilkas perbėgo per kelią
This semantic group is one of the larges. It consists of 24 zoomorphic idioms. Moreover,
English idioms that express joy are dominant. There are 14 English idioms and 10 Lithuanian
idioms included in the semantic group of joy, cheerfulness, excitement, satisfaction, success and
good luck. In English joy, cheerfulness, excitement satisfaction, success and good luck are
expressed through the following animals: a cat (4), a dog (1), a pig (1), a lark (1), a whale (2),
ants (1), a bee (1), a clam (1), and a bug (2). This group comprises the vast diversity of animal
classes including mammals, birds, fish and insects. In Lithuanian these aspects of happiness are
expressed through the animal names as follows: a horse (4), a stallion (3), a wolf (1), a
nightingale (1), and a fish (1).
There are 2 partial equivalents displaying the same meaning and similar syntactic
structure but comprising different animal. However, zero equivalence is prevailing in this
semantic group.
2. Knowledge and experience
—
Bloga kumelė nepavežtų
—
Senas vilkas
—
Jūros vilkas
An old bird is not caught with chaff
±Senas žvirblis
The semantic group of knowledge and experience includes 5 zoomorphic idioms.
Lithuanian idioms dominate in this group. There are 4 Lithuanian idioms and 1 English idiom.
Animals such as a mare (1), a wolf (2) and a sparrow (1) are found in Lithuanian idioms. There
is only one English idiom with the concept of a bird to express experience. Moreover, this
semantic group comprises one example of partial equivalence: an old bird is not caught with
56
chaff and senas žvirblis. These idioms carry the same meaning and they comprise the concept of
a bird. However, their syntactic structure is different.
3. Wealth, prosperity and utility
The golden calf
+ Aukso veršis
Cash cow
±Auksinė karvutė
Live high on the hog
—
The goose that lays golden egg/eggs
±Višta, dedanti auksinius kiaušinius
—
Katės pieno nebuvo
—
Dvi karves melžti
—
Melžiama karvė
—
Karvė įkėlė koją
—
Karvę melžti
—
Kumelio pieno nebuvo
—
Avelę kirpti
—
Aukso ožys
—
Aukso ožką rodyti
—
Kaip iš ožio rago
—
Didelė kiaunė
—
Paukščio pieno nėra
—
Paukščio pieno neturi
—
Paukščio pieno trūksta
—
Paukštės pieno nėra
—
Paukštės pieno neturi
—
Paukštės pieno trūksta
—
Balandžio pieno trūksta
—
Karvelio pieno trūko
—
Gegutės pieno nerasti
—
Gegutės pieno reikia
—
Gegutės pieno stinga
—
Gegutės pieno trūksta
—
Gegužės pieno nėra
—
Gegužės pieno trūksta
—
Gervės pieno reikia
57
—
Gervės pieno stinga
—
Gervės pieno trūksta
—
Gulbės pieno stinga
—
Gulbės pieno trūksta
—
Kregždės pieno reikia
The semantic group of wealth, prosperity and utility is especially abundant. It comprises
37 zoomorphic idioms. Lithuanian idioms are prevailing and reach the number of 34.
Meanwhile, English idioms are less in numbers (4). This proportion discloses that wealth has
always been especially important for the Lithuanians. English idioms comprise the following
animals: a calf (1), a cow (1), a hog (1) and a goose (1). All mentioned animals are domestic,
what can be explained by the fact that Great Britain has always been an agricultural country and
these animals were in the closest environment of the English. Such situation triggered the usage
of the names of domestic animals in the idioms. Lithuanian idioms also include the names of
domestic animals; however, wild animals appear quite often, too. They are as follows: a calf (1),
a cat (1), a cow (5), a horse (1), a sheep (1), a goat (3), a marten (1), a bird (6), a dove (2), a
cuckoo (6), a crane (3), a swan (2) and a swallow (1). Two animal names coincide in both
languages: a calf and a cow. In addition to this, a significant majority of Lithuanian idioms
related to wealth and prosperity contain the concept of milk (25). This means that milk was
highly valued in all families and homes. If there is some milk at home, a family will not need to
encounter starvation and other hardships.
This semantic group comprises one total equivalent. Since the idiom the golden calf
originates in the Bible, its translation in English and Lithuanian coincides both in syntactic
structure and meaning. Moreover, there are two partial equivalents in this group. The idioms
cash cow and auksinė karvutė maintain the same meaning and syntactic structure, but differ in
adjectives that describe the noun. Nonetheless, both adjectives denote material wealth. Another
partial equivalence is observed between the idioms the goose that lays golden egg/eggs and višta,
dedanti auksinius kiaušinius. One domestic bird a goose is changed into another domestic bird a
hen.
