Table of contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3
PREFACE
5
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
6
SAMMENFATNING OG KONKLUSIONER
8
1
INTRODUCTION
2
SURVEY OF TYPES OF CANDLES, CHEMICAL INGREDIENTS, AND METHODS OF PRODUCTION11
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
3
PRODUCTION OF CANDLES
11
SUPPLIERS OF RAW MATERIALS
12
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.1.4
2.1.5
2.1.6
Paraffin wax
Stearine wax
Gelled mineral oil
Wicks
Colorants
Fragrances
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
Wax
Wicks
Colorants
Manufacturers
2.5.1
Import and export
2.6.1
Replies
TYPES OF CANDLES
VISIT AT THE FOUNDRY OF CANDLES DANLUX
PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OF CANDLES IN DENMARK
TYPES OF CANDLES SOLD IN DENMARK
ANALYSIS OF SELECTED CANDLES
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
4
4.1
4.2
5
11
12
12
12
12
12
12
13
13
13
13
14
14
15
16
16
18
SELECTION OF CANDLES FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
SELECTED CANDLES
PHYSICAL DATA ON THE SELECTED CANDLES
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS ON THE SELECTED CANDLES
TYPES OF WAX
HEADSPACE ANALYSES OF THE CANDLES
SUBJECTIVE ASSESSMENT OF THE SMELL FROM THE CANDLES
HEAVY METALS
18
18
18
19
19
20
21
21
ANALYSES OF THE POLLUTION WHEN BURNING CANDLES
25
MEASURING PROGRAMME
ANALYTICAL RESULTS
ASSESSMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS
5.1
5.2
5.3
6
10
TEST MODEL
HEAVY METALS IN CANDLES
ORGANIC SUBSTANCES FROM THE BURNING TESTS
REFERENCES
25
25
29
29
30
31
33
APPENDIX A IMPORT AND EXPORT, 2000
34
APPENDIX B PHYSICAL DATA ON THE SELECTED CANDLES
35
3
4
APPENDIX C CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
38
APPENDIX D METAL AND VOLATILE COMPOUNDS
39
APPENDIX E TEST SET-UP
40
APPENDIX F AEROSOL, PAH, AND VOC
41
APPENDIX G EMISSION, CALCULATIONS
42
Preface
The present report is the result of the project "Chemical ingredients in candles sold in Danish retail".
To describe the human exposure and hazard risks from chemical substances in consumer products the
Danish Environmental Protection Agency (Danish EPA) has asked Danish Technological Institute to prepare
a survey of the content of chemical substances in candles and which chemical substances are emitted
from the candles sold in Danish retail.
The present report is based on data from literature, suppliers, and manufacturers. The Danish
consumption of candles has been surveyed and selected types of candles have been analysed for their
chemical ingredients. Vapour and fumes emitted from burning these types of candles have been
measured and analysed and the results of the measuring have been compared with modified limit values
for working environment.
This report will only present the results from the analysis on the fumes and the analysis of the
chemical ingredients in the candles. Later a report describing the sooting from the candles will be
published.
The project has been financed by the Danish EPA as a part of the programme “Survey of chemical
substances in consumer products".
The project has been carried out from August 1 till December 15, 2001 by Danish Technological
Institute, Centre for Environment and Waste. The chemical tests and analyses have been made by
Danish Technological Institute, Centre for Chemical Technology and Centre for Plastic Technology.
The project manager is Torben Eggert, Danish Technological Institute.
The report has been written by
Torben Eggert, Centre for Environment and Waste
Jørn Bødker, Centre for Environment and Waste
Ole Christian Hansen, Centre for Environment and Waste
The chemical analyses have been made by:
Steen Færgemann Hansen, Centre for Chemical Technology
Eva Pedersen, Centre for Chemical Technology
Brian Christiansen, Centre for Chemical Technology
Anne D. Pedersen, Centre for Chemical Technology
Birthe Momme Pedersen, Centre for Chemical Technology
Søren Pedersen, Centre for Plastic Technology
Shima Dobel, Danish EPA, is the contact for the project.
The points of view and conclusions in the present report are not necessarily the same as the Danish
EPA.
5
Summary and conclusions
In Denmark relatively large quantities of candles are sold. The annual consumption is estimated to be
approximately 17,500 tonnes which equals to a consumption of about 3.5 kg of candles per year per
Dane. Tea lights (diameter 38 mm) are the most sold in Denmark, and paraffin is the most used raw
material in producing candles.
The burning of candles causes air pollution. This pollution is partially caused from the substances that
the candle contains before burning and the substances that are formed when the burning of the candles.
Retailers do some relatively simple tests to show the tendency for the candles to soot. The Swedish
company IKEA does a comprehensive test on candle soot and other qualities on the candles that the
company distributes.
Chemical analyses from selected candles show that they contain fairly small quantities of heavy metals.
The largest concentration was measured in the wick. Some of the metals remain in the wick while
others to a certain point may be expected to be emitted as aerosols. Estimated calculations of the
concentrations in a room where one candle is burnt show that especially the amount of nickel and lead
are decisive. The concentration of metal is though fairly limited therefore only minor health hazards are
expected.
Substances formed and released during burning have been measured in a special test set-up where
fume gasses are filtered and samples of these are collected on absorbing material. The samples have
been analysed for chemical compounds and the emission (source strengths) has been calculated.
From the analysed emitted substances, the aerosols were the most dominant with emissions between 200
to 300 μg/hour. Substantial quantities of aldehyde or PAH-compounds were not observed. The total
emission of VOC was between 2 and 7400 μg/hour.
Based on the measured quantities the potential concentrations have been calculated by burning one
candle in a room of 20m3 with an air exchange on 0.5 times per hour. The calculated concentrations
are compared with 1/100 of the National Working Environment Authority exposure limit value for working
environment. The result showed that especially the emission of aerosols is above the accept limit. The
burning of several candles in a small room with low air exchange may pollute the indoor environment.
The pollution level depends on which candles are used, however, the main parameters cannot be found
in the consumer labelling.
6
7
Sammenfatning og konklusioner
I Danmark sælges relativt mange levende lys. Forbruget er i rapporten opgjort til ca. 17.500 tons pr. år,
svarende til at hver dansker afbrænder ca. 3,5 kg levende lys pr år. Fyrfadslys er de mest solgte lys i
Danmark, mens paraffin er den mest anvendte råvare til fremstilling af levende lys.
Afbrænding af levende lys giver anledning til luftforurening. Denne forurening skyldes dels de stoffer, som
lysene indeholder før afbrænding og dels stoffer, der dannes under forbrændingen af lysene.
Kemiske analyser af udvalgte lys viser, at lysene indeholder relativt små mængder tungmetaller, og at de
største koncentrationer blev fundet i vægen. En del metaller vil forblive i vægen, mens andre til en vis
grad må forventes at emittere under afbrændingen. Overslagsberegninger af de forventede maksimum
koncentrationer i et rum, hvor lys afbrændes viser, at især nikkel- og blyindholdet er udslagsgivende.
Koncentrationerne af metal er dog relativt begrænsede og vurderes kun at udgøre et mindre
sundhedsproblem.
Stoffer, som dannes og frigives under forbrændingen, er målt i en speciel opstilling, hvor røggassen
filtreres og prøver af røggassen opsamlet på forskellige faste absorbenter. De opsamlede røgprøver er
analyseret kemisk for sammensætningen og emissionen (kildestyrken) derefter beregnet.
Af de undersøgte afgivne forureningsstoffer, var aerosolerne dominerende med emissioner mellem 200 og
1300 μg/time. Der blev ikke fundet væsentlige mængder af aldehyder eller PAH-forbindelser. Den samlede
emission af flygtige organiske forbindelser (VOC) lå mellem 2 og 7400 μg/time.
På basis af de målte mængder blev de potentielle koncentrationer beregnet efter afbrænding af ét lys i
et teoretisk rum på 20 m3 og et luftskifte på 0,5 gang pr. time. De beregnede koncentrationer
sammenlignet med 1/100 af Arbejdstilsynets grænseværdi for arbejdspladser, viste, at især afgivelsen af
aerosoler (paraffinrøg) passerede denne acceptgrænse. Afbrænding af flere lys i et mindre lokale med
ringe luftskifte vil kunne forurene indeklimaet. Forureningsgraden vil være afhængig af, hvilke lys man
anvender, men de væsentligste parametre findes ikke på forbrugerinformationen.
8
9
1 Introduction
Historically, candles in its known appearance have been used since the 8th century. Until 1850 candles
were made from raw or bleached beeswax and animal fat. Since 1850 paraffin and stearine have been
used in the manufacturing of candles (Willhöft and Horn, 1986).
In Denmark millions of candles are used each year without knowing exactly the chemical contents of the
candles or whether the emission from burning the candles is polluting.
Even though the Danish consumption of candles hold the record, approx. 3.5 kg per person per year,
surveys on whether vapours and fumes from candles may be hazardous to the health and/or may cause
sooting of the surfaces in homes have not been made. Certain types of candles results in odour
nuisance and other types of candles in heavy smoke formation when burning the candles. There have
cases where surfaces in homes have been sooted when candles have been burnt. At qualitative testing
of different types of candles large differences as far as the emission of odour and soot from each type
of candle concerns have been observed.
The only international study that has been found on the subject is a German test on emissions from
candles made of paraffin. The measuring include dioxins, PAH's and aldehydes. The results are nonpublished reports and only an abstract of the report has been published (Schwind, 1994).
In the Danish retail many different types of candles are sold without information on chemical ingredients,
emission of chemical compounds or whether the candles soot when burning. The information typically
given to the consumer is information on burning duration, length, width, and wax material. Furthermore,
information on the fragrances and aromatics added to the candles may be given.
Certain consumers are allergic to the additives in the candles, and therefore respond to chemical
substances emitted when the candles burn. According to information from the Danish Asthma- and Allergy
Association more than 100,000 Danes are allergic to fragrances. It is possible that such fragrances can
be found in candles.