4. Good health and physical state
Strong as a bull
± Jaučio sprandas
Strong as a horse
±Sulig arkliais / Kaip arklys
Strong as a lion
—
58
Strong as an ox
±Jaučio ragas ne pyragas
—
Kaip gaidys
—
Jaučio sveikatą turėti
—
Vištų nesumindžiotas
Distribution of idioms in the group of good health and physical state is almost equal in
numbers: there are 4 idioms in English and 7 in Lithuanian. Overall, there are 11 idioms in this
group. The English employ the following animals to express good health and physical state: a
bull (1), an ox (1), a horse (1) and a lion (1). Lithuanian idioms comprise similar animals: a bull
(3), a horse (2), a rooster (1) and a hen (1). One English idiom comprises the concept of a lion
that seems rather exotic for the Lithuanian culture. Other English idioms include domestic
animals that are irreplaceable in performing agricultural works which require stamina and
strength (a bull, an ox and a horse). The same domestic animals (a bull and a horse) are also
incorporated in Lithuanian idioms to express good health and power. In addition, English idioms
emphasize strength unanimously.
There are three partial equivalences in this semantic group. They all include the
corresponding animal, the same meaning; however, they differ in syntactic structure.
5. Relationships, sociability and agreement
As faithfull as a dove
±Kaip balandis
As gentle as a dove
—
Make sheep’s eye
—
—
Kaip balandžių pora
—
Kaip du balandžiai
—
Kaip driežas į gegužę
—
Kaip karvelių pora
—
Kaip katė
—
Kaip katės
—
Kaip katinas
—
Lakštingalos balsą turėti
—
Kaip laputė
The semantic group of relationships, sociability and agreement comprises 13 zoomorphic
idioms. Lithuanian idioms are domineering in the semantic group of relationships, sociability
and agreement. There are 3 idioms in English and 10 idioms in Lithuanian. English idioms of
59
this group contain animals such as a sheep (1) and a dove (2). To express relationships,
sociability and agreement Lithuanian idioms adopt a wider range of animals: a cat (3), a fox (1),
a dove (4), a nightingale (1) and a lizard (1). Consequently, the dove is used in both languages to
express relationships, sociability and agreement. Thus, there is one partial equivalent. Idioms as
faithful as a dove and kaip balandis refer to the same animal and possess the same meaning,
however, the English idiom comprises more lexical items.
6. Longevity and energy
There's life in the old dog yet.
±Šuns amžių
—
Katės amžius
The semantic group of longevity and energy is the smallest one. It comprises 3 idioms:
only one idiom in English and two idioms in Lithuanian. A dog is employed to express longevity
in English. Lithuanian idioms also use the concept of a dog and the concept of a cat to express
this aspect of happiness. Although this semantic group is not abundant, it comprises one partial
equivalent. Both idioms there's life in the old dog yet and šuns amžių encompasses the same
name of an animal and has the same meaning. Nevertheless, the syntactic structure is different.
7. Easy life and lightness
To be a duck shoot
—
Easy as duck soup/duck soup
—
As a duck takes to water
± Kaip šuniui bėgti
Take to something like a duck to water
—
Everything is lovely and the goose hangs high
—
—
Kepti balandžiai lekia į burną
—
Keptais balandžiais sninga
—
Keptas karvelis neatlėks pats į burną
—
Kepti karveliai skrenda į burną
—
Katino dienos
—
Kiškio polka
—
Kaip meškos ausyje
—
Pasodinti kaip vištą ant kiaušinių
There are 14 zoomorphic idioms in the group of easy life and lightness. This semantic
group consists of 5 English idioms and 9 Lithuanian idioms. In English easy life and lightness
60
are expressed through the following domestic birds: a duck (3) and a goose (1). Lithuanian
idioms comprise more animals such as a cat (1), a dog (1), a hare (1), a bear (1), a dove (4) and a
hen (1). Consequently, easy life and lightness are mainly associated with a dove in Lithuanian
idioms and a duck in English idioms. Moreover, one partial equivalent is found in this semantic
group: as a duck takes to water and kaip šuniui bėgti. They both have the same meaning, similar
syntactic structure but they refer to different domestic animals: a duck and a dog.