Based on the above the Danish EPA has asked Danish Technological Institute to prepare a detailed
survey of the content of the chemical compositions in different types of candles and the chemical
compounds emitted when burning the candles.
The project is divided into a survey phase and analysis phase and the following issues are discussed:
1.
Survey of chemical substances in different types of candles partly based on information retrieval and
partly by contacting manufacturers (of stearine, paraffin, wax, fragrances, wicks etc.).
2.
Study of the types of candles most frequently bought and used in Denmark.
3.
Chemical analyses of chemical ingredients in selected types of candles.
4.
Measuring and analysis of the pollution from burning candles (measuring of emission).
The Danish EPA has chosen six different types of candles which have been analysed.
10
2 Survey of types of candles,
chemical ingredients, and methods
of production
Information has been found on the internet and by contacting:
•
•
•
•
•
Association of Danish Manufacturers of Candles
Suppliers of raw materials to the Danish market
Retail in Denmark by Dansk Supermarked and FDB
Visit at Danlux in Helsingør, Denmark
Visit at IKEA in Sweden
2.1 Production of candles
In principle candles consist of two components – a wax and a wick. The wax is a solid substance at
room temperature and melts when heated. The wax may be supplemented with additives such as e.g.
colorant, different kinds of fragrances, and “metallic” surfaces which are not metal but an organic
material.
A wax has to be solid at room temperature and have an adequate high melting point so that the
candle does not bend when exposed to sunlight. As the candles typically burn indoors it is also
important that the wax does not contain too many chemical impurities which may cause pollution
problems (e.g. soot) when burning the candles.
Wax is a comprehensive denomination. In the present report it is a synonym for the combustible
material surrounding the wick in the candle. Wax is used as a denomination of a complex substance
which is not chemically defined but can be made of crude oil (synthetic wax) or of plant or animal
origin. Wax as a substance is defined from its physical-technical properties. Wax has to have a melting
point above 40ºC. At 40ºC it must melt without decomposing, and its surface shall be soft and
workable. Wax normally melts between 50 to 90ºC. Generally, wax burns with a sooting flame at
ignition. Beeswax produced by bees is a raw material which is used when producing expensive
decorative candles and candles for religious purposes. The Catholic Church demands e.g. a minimum
content of beeswax of 10% (Wolfmeier et al., 1986). This implies that beeswax is primarily used in
Southern Europe and the United States. Beeswax is not included in the present study.
In the following sections different chemical ingredients used in candles are briefly described.
2.1.1 Paraffin wax
Currently paraffin is the most used type of wax in the production of candles. Paraffin is made of crude
oil which primarily consists of crystalline hydrocarbons, typically C22–C28 hydrocarbons. Refined paraffin is
one of the main ingredients in the production of candles. It is a mixture of n-paraffins, isoparaffins, and
cycloparaffins (naphthenes). The composition depends on the type of crude oil and the refining process.
The melting point for refined paraffin is typically between 52 and 56°C. In tea lights, paraffin can be
used with a low carbon number (C18) which gives a low melting point. To ensure that the candles do
not bend when exposed to sunlight the external layers of candles are usually covered with a paraffin
with a higher melting point than the internal wax, typically at approx. 70 to75°C. Paraffin wax may
contain residues of light aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons, and other organic compounds.
11
2.1.2 Stearine wax
Stearine is used in a pure variety or in mixtures when manufacturing candles. When adding stearine to
the production the candle gets an opalesce or white appearance. Stearine is a mixture of stearic acid
(C18 aliphatic acid) and palmitic acid (C16 aliphatic acid). The melting point is typically between 60 and
62°C.
2.1.3 Gelled mineral oil
Gelled mineral oil (gel wax) is made of crude oil and primarily consists of amorphous hydrocarbons.
Gelled mineral oil has no melting point. It may contain residues from light aliphatic and aromatic
hydrocarbons and other organic compounds.
2.1.4 Wicks
Wicks are normally made from cotton and may be manufactured in different thickness and shapes. The
wick controls the melting, evaporation and burning of the candle and it transfers the liquid wax from the
melting area to the burning zone. To maintain the wick stiff and upright the wick may be impregnated
with different kinds of waxes or paper fibres may be weaved into the wick. Previously, a metal wire
was embedded in the wicks to maintain the wicks upright and stiff. The metal core could consist of
lead, zinc or tin.
The use of lead in candles is covered by the Danish legislation on prohibition of import and marketing
of products containing lead (Ministry of Environment and Energy, 2000). Tea lights and other candles
containing metallic lead (Ministry of Environment and Energy 2000, appendix 2), are not to be imported
and sold in Denmark after March 1, 2001.
Since 1974 the use of lead-cored in wicks has been controlled in the United States by a voluntary
agreement by the candle manufacturers' association industry to discontinue the production and use of
lead-cored wicks. However, in a recent consumer survey, 9 of 285 (3%) candles had 33 to 85 weight
percentage lead in the wicks (Public Citizen, 2000). The present study does not include lead-containing
wicks as it represents far less candles.
2.1.5 Colorants
Colorants are usually organic synthetic substances which are soluble in wax. The colorants often belong
to the group of aniline colorants or organic pigments.
2.1.6 Fragrances
Fragrances added to candles (fragrance candles) are often manufactured from essential oils and extracts
from plants dissolved in an organic solvent etc.
Candles may have an external layer (coating, overdipping) of microparaffin with a little higher melting
point than the internal wax to reduce bending of the candle when exposed to sunlight and that the
candle “runs” (cf. section 2.4). The overdipping layer may include decorative varnishes or lacquers with
colours etc.
2.2 Suppliers of raw materials
2.2.1 Wax
Large-scale manufacturers of waxes on the Danish and the European market are mainly situated in
Germany, United Kingdom, and Hungary. Schümann Sasol in Hamburg is the absolutely largest European
manufacturer. Approx. 70% of the wax used in Denmark is manufactured at Schümann Sasol.
The manufacturers deliver waxes in different qualities and at different prices depending on the purpose.
12
2.2.2 Wicks
Three German manufacturers of wicks dominate the Danish market. WEDO (Westdeutsche Dochtfabrik
Gmbh) is the largest manufacturer and controls approx. 50% of the Danish market, Jannsen approx.
35%, and Henschke approx. 15%.
2.2.3 Colorants
Three manufacturers of colorants for waxes and candles, Goldmann, Bekro, and Kaiser, are German
companies. The companies deliver most of the colorants used in the production of candles in Denmark
and in the rest of Europe.
There are neither accreditation schemes nor it is prohibited to use colorants in candles. Some of the
manufacturers of colorants have therefore decided on using other standards in their own product
development, e.g. EN 71-3 and TSCA. In the European standard EN 71-3, limit values are given for
migration of metals from toys. The manufacturers use the standard to regulate the quantity of metals in
the colorants used for production of candles. TSCA, which covers the American legislation (US-EPA:
Toxic Substance Control Act), determines the quantity of certain substance in products imported into the
United States. The standard furthermore determines that classified colorants or azo-colorants are prohibited
in products imported into the United States.
2.2.4 Manufacturers
In Denmark the above-mentioned manufacturers are represented by three companies (cf. table 2.1).
Table 2.1
Distributors of raw materials for the production of candles
Company
Wax
Wicks
Waxmann
Schümann Sasol
Wedo
Mercantos
Hungarian and English Jannsen
companies
Dansk Voksfabrik
Schümann Sasol
Erich Henschke
Colorants
Goldmann
Bekro Chemie
Kaiser Lacke
Besides the mentioned manufacturers, a number of minor manufacturers in the rest of Europe as well
as manufacturers from the rest of the world e.g. the Far East exist.
2.3 Types of candles
Many different types of candles are represented on the Danish market. The candles are either produced
by moulding or dipping. The most important types are:
•
Tea lights made of paraffin wax are usually filled in a small aluminium cup. The candles are sold
in many different colours and fragrances may be added to some.
•
Taper candles can be made of paraffin, stearine or a mixture of the two waxes. The candles can
be manufactured by moulding or dipping and are available in many different colours. To some
types of candles fragrances are added and some candles may have metallic coating.
•
Pillars (column) candles can be made of paraffin, stearine or a mixture of the two waxes. The
candles are available in many different kinds of shapes. They are mainly moulded candles available
in many colours and fragrances may be added to some of them.
•
Taper candles can be made of paraffin, stearine or a mixture of the two waxes. The candles can
be manufactured by moulding or dipping and are available in many different colours.
•
Container candles can be made of paraffin, stearine, a mixture of the two or gelled mineral oil.
The wax is filled into a container of glass, ceramics or metal and are manufactured in many
different shapes. The products are available in different colours and fragrances may be added.
13
2.4 Visit at the foundry of candles Danlux
To get a glimpse of how candles are produced we paid a visit to managing director Kurt Hall
Jørgensen and manager Jens Lundsgaard, Danlux A/S in Helsingør, Denmark
Danlux has 30 employees and manufactures approx. 900 tonnes of candles per year. The candles are
made of paraffin, dipped by hand, fully dyed, and have an self-extinguish mechanism. The length of the
candles varies from 8 to 23 cm, and the thickness from 8 to 23 mm. The candles are manufactured in
all colours with a colour content of 0.2 to 0.5%. Almost the entire production is exported. It was
brought to Institute’s attention that IKEA is one of their main customers.
Their raw materials come from the following companies:
Wax:
Terhell-Paraffin 5803 with a melting point of 58°C and a residue content of oil at 0.34
%, from Schümann Sasol (Waxmann).
Wick:
Cotton wicks without heavy metals and impurities, from Erich Henschke (Dansk
Voksfabrik).
Glue:
Danafix glue (self-extinguisher) made of water-based polyvinylalcohol and polyvinyl acetate,
from Dana Lim.
Colorants:
Special colorants for candles, from Bekro Chemie (Mercantos). The colorants are tested
according to TSCA requirements and do not contain toxic substances.
These raw materials are not analysed in this report only if the raw materials is contained in the
analysed candles.
The candles are made on three semi-automatic machines, which feed various tanks with candles
depending on type and size. The paraffin is kept in containers outdoors at a temperature of approx.
75°C and is led through a closed pipe system to the machines.
The wicks are placed on a rack, which is primarily immersed into glue (self-extinguisher). Then the racks
are placed on a roundabout, which leads the wicks through four phases. Phase 1 is to attach/detach
and air-dry the wicks. Phase 2 is cooling (10-15°C) in tanks filled with water. Phase 3 is the wax tank
at approx. 100°C. In this tank, the length and cone of the candles (shape) are controlled. Phase 4 is
the wax tank at approx. 66 to 70°C. In this tank, paraffin is added. The candles go through the four
phases about 24 times before they are end products. To ensure that the candles do not bend when
exposed to heating (e.g. sunlight) the candles are finally immersed into a microwax with a high melting
point. After the completion the candles are removed from the machines and detached for cooling before
they are packed.
2.5 Production and consumption of candles in Denmark
It is difficult to get a general idea of the number of candles manufactured in Denmark as candles are
manufactured by companies that vary in size from less than five employees to some large companies
with about 140 employees. A part of the companies are represented in the Association of Danish
Manufacturers of Candles, which according to its list of members represent 21 companies in Denmark
(Vinter 2001).
There are no official figures on the production of candles in Denmark. However, according to Waxmann
(2001), who delivers approx. 70% of the wax used in Denmark, approx. 8,500 tonnes of candles are
manufactured in Denmark per year distributed with approx. 1,500 tonnes of stearine and approx. 7,000
tonnes of paraffin per year.
14
Import and export, year 2000
3,000
2,500
Tonnes
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
Jan.
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sept
Oct
Nov
Dec
Month
import
export
Figure 2.1
Import and export divided into months during year 2000. (DSt 2001)
The distribution of import and export in figure 2.1 clearly shows that the majority of the sale takes
place during the winter months. Especially during the autumn months till Christmas the import is large.
According to Statistics Denmark, approx. 18,000 tonnes of candles were imported and approx. 9,000
tonnes of candles were exported in year 2000 (cf. appendix A).
The consumption of candles in Denmark can be estimated according to the following formula:
Consumption = Production + Import - Export
The consumption is therefore: Production (8,500 tonnes) + Import (18,000 tonnes) – Export (9,000 tonnes)
= an annual consumption of approx. 17,500 tonnes of candles. If the Danish population is estimated to
be approx. 5 mill. inhabitants the Danish average consumption of candles is approx. 3.5 kg of candles
per person including all age groups.
2.5.1 Import and export
The import and export have been assessed according to information from Statistics Denmark (cf.
appendix A). According to Statistics Denmark the main importing countries are Germany, Sweden,
Hungary, and China (cf. table 2.2). The main exporting countries are Norway, Sweden, Germany, and
the United States (cf. table 2.3).
15
Table 2.2
Import countries of candles to Denmark
Country
Tonnes
Germany
3,674
Sweden
3,428
Hungary
3,090
China
2,529
Latvia
1,808
The Netherlands
1,538
Portugal
768
Poland
601
Total
17,446
%
20.4
19.0
17.1
14.0
10.0
8.5
4.3
3.3
96.6
Table 2.3
Export countries of candles from Denmark
Country
Tonnes
Norway
1,875
Sweden
1,385
Germany
1,356
United States
1,129
Finland
1,086
United Kingdom
703
Belgium
193
Poland
179
Total
8,013
%
21.6
15.9
15.6
13.0
12.5
8.1
2.2
2.1
91.0
The remaining values for the importing and exporting countries are in appendix A.
2.6 Types of candles sold in Denmark
A study has been made on which types of candles that are most frequently sold in the Danish retail.
The study includes information on how many tonnes of candles are sold, where are the candles
purchased and whether the manufacturers have been requested information on e.g. content of chemical
compound, sooting etc. The questionnaire that has been distributed has been prepared in consultation
with purchasing agents of candles from Dansk Supermarked and FDB.
The questionnaire has been sent to the following chains:
•
•
•
•
•
Dansk Supermarked including Bilka, Føtex, and Netto
FDB including Obs, Kvickly, Superbrugsen, Davli brugsen, and Fakta
SuperGros including Spar, SuperBest, ISO, Dreisler Storkøb, Rema 1000 Danmark, Løvbjerg
Supermarked, KC Storkøb, and a number of small dealers not organised in a chain
IKEA, 4 stores in Denmark
Jysk Sengetøjslager, 87 shops in Denmark
2.6.1 Replies
All the questionnaires were returned except the one sent to SuperGros. Based on the approach to the
trade it is estimated that the replies represent approx. 75% of the candles sold in Denmark.
In table 2.4 the result of the replies is shown. It has not been possible to get information from all
respondents on how many tonnes of candles they sell per year. The numbers are therefore not included
in the table. It has neither been possible to bring forward information from all the respondents on their
suppliers and the information is therefore left out of the study. In stead the evaluation of the replies is
based on a comparison of the replies and listed according to quantity of the type of candles and
ingredients. The quantity is presented according a scale from 1 to 5 where 1 is the largest and 5 is
the lowest quantity.
16
Table 2.4
Replies from the retail
Type
Paraffin
candles
Stearine
candles
Fragrance
candles
Tea lights
X
Taper candles
X
X
Hexagonal
X
X
candles
Taper
X
X
Container
X
Quantity (11
2
5)*
*: 1 is the highest and 5 is the lowest quantity
X
X
X
X
3
Candles
with
”Metal”
Gelled
mineral
oil
candles
1
2
3
X
4
Quantity
(1-5)*
X
5
4
5
Table 2.4 shows that tea lights are the most frequently sold candle type in Denmark and the container
candles are the less sold candle type. Besides, it is observed that candles made of paraffin are the
most frequently sold and gelled mineral oil candles the less sold type of wax.
The Danish retail requires different information from its suppliers. Table 2.5 describes the demands that
the each company typically makes when buying candles.
Table 2.5
Demands to the suppliers
Company
Demands on
Dansk
Label, warnings/advise, length, diameter, burning duration on the packing.
Supermarked
That the candles meet the current legislation in DK and EU, e.g. wicks
without lead.
Make their own evaluation of sooting and ability of burning.
FDB
Burning duration on the packing, no lead in the wicks.
Make their own evaluation of sooting, burning duration, height of flame, an
even burning of the candle and the tendency of wax to run, in their own
laboratory.
IKEA
Demands to know the ingredients in the product and information on sooting
and the flame based on a method developed by IKEA.
Jysk Sengetøjslager Have to meet the current legislation.
IKEA make the most severe demands as they require documentation on chemical ingredients in the
products, that the wick must burn properly and that the candles must not soot more than what IKEA's
stipulated requirements.
17
3 Analysis of selected candles
3.1 Selection of candles for chemical analysis
Danish Technological Institute and the Danish EPA have selected the six different types of candles for
chemical analysis. The criteria for the selection are that the types of candles e.g. candles made of
paraffin, stearine, gelled mineral oil and/or fragrance are represented. Furthermore, European and Far East
manufacturers should be included. Two of the selected candles have been manufactured in China.
Many types of candles are seasonal goods. As the candles for the present analysis were purchased
September 13, 2001 the variation in the supply of candles was rather limited. Candles for Christmas,
usually tapers and candles with “metallic” coating, are e.g. not put on the shelves in the shops at that
time of the year.
Formateret: Punktopstilling
3.2 Selected candles
Table 3.1 presents a list of the selected candles. It is noted where the candles have been purchased
and the information given on the packing.
Table 3.1
Typical information on the candle packing
Product name/type
Product information
White stearine candles 100% pure stearine, length, diameter, burning duration, advise and
warning. Information in Danish.
No information on manufacturer or sooting.
Blue spider web
100% pure stearine, length, burning duration, advise and warning.
candles
Information in Danish.
No information on manufacturer or sooting.
White tea lights
Burning duration, advise and warning. Information on
manufacturer. Information in Danish. RAL labelling. No information
on type of wax or sooting.
Gelled mineral oil
Gelled mineral oil candles. Information in Danish, but very
candles
incomprehensive.
No information on manufacturer, dimensions or sooting.
Fragrance candles
Hyacinth fragrance. Warning in Danish at the button.
No information on manufacturer, type of wax, dimensions, burning
duration or sooting
Taper candles with
Information on length, diameter, burning duration, advise and
gold coating
warning symbols and manufacturer.
No information on type of wax or sooting.
Generally the information on all the candles was present and usually placed on the packing or at the
button of the candle. As indicated in table 3.1, the labelling differs. Apparently, only on the stearine
candles information on type of wax is given. Information on manufacturer is only mentioned on a few
packing. Information on sooting was not mentioned on any of the packing.
Formateret: Punktopstilling
3.3 Physical data on the selected candles
The physical data on the selected candles, which have either been measured, analysed or placed on
the packing as an information, are shown in appendix C. Information of the companies is given in table
3.1.
Based on weight, length, and burning duration (cf. appendix B) calculations have been made on how
many cm and grams of wax and wicks, respectively, that are burnt per hour.
18
Table 3.2
Rate of combustion
Candle
White stearine candle
Blue spider web candle
White tea light
Gelled mineral oil
candle
Fragrance candle
Taper candle with gold
coating
Wax and Wick
cm/hour
2.5
0.6
0.4
0.5
Wax g/hour
Wick g/hour
9.3
9.9
3.3
2.8
0.07
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.3
5.5
3.9
2.2
0.01
0.04
The values indicate that between 9.3 and 9.9 gram pure stearine is consumed per hour (white stearine
candle and blue spider web candle) and between 3.3 and 3.9 gram pure paraffin per hour (white tea
light and fragrance candle), equivalent to approx. 2.7 times more stearine than paraffin is burnt per hour.