8. Optimism and positive changes
An ugly duckling
+ Bjaurusis ančiukas
Make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear;
—
make/turn a sow’s ear into a silk purse
—
Žydroji paukštė
—
Vilkas sotus ir avis sveika
6 zoomorphic idioms constitute the semantic group of optimism and positive changes.
There are 3 idioms in English and 3 idioms in Lithuanian in this group. Optimism and positive
changes are expressed through a sow (2) and a duckling (1) in English idioms. Meanwhile,
Lithuanian idioms include a wolf (1), a duckling (1) and a bird (1). This group contains one total
equivalent: an ugly duckling and bjaurusis ančiukas. The source of these idioms is the story by
Hans Christian Andersen.
9. Acknowledgement and recognition
Sacred cow
—
Every dog has its day
—
Love me, love my dog
—
The top dog
—
A legal eagle
—
A big fish
+ Stambi žuvis
A dark horse
—
Lion's share of something
—
The semantic group of acknowledgement and recognition comprises 9 zoomorphic
idioms. However, English idioms are prevailing in this group. There are 8 idioms in English and
1 idiom in Lithuanian. Acknowledgement and recognition are expressed through the following
animals in English: a cow (1), a dog (3), a horse (1), an eagle (1), a fish (1) and a lion (1). There
61
is only one Lithuanian idiom in this group which comprises the concept of a fish. This fact
suggests that acknowledgement and recognition are especially valued by the English;
meanwhile, the Lithuanians do not put overemphasis on this aspect. Furthermore, there is one
total equivalent in this group: a big fish and stambi žuvis.
10. Positive personal traits/ being better than others
A busy bee / Be as busy as a bee
± Kaip bitė
An early bird catches/ gets the worm
—
Be the cat's whiskers/ The cat’s whiskers
—
To be (sitting) in the catbird seat
—
Get your ducks in a row
—
Have a memory like an elephant
—
A one-horse race
—
Get on your high horse
—
—
Darbo kurmis
—
Musės nenuskriaus/ Musės nepalies
Šuns rankas ir kojas turėti
The last semantic group of positive personal traits or being better than others include 12
zoomorphic idioms. English idioms constitute the larger proportion and encompass 8 idioms.
Lithuanian idioms are less significant in numbers and comprise only 4 idioms. Positive traits are
expressed through the following animals in English: a bee (1), a bird (1), a cat (1), a catbird (1), a
duck (1), an elephant (1), and a horse (2). Lithuanian idioms encompass animals as follows: a
bee (1), a mole (1), a fly (1), and a dog (1). There are no domineering animals in this group.
Nevertheless, this group of positive traits and being better than others has one partial equivalent:
a busy bee or be as busy as a bee and kaip bitė. The meaning and the animal of these idioms are
the same, but their syntactic structure is different.
Analysis revealed that zero equivalence is prevailing among the idioms of both
languages. 12 pairs of the zoomorphic idioms exhibited partial equivalence: happy as a lark lakštingalų diena, happy as a clam at high tide/ happy as a clam at high water - kaip žuvis
vandenyje, an old bird is not caught with chaff - senas žvirblis, cash cow - auksinė karvutė, the
goose that lays golden egg/eggs - višta, dedanti auksinius kiaušinius, strong as a bull - jaučio
sprandas, strong as a horse - sulig arkliais / kaip arklys, strong as an ox - jaučio ragas ne
pyragas, as faithful as a dove - kaip balandis, there's life in the old dog yet - šuns amžių, as a
62
duck takes to water - kaip šuniui bėgti, a busy bee / be as busy as a bee - kaip bitė. 3 idioms in
English had their total equivalents in Lithuanian: the golden calf - aukso veršis, an ugly duckling
- bjaurusis ančiukas, a big fish - stambi žuvis. Distribution of equivalence between the
Lithuanian and English idioms is revealed in the Appendix No 6.
Although all semantic groups are filled with idioms, their proportions are different. The
largest number of Lithuanian idioms constitutes the semantic group of wealth and prosperity –
34 idioms (40% of all Lithuanian idioms). Meanwhile, the majority of English idioms form the
semantic group of joy and success – 14 idioms (28% of all English idioms). These numbers
reveal what things make people happy of both nations. Historic events can account for this.