Thus, the rate of burning is largest using white stearine candle and blue spider web candles, and at
the same time most wax is burnt.
Formateret: Punktopstilling
3.4 Chemical analysis on the selected candles
As no sufficient information on chemical compounds of the candles is given on the packing, chemical
analyses have been made on the selected candles. The following analyses have been made:
•
Determination of melting and solidification temperatures (peak temperatures) at thermal analyses, DSC
(Differential Scanning Calorimetry), and analyses for general chemical composition by infrared
spectroscopic analyses, FTIR (Fourier Transformation Infrared Spectrometry). The analyses gives an
indication of the type of wax used for the candle and whether the wax consists of several
components.
•
Determination of organic chemical evaporation from the candles by Headspeace/GC-MS (Gas
Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry) analyses at 45°C. The analyses gives an indication of the
organic compounds that are emitted from the product which may cause smell/odour.
•
Determination of selected heavy metals in the wax and the wick. The analyses is made by using
FI-ICP-MS (Flow Injection Inductively Coulped Plasma Mass Spectrometry). The analyses indicates
whether there is a content of heavy metals e.g. lead, tin, zinc, copper etc. in the wax or wick.
Formateret: Punktopstilling
3.5 Types of wax
The test method from the analyses on the general chemical composition and the melting and
solidification point (noted as peak value) are shown in the appendix C. The main results are shown in
table 3.3.
Table 3.3
The melting and solidification point of different types of wax
Candle
Content
Melting point °C
White stearine
candle
Blue spider web
candles
Stearine (stearic acid +
palmitic acid)
Stearine(stearic acid +
palmitic acid)
White tea lights
Paraffin (crystalline aliphatic
hydrocarbons)
Amorphous aliphatic
hydrocarbons
Gelled mineral oil
candles
58
Solidification point
°C
52
57
48
34
54
Cannot be
determined
25
45
Cannot be
determined
19
Fragrance candles
Taper candles with
gold coating
Paraffin (crystalline aliphatic
hydrocarbons)
Paraffin (crystalline aliphatic
hydrocarbons) + an organic
acid
42
60
49 (acid)
59 (paraffin)
35
52
28
51
The wax of the white stearine candle and the blue spider web candles is characterised as stearine
which is a mixture of stearic acid and palmitic acid.
The wax of the white tea lights is characterised as paraffin which is crystalline aliphatic hydrocarbons.
The paraffin has two melting points which indicates that it is probably a mixture of C18 hydrocarbons
and C28 hydrocarbons.
The gelled mineral oil candles contain of amorphous aliphatic hydrocarbons. As it is a amorphous
substance it has no melting or solidification point.
The fragrance candles are made of paraffin which is crystalline aliphatic hydrocarbons. The wax has two
melting points which indicates that it is probably a mixture of C22 hydrocarbons and C28 hydrocarbons in
the proportion of approx. 1-5.5.
The wax of the taper candles with gold coating is characterised as paraffin which is crystalline aliphatic
hydrocarbons mixed with a small quantity of organic acid. The proportion between acid and paraffin is
approx. 1-25. The gold pigment is characterised as a type of alkyd-like varnish.
3.6 Headspace analyses of the candles
The candles are placed in a rilsan (polyamide plastic) bags and heated in an oven for 2 hours at
45°C. A gas sample is taken from the bag and analysed by GC-MS. The method indicates which types
of organic compounds are released from the candles and their relative distribution.
The released compounds from the candles are shown in tables 3.4-3.8.The percentage indicates approx.
the distribution between the compounds that have been detected. The analysis methods of the
measurements are shown in appendix D.
Table 3.4
Headspace analyses
White stearine candle
1
Acetone
2
Pentanal
3
Hexanal
4
6-Methyl-2heptanon
%
33
16
16
33
The compounds are probably caused by impurities in the stearine.
Table 3.5
Headspace analyses
Blue spider web candles
1
Pentanal
2
Hexanal
%
50
50
The compounds are probably caused by impurities in the stearine.
White tea lights: No volatile evaporations have been detected in the tested tea lights.
Table 3.6
Headspace analyses
Gelled mineral oil candles
1
Xylene, ethylbenzene
20
%
15 – 20
2
C11 – C14 aliphatic hydrocarbons
80 - 85
The compounds are caused by the evaporations from the gelled mineral oil.
Table 3.7
Headspace analyses
Fragrance candles
1
Toluene’
2
Xylene’
3
D-Limonene
4
3,7-Dimethyl-1,6-octadien-3-ol
5
Phenylethyl alcohol
6
Limonene
7
Acetic phenylmethyl ester’
8
Cyclohexanol,2-methyl-5(1methylethyl)-acetate
9
3-cyclohexene-1-methanol,α-,α,4trimethyl
10
β-Mycine
11
4-Carene
%
7
3.5
12.2
12.2
10.5
5.3
10.5
3.5
14
7
7
The substances no 3, 4, 6, 10, and 11 are known fragrances and have been added to the candles as
fragrance. The other compounds are probably impurities in the wax.
Table 3.8
Headspace analyses
Taper candles with gold coating
1
C9 – C11 aliphatic/aromatic
hydrocarbons
Area %
100
Only aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons were detected as evaporation from the wax in taper candles.
Formateret: Punktopstilling
3.7 Subjective assessment of the smell from the candles
A subjective assessment of the smell from the candles have been made that is the smell liberated from
the wax. The results of the assessment are shown in table 3.9.
Table 3.9
Smell
Candles
White stearine candles
Blue spider web candles
White tea lights
Gelled mineral oil candles
Fragrance candles
Taper candles with gold coating
Smell
Stearine-like
Stearine-like
Light oily
Light hydrocarbonlike
Strong perfume-like
Oily
All the candles emitted a smell which indicated the basic ingredients of the products. The smell of
stearine was recognisable and the candles of paraffin varied in their oily smell. The fragrance candles
emitted a strong smell of perfume.
Formateret: Punktopstilling
3.8 Heavy metals
A quantitative determination of 12 different heavy metals in the waxes and the wicks of the candles has
been made. The metals, for which the candles have been analysed, are the most common and
potentially problematic metals. The 12 metals are: arsenic (As), silver (Ag), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr),
copper (Cu), mercury (Hg), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), antimony (Sb), tin (Sn), thallium (Tl), and zinc (Zn). In
21
tables 3.10-3.15 the detected metals and the quantities in the waxes and wicks, respectively, are
mentioned. If the concentrations are below the detection limit, the compounds are not mentioned.
Detection limit is from 0.005 μg/g to 0.05 μg/g, depending on the metal in question.
Based on the physical data in section 3.3 the maximum theoretical possible emissions (source strength)
from the candles are calculated as follows (tables 3.10-3.15):
Source strength ( µg / h) =
Weight of wicks( g )
Weight of wax ( g )
× Cm wax +
× Cm wicks
Burning duration (h)
Burning duration ( h)
where Cm indicates the measured content of metal in the wax and wick, respectively.
Table 3.10
Content of heavy metals and the theoretical maximum emission (source strength)
White stearine
Content in wax Content in wicks Source strength
candle
μg/g
μg/g
μg/h
Copper, Cu
0.44
1.0
4.1
Nickel, Ni
0.17
<0.3
1.6
Lead, Pb
0.051
<0.2
0.5
Zinc, Zn
0.069
7.1
0.9
Table 3.11
Content of heavy metals and the theoretical maximum emission (source strength)
Blue spider web
Content in wax Content in wicks Source strength
candles
μg/g
μg/g
μg/h
Chromium, Cr
0.15
<0.2
1.5
Copper, Cu
2.2
1.4
2.2
Nickel, Ni
0.28
<0.3
2.8
Lead, Pb
0.11
0.9
1.1
Zinc, Zn
2.0
12.7
20
Table 3.12
Content of heavy metals and the theoretical maximum emission (source strength)
White tea lights
Content in wax Content in wicks Source strength
μg/g
μg/g
μg/h
Copper, Cu
0.50
0.45
1.7
Nickel, Ni
0.16
<0.3
0.5
Lead, Pb
0.040
<0.2
0.1
Zinc, Zn
0.40
5.3
1.4
Table 3.13
Content of heavy metals and the theoretical maximum emission (source strength)
Gelled mineral
Content in wax Content in wicks Source strength
oil candles
μg/g
μg/g
μg/h
Chromium, Cr
0.0 38
<0.2
0.1
Copper, Cu
0.57
1.6
1.6
Nickel, Ni
0.20
<0.3
0.6
Lead, Pb
0.063
0.37
0.2
Zinc, Zn
0.89
44
3.4
Table: 3.14
Content of heavy metals and the theoretical maximum emission (source strength)
Fragrance
Content in wax Content in wicks Source strength
candles
μg/g
μg/g
μg/h
Chromium, Cr
0.22
0.52
0.9
Copper, Cu
0.87
3.8
3.4
Nickel, Ni
0.16
<0.3
0.6
Lead, Pb
0.045
2.3
0.2
Antimony, Sb
<0.03
3.5
--Tin, Sn
0.46
21
1.8
Zinc, Zn
0.48
28
1.9
22
Table 3.15
Content of heavy metals and the theoretical maximum emission (source strength)
Taper candles
Content in wax Content in wicks Source strength
with gold coating
μg/g
μg/g
μg/h
Copper, Cu
2.2
3.1
12
Nickel, Ni
0.21
<0.3
1.2
Lead, Pb
0.034
<0.2
0.2
Zinc, Zn
0.71
8.4
4.2
Small quantities of copper, nickel, lead, and zinc have been detected in all the analyses. In the
fragrance candles, chromium, tin, and antimony have also been detected and in the blue spider web
candles and in gelled mineral oil candles chromium has been detected, too. The metals are either
caused by impurities in the colorants or in the wicks. Another reason may be that the metals have
been added to the wicks for burning control reasons. The concentration of metals is consequently higher
in the wick than in the wax. A possible reason for detecting metals in the wax is that trace residues
from in the parent crude oil have remained in the oil during the refining process.
An assessment of the measured concentrations and an estimation of the indoor concentrations are
described in chapter 5.
23
24
4 Analyses of the pollution when
burning candles
When burning candles particulate and gaseous pollutants are developed. When burning of organic
materials is in question, several different kinds of chemical compounds may be developed in the process.
The chemical ingredients in the used wax may transform into other chemical substances when they are
burnt and furthermore particles of fumes may develop.
Formateret: Punktopstilling
4.1 Measuring programme
To measure the extent of pollution that a burning candle causes, the candles have been tested in a
laboratory.
The candles are placed under a funnel. Aerosols and gasses from the candles are sucked through
various filters, which have been placed in the test set-up. The set-up is shown in appendix E.
The following tests and analyses have been made on the selected candles:
1.
Measurement of total aerosols by sampling the particles on a glass fibre filter mrk. Watman GF/F.
The quantity of aerosols is weighed and the aerosols are analysed for content of poly-aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAH) by GC-MS.
2.
Measurement of gaseous PAH compounds by sampling the compounds at a XAD2 filter and then
analysing it by GC-MS.
3.
Measurement of VOC's by sampling the active carbon on a filter and then analysing it by GC-MS.
4.
Measurement of aldehydes by sampling the aldehydes on silicagel filter impregnated with 2,4dinitrophenylhydrazine (DNPH) and then analysing it by HPLC.
No measurements of emission of heavy metals from the burning candles have been made.
Before the candles are placed in the test set-up they have been lighted for one hour to ensure a
regular burning of the candles.
The candles are weighed before they are placed in the test set-up. The test period is approx. two
hours.
4.2 Analytical results
Analytical methods for testing the emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOC) and PAH from the
tested candles are described in appendix F.
Based on the test results, which have been corrected for background pollution in the test room, the
emission (source strength) has been calculated for total aerosol, total PAH and total VOC (cf. appendix
G). Furthermore burnt weight of candles/hour are mentioned in the appendix.
A summary of the test results on the emissions of organic substances and soot from the tested candles
are mentioned in tables 4.1-4.6.
Table 4.1
White stearine candle
Emission
Gram candle
burnt/h
Aerosol
Emission, μg/h
1,278
Emission
μg/g candle
139
Soot value
scale 0 – 9
6
25
PAH
VOC
Gram
candle/hour
Comments:
3
2,846
9.2
No PAH in the aerosols. The VOC’s are high-boiling hydrocarbons (C16 - C28) and
phthalates. The PAH compounds found in the test are: Acenaphtylene, fluorene,
phenanthrene, and anthracene.
Table 4.2
Blue spider web candles
Emission
Gram candle
burnt/h
Aerosol
PAH
VOC
Gram
5.7
candle/hour
Comments:
Aerosol
PAH
VOC
Gram
candle/hour
Gram candle
burnt/h
Soot value
scale 0 – 9
45
0.10
0.4
0
Emission, μg/h
Emission
μg/g candle
Soot value
scale 0 – 9
61
0.02
1
0
No soot. No PAH in the soot. The PAH compounds found in the test are:
Phenanthrene and anthracene.
Gram candle
burnt/h
Emission, μg/h
497
0.12
591
Emission
μg/g candle
127
0.03
151
Soot value
scale 0 – 9
1
3.7
Low soot value. No PAH in the soot. The VOC compounds found in the test are:
Terpene, benzenethanol, acetic acid phenylmethylester, and phthalates. The PAH
compounds found in the test are: Phenanthrene and anthracene.
Table 4.5
Gelled mineral oil candles
Emission
Gram candle
burnt/h
Aerosol
PAH
VOC
Gram
2.6
candle/hour
Emission, μg/h
232
0.22
7,387
Emission
μg/g candle
Soot value
scale 0 – 9
90
0.09
2,863
Very high soot value. No PAH in the soot. Large quantities of the following VOC
compounds found in the test are: C12– C28 hydrocarbones. Small quantities of the
following VOC compounds found in the test are: Benzene (13 μg/hour), toluene
and xylene. The PAH compounds found in the test are: Phenanthrene and
anthracene.
Table 4.6
Taper candles with gold coating, Paraffin
26
Emission
μg/g candle
3.0
Table 4.4
Fragrance candles
Emission
Comments:
253
0.58
2
184
0.05
2
Comments:
Comments:
Emission, μg/h
No soot. No PAH in the soot. The PAH compounds found in the test are: Fluorene,
phenanthrene, and anthracene.
Table: 4.3:
White tea lights
Emission
Aerosol
PAH
VOC
Gram
candle/hour
0.3
309
9
Emission
Aerosol
PAH
VOC
Gram
candle/hour
Comments:
Gram candle
burnt/h
Emission, μg/h
831
1.18
61
Emission
μg/g candle
117
0.17
9
Soot value
scale 0 – 9
6
7.1
High soot value. No PAH in the soot. The VOC compounds found in the test are
phthalates. The PAH compounds found in the test are: Phenanthrene and
anthracene.
An assessment of the detected concentrations and an estimation of the indoor concentrations are
described in chapter 5.
27
28
0,30
0,25
voc
0,20
0,15
0,10
Aerosol
0,05
0,00
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Hours
5 Assessments and conclusions
5.1 Test model
For assessment of the indoor concentration that may occur in a room where candles are burning, a
simple theoretical box model can be used. A room of a known size and air exchange is used for the
test.
In the present study, the following preconditions have been observed in the calculations:
Room size:
Air change:
20 m3
0.5 times/hour
Furthermore, it is assumed that only one candle is burnt in the room and that the air in the room is
completely mixed with clean air. Figure 5.1 is a sketch of the test model.
A room at 20 m3
10 m3/hour fresh air
Figure 5.1
Box model
When a candle burns the concentration of the pollution will gradually increase until an equilibrium
concentration is reached, typically after some hours. Thus when just as large quantities of pollution from
the burning candles equal the air renewed in the room. This condition is shown in figure 5.2.
Figure 5.2
29
Theoretical development of the air concentration of aerosols and VOC’s room on 20 m3 with an air
change of 0.5 times/hour as defined in the text
5.2 Heavy metals in candles
Before burning the candles they were analysed and small quantities of copper, nickel, lead, and zinc
were found in candles in all the tests. In the fragrance candles, tin and antimony were detected, too.
The reason for metals in the candles is either because of impurities in the wax colorants or wicks or
they may be added to the candles.
An assessment of whether the metals may cause a health problem, when burning the candles, will
especially depend on the melting point and the toxicity of the metals. However, there are no limit values
for indoor pollution for non-occupational exposure. For assessment of the toxicity, the limit values of
National Working Environment Authority (NWEA) have therefore been chosen as reference values. As an
acceptable quality criteria (accept limit) 1/100 of NWEA limit value has been used.
In table 5.1 the melting point of the metals are shown (Rasmussen 1971) as well as the limit values
of National Working Environment Authority (Arbejdstilsynet 2000).
Table 5.1
Melting point and limit values of heavy metals
Compound Melting point
Limit value μg/m3
°C
Cu
1,083
1,000
Cr
1,615
500
Ni
1,450
50
Pb
327
50
Sb
630
500
Sn
232
2,000
Zn
419
4,000
Accept limit, μg/m3
10
5
0.5
0.5
5
20
40
It is estimated that metals with a melting point lower than 700°C may be emitted from the candles
when they are burning. The metals that may be emitted to the air are lead, antimony, tin, and zinc.
Metals with a higher melting point than 700 ºC are estimated to remain in the candles as ashes or will
be a part of aerosols emitted to the indoor air.
If the box model is used as described in section 5.1 to estimate the maximum average concentration
that will occur in a room when burning one candle, the following concentrations are estimated. The
concentrations are listed in table 5.2.
Table 5.2
Concentration of heavy metals in a room, where one candle is burnt. The calculated values include
that all metals are released to the air
Tin
Zinc
Antimony
Copper Chromium Nickel
Candle
Lead
μg/m3
μg/m3
μg/m3
μg/m3
μg/m3
μg/m3
μg/m3
White stearine candles
0.05
0.09
n.d.
n.d.
0.4
n.d.
0.16
Blue spider web candles
0.11
2
n.d.
n.d.
2.2
0.15
0.28
White tea lights
0.01
0.14
n.d.
n.d.
0.17
n.d.
0.05
Fragrance candles
0.02
0.22
0.004
0.2
0.34
0.09
0.06
Gelled mineral oil candles
0.02
0.34
n.d.
n.d.
0.16
0.01
0.06
Taper candles with gold coating
0.02
0.42
n.d.
n.d.
0.12
n.d.
0.12
Accept limit
0.5
40
5
20
10
5
0.5
n.d.: Not detected.
Based on table 5.2, calculations have been made on how may candles can be burnt in a room before
the accept limit is exceeded. The result is shown in table 5.3.
Table 5.3
30
The number of candles that can be burnt in the standard room before exceeding the accept limit
(critical load)
Zinc Nickel
Candle
Lead
White stearine candles
10
444
3
Blue spider web candles
5
20
2
White tea lights
50
286
10
Fragrance candles
25
118
9
Gelled mineral oil candles
25
182
9
Taper candles with gold coating
25
95
4
As shown in table 5.2 the accept limit (1/100 of the limit values of NWEA) when burning only one
candle is not exceeded by any of the metals. According to table 5.3 about five blue spider web
candles have to be burning to exceed the accept limit for lead, but only two blue spider web candles
to exceed the accept limit for nickel. More than five candles have to be burning to exceed the accept
limit for the rest of the metals. It should be noted that the calculated values include that all types of
metal are released to the air either by evaporation or as an aerosol.