Wars, foreign occupations and repressions caused poverty and hardship in Lithuania. Therefore,
wealth and prosperity evoke happiness for the Lithuanians. Although Great Britain also
experienced financial crisis and recession after the World War II, their economic situation has
always been better. Therefore, they give more attention to intangible values such as joy, luck,
success or cheerfulness. On the other hand, the smallest semantic group comprising only one
zoomorphic idiom in Lithuanian is acknowledgement and recognition (1%). Only one English
idiom is found in the semantic groups of longevity and knowledge (2%). The distribution of
English idioms in all semantic groups is revealed in Appendix No 4 and Appendix No 5 shows
the distribution of Lithuanian idioms in the same semantic groups.
A cat and a horse appear in semantic groups of idioms most frequently. They are
included in the idioms of six different semantic groups of both languages. Therefore, a cat and a
horse express a wide range of aspects of happiness in zoomorphic idioms. Both a horse and a cat
are employed equally more frequently in Lithuanian idioms. A horse is found in 4 semantic
groups (health, wealth, knowledge, and joy) and a cat appears in 4 semantic groups, too
(longevity, relationships, wealth and easy life). In English idioms a horse appears in 3 semantic
groups (health, acknowledgement and positive traits) and a cat is found in 2 semantic groups
(positive traits and joy). Furthermore, a dog also appears quite often in the idioms. It is employed
to express five different semantic aspects of happiness of both languages. A dog is employed in 3
semantic groups of Lithuanian idioms (longevity, easy life, and positive traits). It is found in 3
semantic groups of English idioms (longevity, acknowledgement and joy). Moreover, a dove is
found in 3 semantic groups in Lithuanian (easy life, relationships, and wealth) and in 1 semantic
group of English (relationships). In addition to this, a wolf also appears in idioms relatively
often: 3 semantic groups in Lithuanian (optimism, joy and knowledge).
63
CONCLUSIONS
135 zoomorphic idioms expressing happiness in English and Lithuanian were exposed to
the analysis in this research. Lithuanian idioms constitute a larger proportion in comparison to
the English ones: English idioms make 37% (50 idioms) and Lithuanian idioms comprise 63%
(85 idioms).
The analysis revealed that 45 animal names are involved to express happiness in both
languages. English idioms embrace 25 animal names; meanwhile, Lithuanian idioms comprise
33 animal names. 13 animal names (33%) coincide in both languages. They are the following:
bull, calf, cat, cow, dog, horse, sheep, eagle, bird, dove, fish, bee, and duckling. It may be the
result of the fact that both Lithuanian and the United Kingdom have always been agricultural
countries where the same animals had a huge impact in people’s everyday life and activities.
However, 67% (26) of the names of employed animals are different in compared zoomorphic
idioms. These numbers manifest cultural differences of the comparable languages. Animals that
are found only in English are as follows: pig, duck, goose, elephant, lion, catbird, lark, whale,
ant, and clam. The following animal names occur only in Lithuanian idioms: goat, marten, hare,
fox, bear, wolf, cuckoo, crane, swan, swallow, nightingale, sparrow, hen, and lizard. English
idioms refer to animals whose amplitude of distribution is significantly wider encompassing a
number of geographical areas in the north, south, east and west. This might be the result of the
British colonialism. Animals distinctive to Lithuanian idioms can be found in different
geographical places of the world, too. However, all mentioned animals above occupy a certain
place in the Lithuanians’ lives, customs and traditions.
Frequency of animal names’ distribution in the idioms of both languages is not
equivalent. A cat is employed most frequently in English idioms to express happiness (6 idioms
which make 12% of all English idioms). A dog and a duck occupy the second place (each are
used in 5 idioms and it makes 10%). A horse appears most frequently in Lithuanian idioms (12
idioms which make 14% of all Lithuanian idioms). The second place of Lithuanian idioms is
occupied by a dove (10 idioms and it makes 12%).
The following 10 semantic groups were introduced in the MA paper:
1. Joy, cheerfulness, satisfaction, success and good luck;
2. Wealth, prosperity and utility;
3. Good health and physical state;
4. Relationships, sociability and agreement;
5. Knowledge and experience;
6. Longevity and energy;
64
7. Easy life and lightness;
8. Optimism and positive changes;
9. Acknowledgement and recognition;
10. Positive traits and being better than others.
Although there are 3 total equivalents (4%) and 12 partial equivalents (18%) among the
idioms, the zero equivalents are domineering (78%). These numbers reveal that Lithuanian and
English cultures are different and only a minute number of idioms find their counterparts in the
comparable language.
The distribution of zoomorphic idioms of both languages in the semantic groups is not equal.
The semantic group of wealth and prosperity comprises the largest number of Lithuanian
idioms – 34 idioms (40% of all Lithuanian idioms). Meanwhile, the majority of English idioms
form the semantic group of joy and success – 14 idioms (28% of all English idioms). The
smallest semantic group comprising one zoomorphic idiom in Lithuanian is acknowledgement
and recognition (1%). The smallest semantic group comprising one zoomorphic idiom in
English is longevity and knowledge (2%).
Majority of animal names is used to express several aspects of happiness. A cat and a horse
are employed in 6 semantic groups of both languages. The analysis revealed that these animals
appear in the semantic groups of Lithuanian idioms more frequently. Other animals that express
more than one aspect of happiness are a dog, a bird, a dove, a cow, a fish, a bee, a wolf. The
distribution of aspects of happiness revealed by these animals is as follows:
 A horse is found in 4 semantic groups (health, wealth, knowledge, and joy) in
Lithuanian and in 3 semantic groups (health, acknowledgement and positive traits)
in English – in total 6 semantic groups, one of which (health) coincides in both
languages;
 A cat is found in 4 semantic groups (longevity, relationships, wealth and easy life) in
Lithuanian and in 2 semantic groups (positive traits and joy) in English – 6 semantic
groups, no coincidences in both languages;
 A dog is found in 3 semantic groups (longevity, easy life, and positive traits) in
Lithuanian and in 3 semantic groups (longevity, acknowledgement and joy) in
English – 5 semantic groups, one of which (longevity) coincides in both languages;
 A bird is found in 2 semantic groups (optimism, wealth) in Lithuanian and in 2
semantic groups ( acknowledgement, knowledge) in English – 4 semantic groups, no
coincidences in both languages;
65
 A dove is found in 3 semantic groups (easy life, relationships, and wealth) in
Lithuanian and in 1 semantic group (relationships) in English – 3 semantic groups,
one of which (relationships) coincides in both languages;
 A cow is found in 1 semantic group (wealth) in Lithuanian and in 2 semantic groups
(wealth, acknowledgement) in English – 2 semantic groups, one of which (wealth)
coincides in both languages;
 A fish is found in 2 semantic groups (joy, acknowledgement) in Lithuanian and in 1
semantic group (acknowledgement) in English – 2 semantic groups, one of which
(acknowledgement) coincides in both languages;
 A bee is found in 1 semantic group ( positive traits) in Lithuanian and in 2 semantic
groups ( positive traits, joy) in English - 2 semantic groups, one of which (positive
traits) coincides in both languages;
 A wolf is found in 3 semantic groups (optimism, knowledge and joy) in Lithuanian;
however, the wolf is not used in English to express any aspect of happiness.
The analysis above has proved the hypothesis of the research that different aspects of
happiness are expressed through different animal names. Although one animal can be employed
to express more than one semantic group, the coincidences of the semantic groups comprising
idioms with the same concept of an animal in both languages are scarce and limited. This is due
to the fact that Lithuania and the UK are not neighboring countries. Consequently, their cultures,
traditions and the worldview are remote, too.
Further studies concerning comparison of the expression of happiness and unhappiness in
English and Lithuanian zoomorphic idioms must be conducted. Lithuanian and English corpora
should be involved to investigate, compare and contrast the frequency of idiom usage in different
genres. Moreover, it is possible to check what idioms are not used or used less in the British or
American corpus. There might be some idioms used solely in American or British English
languages. Corpora will help to determine the actual usage of the zoomorphic idioms in
Lithuanian and English.
66
SANTRAUKA
Šio darbo tikslas yra ištirti laimės aspektus bei jų reiškimo būdus lietuviškuose ir
angliškuose zoomorfiniuose frazeologizmuose. Tyrime yra naudojami kokybinis, kiekybinis ir
aprašomasis analizės metodai. Teorinėje dalyje yra apžvelgiama frazeologizmų definicijos
problema, jų struktūrinė bei semantinė klasifikacija, formavimosi subtilybės bei kultūros įtaka.
Šiame darbe skiriamas didelis dėmesys šiuolaikinei ir praėjusių šimtmečių laimės sampratai bei
ryšio tarp žmogaus ir gyvūnų aptarimui.