Formateret: Punktopstilling
5.3 Organic substances from the burning tests
When assessing the health risks of the organic compounds released from burning candles, the limit
values of NWEA have also been chosen as basic values. As the accept limit 1/100 of the limit value
for working environment has been used.
Paraffin fumes are used as limit value for aerosols and solvent naphtha is used as limit value for VOC.
Polyaromatic hydrocarbons are used as limit value for PAH, which is mentioned in the list on limit
values for particular pollution. The detected PAH pollution in connection with burning candles is gaseous.
In table 5.4 the above-mentioned limit values of National Working Environment Authority are shown.
Table 5.4
Limit values for organic substances (Arbejdstilsynet 2000)
Substance
Limit value, mg/m3
Paraffin fumes
2
Solvent naphtha
145
PAH
0.2
By way of comparison it may be mentioned that in tests of the indoor climate Danish Technological
Institute typically observes aerosols and VOC in the concentrations shown in table 5.5.
Table 5.5
Typical indoor concentrations of aerosols and organic substances
Parameter
Concentration, μg/m3
Aerosol
50 - 100
VOC
100 - 200
When estimating the pollution that will occur in a room where one candle is burning, it is possible to
use the described theoretical box model mentioned in section 5.1.
If the emissions from each tested candles are estimated using the model the average concentrations in
the standard room will increase gradually until a equilibrium level has been reached (table 4.1-4.6) and
the equilibrium value will be as described in table 5.6 (the calculations are shown in appendix G).
Table 5.6
Concentration of organic substances in a room where one candle is burnt
VOC concentration
Candle
Aerosol
concentration
μg/m3
μg/m3
Accept limit
20
1,450
PAH-concentration
μg/m3
2
31
White stearine candles
Blue spider web candles
White tea lights
Fragrance candles
Gelled mineral oil candles
Taper candles with gold coating
125
25
18
49
23
82
279
0.2
0.2
58
725
6
0.3
0.1
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.1
As shown in table 5.6, it takes only one candle to exceed the accept limit for aerosols (1/100 of the
limit values of NWEA) for several of the types of candles. It takes several candles to exceed the
accept limit for VOC, while it takes a lot of candles at to exceed the accept limit for PAH.
32
6 References
Andersson, Jan (2001): Personal communication with the laboratory manager at IKEA, Älmshult, Sweden
Arbejdstilsynet (2000): At-vejledning C.0.1, oktober 2000. Grænseværdier for stoffer og materialer.
Arbejdstilsynet, København (National working Environment Authority: Limit values for substances and
materials, October 2000) In Danish.
Dansk Supermarked (2001): Personal communication with Charlotte M Saxosen.
DSt 2001: Statistics Denmark, København. Data from Statistics Denmark's database "Databanken"
(www.databanken.dk), september 2001.
EN 71-3: Europæisk standard med grænseværdier for emissioner fra legetøj (www.cenorm.be).
FDB (2001): Personal communication with Helle Husted, Forenede Danske Brugsforeninger.
Mercantos (2001): Personal communication with Henrik Thomsen, Mercantos.
Ministry of Environment and Energy (2000). Statutory order no. 1012 of November 13, 2000, on
prohibition of import and marketing of products containing lead. Danish Environmental Protection Agency,
Copenhagen).
Public Citizen (2000): Letter to Ann Brown, Chairperson US Consumer Product Safety Commission,
Washington. February 24, 2000. pp 1-29. Annex to petition HP 00-03 under the Federal Hazard
Substance Act requesting a ban of candle wicks containing lead and of candles containing such wicks
(www.cpsc.gov).
RAL: German quality labelling of candles. RAL Deutsches Institut für Gütesicherung und Kennzeichnung
e.V. Internet address: www.kerzenguete.com
Rasmussen OV (1971): Kemiske og fysiske tabeller. Gyldendal, København.
Schwind K-H, Hosseinpour J, Fiedler H, Lau C, Hutzinger O (1994): Bestimmung und Bewertung der
Emissionen von PCDD/PCDF, PAK und kurtzkettigen Aldehyden in den Brandgasen von kerzen USWF. Z.
Umweltchem. Ökotox. 6: 243-246.
Vinter, Bjarne (2001): Personal communication with the chairman of Foreningen af Danske
Lysproducenter.
Waxman (2001): Personal communication with Lars Petersen, the company Waxman in Vordingborg,
Denmark.
Willhöft F, Horn R (1986): Candles. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Vol A5: 29-30.
Wolfmeier U, Schmidt H, Heinrich F-L, Michalczyk G, Payer W, Dietsche W, Hohner G,Wildgruber J
(1986): Waxes. Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Vol A28: 103-163.
Ökometric (1995); Untersuchung von Kerzenfarben und Kerzentauchlacken sowie Untersuchung der
Brandgase von Gefärbten und/oder lackierten Kerzen auf toxicologisch besonders relevante
Schadstoffklassen. Ergebnisbericht für Verband Deutscher Kerzenhersteller e.V. Frankfurt am Main.
Ökometric Gmbh. Bayreuther Institut für Umweltforschung, Bayreuth, Tyskland.
33
Appendix A Import and export,
2000
Import and export countries registered by Statistics Denmark as stearine, paraffin and wax candles
(DSt 2001)
Country
Import
Export
kg
%
kg
%
Australia
0
14,684
0.17%
Austria
3,640
0.02%
18,050
0.21%
Belgium
8,866
0.05%
193,950
2.23%
Canada
0
124,218
1.43%
China
2,529,876
14.01%
0
Egypt
0
7,735
0.09%
Estonia
3,440
0.02%
1,501
0.02%
Finland
63,199
0.35%
1,085,943
12.50%
France, Monaco
644
0.004%
96,434
1.11%
Germany
3,674,051
20.35%
1,355,899
15.60%
Greece
0
9,032
0.10%
Greenland
0
123,781
1.42%
Hungary
3,090,350
17.12%
46,159
0.53%
Iceland
0
114,480
1.32%
India
905
0.005%
0
Ireland
0
29,775
0.34%
Israel
595
0.003%
0
Italy
39
<0.01%
57,856
0.67%
Japan
0
22,772
0.26%
Latvia
1,808,038
10.01%
4,404
0.05%
Lithuania
28,250
0.16%
0
Luxembourg
1
<0.01%
1,977
0.02%
Malta
0
1,760
0.02%
Mexico
16,454
0.09%
0
The Netherlands
1,538,256
8.52%
26,939
0.31%
Norway
387,689
2.15%
1,874,685
21.58%
Poland
601,490
3.33%
179,222
2.06%
Portugal
768,776
4.26%
9,914
0.11%
Spain
0
52,522
0.60%
Sweden
3,428,181
18.99%
1,385,294
15.94%
Taiwan
2,520
0.01%
2,625
0.03%
Turkey
0
15,122
0.17%
UK
80,276
0.44%
703,301
8.09%
USA
20,154
0.11%
1,129,074
12.99%
Total
34
18,055,690
100%
8,689,108
100%
Appendix B Physical data on the
selected candles
Table B.1:
Type of candle: White stearine candle
Parameter
Wax
Colour
Length
Diameter
Burning duration
Weight
Value
100% pure stearine
White
20 cm
2.3 cm
8 hours
74.6 gram
Lenght of wick
21 cm
Weight of wick*
approx. 0.56 g
Wick material
Cotton
Shape of the wick
Flat
Calculation of wax and wicks
Value
Wax
9.3 gram/hour
Wax
2.5 cm/hour
Wicks
0.07 gram/hour
Wicks
2.5 cm/thour
*
The wick has been taken out of the candle and does therefore contain residues of wax.
Table B.2:
Type of candle: Blue spider web candles
Parameter
Wax
Colour
Length
Diameter
Burning duration
Weight
Value
100% pure stearine
Delft blue
15 cm
4.5 cm (hexagon)
25 hours
247.2 gram
Lenght of wick
16 cm
Weight of wick*
approx. 0.36 g
Wick material
Cotton
Shape of the wick
Flat
Calculation of wax and wicks
Value
Wax
9.9 gram/hour
Wax
0.6 cm/hour
Wicks
0.01 gram/hour
Wicks
0.6 cm/hour
*
The wick has been taken out of the candle and does therefore contain residues of wax.
35
Table B.3:
Type of candle.: White tea lights
Parameter
Wax
Colour
Length
Diameter
Burning duration
Weight
Value
Paraffin
White
1.5 cm
3.8 cm
4 hours
13.2 gram
Length of wick
2.5 cm
Weight of wick*
approx. 0.07 g
Wick material
Cotton
Shape of the wick
Round
Calculation of wax and wicks
Value
Wax
3.3 gram/hour
Wax
0.4 cm/hour
Wicks
0.02 gram/hour
Wicks
0.4 cm/hour
*
The wick has been taken out of the candle and does therefore contain residues of wax.
Table B.4:
Type of candle.: Gelled mineral oil candles in glass jar
Parameter
Value
Wax
Gelled mineral oil
Colour
Delft blue
Length
4 cm
Diameter
5 x 5 cm
Burning duration
No hours men tioned (approx. 19 hours)
Weight
50.5 gram
Length of wick
5 cm
Weight of wick*
ca. 0.17 g
Wick material
Cotton
Shape of the wick
Round
Calculation of wax and wicks
Value
Wax
2.8 gram/hour
Wax
0.4 cm/hour
Wicks
0.02 gram/hour
Wicks
0.5 cm/hour
*
The wick has been taken out of the candle and does therefore contain residues of wax.
36
Table B.5:
Type of candle: Fragrance candle
Parameter
Wax
Colour
Length
Diameter
Burning duration
Weight
Value
Paraffin
Light blue
4 cm
5.6 cm
No hours mentioned (approx. 17 hours)
Approx. 67 gram
Length of wick
5 cm
Weight of wick*
approx. 0.15 g
Wick material
Cotton
Shape of the wick
Flat
Calculation of wax and wicks
Value
Wax
3,9 gram/hour
Wax
0,2 cm/hour
Wicks
0,01 gram/hour
Wicks
0,3 cm/hour
*
The wick has been taken out of the candle and does therefore contain residues of wax.
Table B.6:
Type of candle: Taper candle with gold coating
Parameter
Value
Wax
Paraffin
Colour
Gold
Length
24 cm
Diameter
2.4 cm
Burning duration
11 hour
Weight
60.3 gram
Length of wick
25 cm
Weight of wick*
approx. 0.4 g
Wick material
Cotton
Shape of the wick
Flat
Calculation of wax and wicks
Value
Wax
5.5 gram/hour
Wax
2.2 cm/hour
Wicks
0.04 gram/hour
Wicks
2.3 cm/hour
*
The wick has been taken out of the candle and does therefore contain residues of wax.
37
Appendix C Chemical composition
Analyses of candles
The analyses carried out have included determination of melting and solidification temperatures, peak
temperatures at thermal analysis, DSC, and infrared spectroscopic analysis, FTIR, in order to
evaluate the overall chemical composition.
The DSC analysis has been carried out on the following conditions:
Heating: 0°C to 80°C at a rate of 10°C pr. min
Cooling: 80°C to 0°C at a rate of 10°C pr. min
Atmosphere: nitrogen
Amount of test material: approx. 6 mg
The FTIR analysis has been carried out on the following conditions:
Test preparation: Grinding with KBr and pressing of tablets for analysis.
The above-mentioned analyses have been carried out on the following candles.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
38
White stearine candle
Blue spider web candle
White tea light
Gelled mineral oil candle
Fragrance candle
Taper candle with gold coating
Appendix D Metal and volatile
compounds
Test methods
The samples were received in rilsan bags.
Determination of volatile organic components in wax and wicks
The tests have been transferred to rilsan bags. The test quantity is mentioned on the second page in
appendix E. The tests have been heated till 45°C for two hours. A gas sample (0.5 ml) which have
been analysed by capillar gaschromatografy combined with a mass spectrometry.
Based on the actual mass spectra found in a library database search the components have been
identified (NIST 98).
Determination of heavy metals in wax and wicks
Wax
2 g wax was extracted with 7 M HNO3 (sub-boiling quality) at 125ºC in 1 hour in acid cleaned glass
digestion vessels. After cooling the samples were filtered and quantitatively transferred to PE sample
containers using Milli-Q plus water. The resulting acid strength were 2.8 M. Preparations were performed
in duplicate also 2 blind samples were prepared.
Wicks
0.5 g wick was digested with HNO3 (sub-boiling quality) in teflon vessels in the microwave oven. After
cooling the samples were filtered and quantitatively transferred to PE sample containers using Milli-Q plus
water. The resulting acid strength were 2.8 M. Preparations were performed in duplicate also 2 blind
samples were prepared.
Analysis
All samples were analysed by FI-ICP-MS (Flow Injection Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry)
on the Elan 5000, internal standards were used.
Uncertainty
The uncertainty of the determinations are estimated by experience to be about or less than 10% at
concentration levels higher than 5 times DL. The results listed are the mean of the two determinations.
39
Appendix E Test set-up
Pumps and flow
metre
Absorption tube
Gas meter and
pump
Filter
Glas funnel
Figure: E.1
Aerosols are collected on a 47 mm glass fibre filter id. Whatman GF/F. Before hand, the filters have
been heated in an oven for two hours at 200°C, conditioned at 23°C and 50 RH% for 12 hours,
before they have been weighed. After being exposed the filters have been conditioned in at least 12
hours by 23°C and 50 RH% before they have been weighed.
The filter is placed in a special holder which is connected to a reciprotor pump connected to a gas
meter to measure the air volume.
Gaseous PAH compounds are sampled on XAD2 filters id. Supelco Orbo 43. The PAH compounds are
samples in an air part-stream after the filter at a flow of 1.5 l/min. by using a constant flow pump kr.
SKC.
Aldehydes are sampled at silicagel filters impregnated with 2,4 DNPH id. Supelco LPDNPH S10. The
aldehydes are sampled in an air part-stream after the filter at a flow of 1.5 l/min. by using a constant
flow pump kr. SKC.
VOC´s are sampled at carbon filters id. SKC 266-09. The VOC’s are sampled in an air part-stream
after the filter at a flow of 1.5 l/min. by using a constant flow pump kr. SKC.
40
Appendix F Aerosol, PAH, and VOC
Methods
The samples were received in rilsan bags.
Determination of organic components on GFF-filters
The filters were extracted with 2.5 ml dichloromethane added deuterium-marked internal standards (approx.
2 μg/ml naphthalene-d8, phenantrene-d10, pyrene-d10, chrysene-d12, benz(a)pyrene-d12) by mechanical shaking
for 1 hour.
The extracts were analysed by capillary gaschromatografy combined with mass spectrometry (GC-MS-scan
mode).
For the analysis of selected PAH's the extracts were analysed in SIM-mode where the ions characteristic
for PAH's and the internal standards were monitored.
Blind filters were analysed in the same way as the test filters.
Determination of organic components on ORBO-filters
Head- and control sections were extracted separately with 1.0 ml dichloromethane added deuterium-marked
internal standards (approx. 2 μg/ml naphthalene-d8, phenantrene-d10, pyrene-d10, chrysene-d12, benz(a)pyrened12) by mechanical shaking for 1 hour.
The extracts were analysed by capillary gaschromatografy combined with mass spectrometry (GC-MS-scan
mode).
For the analysis of selected PAH's the extracts were analysed in SIM-mode where the ions characteristic
for PAH's and the internal standards were monitored.
Blind filters were analysed in the same way as the test filters.
Determination of organic components on carbon filters
Head- and control sections were extracted separately with 2.0 ml carbondisulfide added deuterium-marked
internal standards (approx. 1 μg/ml benzene-d6, toluene-d8, xylene-d10, chloroform-d1, trichlorethylene-d1 and
approx. 20 μg/ml octane-d18) by mechanical shaking for 1 hour.
The extracts were analysed by capillary gaschromatografy combined with mass spectrometry (GC-MS-scan
mode).
Blind filters were analysed in the same way as the test filters.
41
Appendix G Emission, calculations
Candle id.
White stearine candle
Date:
21-nov.
2001
Background
Carbon
DNPH
Filter no.
497
496
Liter air
396
436
File no.:
50115528
Air stream 1
Carbon
DNPH
635
634
130
130
Concentration
Candlebackground
ug/m3
23
Air stream
XAD2 Orbo43
Phthalates
CARBON
Benzene
Toluene
Xylenes, ethylbenzene
Trimethylbenzenes
Total hydrocarbons
Terpenes
Benzenethanol
Acetic acid
phenylmethylester
Phthalates
Sum VOC on carbon
DNPH
Formaldehyde
Acetaldehyde
Acrolein
Propanal
Acetone
Butanal
Pentanal
Hexanal
Benzaldehyde
Sum Aldehydes
SUM VOC
Backgroun Air volume
d
ug
liter
Concentration
ug/m
0.37
1.2
1.9
0.82
<5
3
<0.2
<0.2
396
396
396
396
396
396
396
396
1
3
5
2
0
8
0
0
<0.2
396
0
Backgroun
d
ug
4.2
2
<0,03
0.23
3.9
0.41
0.057
0.3
0.76
Air volume
Concentration
liter
436
436
436
436
436
436
436
436
436
ug/m3
10
5
0
1
9
1
0
1
2
Gram candle burnt
Measuring period in
minutes
Gram candle burnt/h
Total air volume m3:
VOC emission
VOC emission
19.93
130
9.20
2.644
2,846
309
ug/h
ug/g candle
Aerosol concentration:
Aerosol emission:
Aerosol emission:
1,047
1,278
139
nc.
ug/m3
mg 0.15
ug/h
/m
ug/g candle 3
PAH concentration:
PAH emission:
PAH emission
2.12
3
0.3
ug/m3
ug/h
ug/g candle
3
Air stream 1 Air volume
ug
liter
ug/m
<0.2
0.2
0.31
0.12
300
130
130
130
130
130
130
130
130
0
2
2
1
2,308
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2,308
0
0
0
130
0
0
2,331
Air stream 1 Air volume
Concentration
ug
1.2
0.6
<0.03
0.13
<0.1
0.08
0.093
0.12
0.15
ug/m3
9
5
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
Candlebackground
ug/m3
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
2,332
liter
130
130
130
130
130
130
130
130
130
Boxmodel for burning of
White stearine candle
0.30
0.25
Co
voc
0.20
PAH
aerosol
VOC
0.10
Aerosol
0.05
0.00
0
1
2
3
4
5
hours
42
3
6
7
8
9
Candle id.
Blue spider web candle
Date:
21-nov. 2001
Background
Carbon
DNPH
Filter no.