Praktinės dalies analizei buvo surinkta 135 zoomorfiniai frazeologizmai: 50 anglų kalboje
ir 85 lietuvių kalboje. Iš viso 45 gyvūnai buvo pasitelkti reikšti laimės aspektus abiejų kalbų
frazeologizmuose: 25 iš jų anglų kalboje ir 33 lietuvių kalboje. Tik 13 gyvūnų sutampa abiejose
kalbose (jautis, veršis, katė/katinas, karvė, šuo, arklys, avis, erelis, paukštis, balandis, žuvis, bitė
ir ančiukas). Dauguma jų yra naminiai gyvūnai, vieni iš anksčiausiai prijaukintų bei būdingi
abiem šalims.
Vienas iš svarbiausių praktinės dalies akcentų buvo išskirti laimės aspektų semantines
grupes. Remiantis mokslininkų darbais bei statistiniais tyrimais buvo išskirta 10 semantinių
grupių: džiaugsmas/sėkmė, turtas/gerovė, gera sveikata/fizinė būklė, santykiai/sutarimas,
žinios/patirtis, ilgaamžiškumas/energija, lengvas gyvenimas, optimizmas/pozityvios permainos,
pripažinimas, teigiami bruožai/buvimas geresniu už kitus. Remiantis šiais kriterijais,
frazeologizmai buvo klasifikuojami, lyginami ir analizuojami. Anglų kalbos frazeologizmai
gausiausiai užpildė džiaugsmo/sėkmės semantinę grupę – 28% visų angliškų frazeologizmų. Tuo
tarpu lietuviški frazeologizmai dominavo turto/gerovės semantinėje grupėje – 40% visų
lietuviškų frazeologizmų. Palyginimui, džiaugsmo/sėkmės semantinę grupę sudarė 12%
lietuviškų frazeologizmų, o turto/gerovės – 8% angliškų frazeologizmų.
Suskirsčius frazeologizmus pagal laimės aspektą, paaiškėjo, kad vyrauja nulinis
atitikimas tarp lyginamų kalbų, kai nesutampa nei frazeologizmų prasmė, nei juose esančio
gyvūno konceptas, nei sintaksinė išraiška. Dalinis atitikimas buvo nustatytas tarp 12
frazeologizmų porų abiejose kalbose, kai prasmė ir gyvūno konceptas sutampa, bet sintaksinis
pavidalas skiriasi, arba, kai prasmė ir sintaksinė išraiška sutampa, bet gyvūnas skiriasi. Tik 3
frazeologizmų poros lietuvių ir anglų kalboje išreiškė pilną atitikimą ( the golden calf – aukso
veršis, an ugly duckling – bjaurusis ančiukas, a big fish – stambi žuvis). Tai rodo lietuvių ir britų
tautų skirtumus, susidariusius dėl geografinio kontakto nebuvimo, istorinių įvykių, kultūros bei
pasaulėjautos skirtumų.
Nepaisant to, laimės aspektams išreikšti tiek lietuviai, tiek anglai dažniausiai naudoja
arklio ir katės konceptus. Arklys dažniausiai išreiškia gerą sveikatą, turtą, žinias/patirtį,
67
džiaugsmą lietuviškuose frazeologizmuose. Angliškuose frazeologizmuose arklys perteikia gerą
sveikatą, pripažinimą ir teigiamas savybes. Katė išreiškia lengvą gyvenimą, ilgaamžiškumą,
santykius/sutarimą bei turtą lietuviškuose frazeologizmuose. Angliškuose frazeologizmuose
katės konceptas naudojamas išreikšti džiaugsmą ir teigiamas savybes. Tiek lietuviškuose, tiek
angliškuose frazeologizmuose gyvūnų naudojimas yra glaudžiai susijęs su jų simboline prasme ir
reikšme žmogaus gyvenime.
68
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APPENDICES
Appendix No. 1 Distribution of zoomorphic idioms of both languages
Dis tribution of z oomorphic idioms of
both lang uag es
E nglis h idioms 37%
L ithuanian idioms 63%
74
Appendix No. 2 Frequency of animal names’ usage in English idioms
75
Appendix No. 3 Frequency of animal names’ usage in Lithuanian idioms
76
Appendix No. 4 English idiom distribution in the semantic groups
77
Appendix No. 5 Lithuanian idiom distribution in the semantic groups
P os itive traits
Acknowledgement
O ptimis m
E as y life
L ongevity
R elations hips
Health
W ealth
K nowledge
J oy
0%
10%
20%
78
30%
40%
Appendix No. 6 Distribution of equivalence
79