497
496
Liter air
396
436
Fileno.:
50115528
Air stream
Carbon
DNPH
490
489
130
130
Background
Air volume
Concentration Air stream 1
Air volume
ug
liter
ug/m3
ug
liter
Concentration Candlebackground
ug/m3
ug/m3
0.37
1.2
1.9
0.82
<5
3
<0.2
<0.2
396
396
396
396
396
396
396
396
1
3
5
2
0
8
0
0
<0.2
0.29
0.38
<0.2
<0.2
<0.2
<0.2
<0.2
130
130
130
130
130
130
130
130
0
2
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
<0.2
396
0
<0.2
130
0
0
0
Background
Air volume
Concentration Air stream 1
Air volume
ug
4.2
2
<0.03
0.23
3.9
0.41
0.057
0.3
0.76
liter
436
436
436
436
436
436
436
436
436
ug/m3
10
5
0
1
9
1
0
1
2
liter
130
130
130
130
130
130
130
130
130
Concentration Candlebackground
ug/m3
ug/m3
9
0
5
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
Air stream
XAD2 Orbo43
CARBON
Benzene
Toluene
Xylenes, ethylbenzene
Trimethylbenzenes
Total hydrocarbons
Terpenes
Benzenethanol
Acetic acid
phenylmethylester
Phthalates
Sum VOC på carbon
DNPH
Formaldehyde
Acetaldehyde
Acrolein
Propanal
Acetone
Butanal
Pentanal
Hexanal
Benzaldehyde
Sum aldehydes
ug
1.2
0.6
<0.03
0.13
<0.1
0.08
0.093
0.12
0.15
SUM VOC
1
Gram candle burnt
Measuring period in
minutes
gram candle burnt/h
Total air volume m3:
12.31
130
5.68
3.581
VOC emission
VOC emission
2
0
Boxmodel for burning of
Blue spider web candle
0.30
0.25
ug/h
ug/g candle
3
Aerosol concentration: 153
Aerosol emission:
253
Aerosol emission:
45
ug/m
ug/h
ug/g candle
PAH concentration:
ug/m3
PAH emission:
PAH emission
0.35
0.58
0.10
ug/h
ug/g candle
Co 0.20
nc.
mg/
m3 0.15
PAH
aerosol
VOC
0.10
0.05
Aerosol
0.00
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
hours
43
Candle id.
White tea light
Date:
21-nov. 2001
Background
Carbon
DNPH
Filter no.
497
496
Liter air
396
436
File no.:
50115528
Air stream
Carbon
DNPH
632
631
108
127
Concentration
Candlebackground
ug/m3
Air stream
Backgroun Air volume
d
ug
liter
Concentration
ug/m
0
1
2
1
<5
3
<0.2
<0.2
396
396
396
396
396
396
396
396
<0.2
Backgroun
d
ug
4
2
<0.03
0
4
0
0
0
1
3
Air stream 1
Air volume
3
ug
liter
ug/m
1
3
5
2
0
8
0
0
<0.2
0.22
0.32
0.12
<5
<0.2
<0.2
<0.2
108
108
108
108
108
108
108
108
0
2
3
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
396
0
<0.2
108
0
0
0
Air volume
Concentration
Air stream 1
Air volume
Concentration
liter
436
436
436
436
436
436
436
436
436
ug/m3
10
5
0
1
9
1
0
1
2
ug
1
1
<0.03
0
<0.1
0
0
0
0
liter
127
127
127
127
127
127
127
127
127
ug/m3
9
5
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
Candlebackground
ug/m3
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
XAD2 Orbo43
CARBON
Benzene
Toluene
Xylenes, ethylbenzene
Trimethylbenzenes
Total hydrocarbon
Terpenes
Benzenethanol
Acetic acid
phenylmethylester
Phthalates
Sum VOC on carbon
DNPH
Formaldehyde
Acetaldehyde
Acrolein
Propanal
Acetone
Butanal
Pentanal
Hexanal
Benzaldehyde
Sum aldehydes
SUM VOC
1
Gram candle burnt
Measuring period in
minutes
Gram candle burnt/h
Total air volume m3:
6.39
127
3.02
3.531
VOC emission
VOC emission
2
1
ug/h
0.20
ug/g candle Co
Aerosol concentration:
Aerosol emission:
Aerosol emission:
110
184
61
ug/m3
/m
3
ug/h
ug/g candle
PAH concentration:
PAH emission:
PAH emission
0.03
0.05
0.02
ug/m3
ug/h
ug/g candle
Boxmodel for burning of
White tea light
0.30
0.25
nc.
mg 0.15
PAH
aerosol
VOC
0.10
Aerosol
0.05
0.00
0
1
2
3
4
5
Hours
44
6
7
8
9
Candle id.
Gelled mineral oil
candle
Date:
21-nov. 2001
Background
Carbon
DNPH
Filter no.
497
496
Liter air
396
436
Sags.no.:
50115528
Air stream
Carbon
DNPH
624
623
133
133
Air stream
Background Air volume
CARBON
Benzene
Toluene
Xylenes, ethylbenzene
Trimethylbenzenes
Total hydrocarbons
Terpenes
Benzenethanol
Acetic acid
phenylmethylester
Phthalates
Sum VOC on carbon
ug
liter
Concentrati Air stream 1
on
ug
ug/m3
0.37
1.2
1.9
0.82
<5
3
<0.2
<0.2
396
396
396
396
396
396
396
396
1
3
5
2
0
8
0
0
<0.2
396
0
Background Air volume
DNPH
Formaldehyde
Acetaldehyde
Acrolein
Propanal
Acetone
Butanal
Pentanal
Hexanal
Benzaldehyde
Sum aldehydes
ug
4.2
2
<0,03
0.23
3.9
0.41
0.057
0.3
0.76
liter
436
436
436
436
436
436
436
436
436
1.5
0.61
1.6
0.33
760
Concentrati
on
ug/m3
10
5
0
1
9
1
0
1
2
Air stream 1
ug
1.2
0.6
<0,03
0.13
<0,1
0.08
0.093
0.12
0.15
Air volume
Concentration
liter
ug/m3
Candlebackground
ug/m3
133
133
133
133
133
133
133
133
11
5
12
2
5,714
0
0
0
10
2
7
0
5,714
0
0
0
133
0
0
5,734
Air volume
Concentration
liter
133
133
133
133
133
133
133
133
133
ug/m
9
5
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
Candlebackground
ug/m3
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
3
SUM VOC
5,735
Gram candle burnt
Measuring period in
minutes
Gram candle burnt/h
Total air volume m3:
5.72
133
2.58
2.855
0.80
VOC emission
VOC emission
7,387
2,863
ug/h
ug/g candleCo 0.50
Aerosol concentration:
Aerosol emission:
Aerosol emission:
180
232
90
ug/m3
/m
3
ug/h
ug/g candle
0.30
3
0.10
PAH concentration:
PAH emission:
PAH emission
0.172
0.22
0.09
Boxmodel for burning of
Gelled mineral oil candles
0.70
VOC
0.60
PAH
nc.
mg 0.40
ug/m
ug/h
ug/g candle
aerosol
VOC
0.20
Aerosol
0.00
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Hours
45
Candle id.
Fragrance candle
Date:
21-nov. 2001
Background
Carbon
DNPH
Filter no.
497
496
Liter air
396
436
File no.:
50115528
Air stream 1
Carbon
DNPH
627
626
135
135
Background
Air volume
Air stream
CARBON
Benzene
Toluene
Xylenes, ethylbenzene
Trimethylbenzenes
Total hydrocarbon
Terpenes
Benzenethanol
Acetic acid
phenylmethylester
Phthalates
Sum VOC on carbon
DNPH
Formaldehyde
Acetaldehyde
Acrolein
Propanal
Acetone
Butanal
Pentanal
Hexanal
Benzaldehyde
Sum Aldehydes
ug
liter
ug/m
ug
liter
Concentration Candlebackground
ug/m3
ug/m3
0.37
1.2
1.9
0.82
<5
3
<0.2
<0.2
396
396
396
396
396
396
396
396
1
3
5
2
0
8
0
0
0.4
1.1
0.48
0.2
<5
25
6
10
135
135
135
135
135
135
135
135
3
8
4
1
0
185
44
74
2
5
0
0
0
178
44
74
<0.2
396
0
7
135
52
52
355
Background
Air volume
Concentration Air stream 1
Air volume
Concentration Candlebackground
ug/m3
ug/m3
9
0
4
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
ug
4.2
2
<0.03
0.23
3.9
0.41
0.057
0.3
0.76
Concentration Air stream 1
3
3
liter
436
436
436
436
436
436
436
436
436
ug
1.2
0.6
<0.03
0.13
<0,1
0.08
0.093
0.12
0.15
ug/m
10
5
0
1
9
1
0
1
2
Air volume
liter
135
135
135
135
135
135
135
135
135
SUM VOC
356
Boxmodel for burning of candles
Gram candle burnt
Measuring period in
minutes
Gram candle burnt/h
Total air volume m3:
VOC emission
VOC emission
8.80
135
Fragrance candle
0.30
3.911
3.73
0.25
590.86 ug/h
151.07 ug/g candle
0.20
Co
nc.
mg 0.15
/m
3
0.10
PAH
aerosol
VOC
voc
Aerosol concentration:
Aerosol emission:
Aerosol emission:
3
300 ug/m
497.47 ug/h
127.19 ug/g candle
0.05
Aerosol
0.00
0
1
2
3
4
5
Hours
46
6
7
8
9
Candle id.
Taper candle with gold coating
Date:
21-nov. 2001
Background
Carbon
DNPH
Filter no.
497
496
Liter air
396
436
File no.:
50115528
Airstream 1
Carbon
DNPH
641
640
135
135
Concentration
Candlebackground
ug/m3
37
Flow
XAD2 Orbo43
Phthalates
CARBON
Benzene
Toluene
Xylenes, ethylbenzene
Trimethylbenzenes
Total hydrocarbons
Terpenes
Benzene ethanol
Acetic acid
phenylmethylester
Phthalates
Sum VOC (carbon)
DNPH
Formaldehyde
Acetaldehyde
Acrolein
Propanal
Acetone
Butanal
Pentanal
Hexanal
Benzaldehyde
Sum Aldehydes
Backgroun Air volume
d
ug
liter
Concentration Airstream 1
ug/m
ug
liter
ug/m
0.37
1.2
1.9
0.82
<5
3
<0.2
<0.2
396
396
396
396
396
396
396
396
1
3
5
2
0
8
0
0
<0.2
0.24
0.27
<0.2
<5
135
135
135
135
135
135
135
135
0
2
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
<0,2
396
0
135
0
0
37
Backgroun
d
ug
4.2
2
<0.03
0.23
3.9
0.41
0.057
0.3
0.76
Air volume
Concentration Airstream 1
Air volume
Concentration
liter
436
436
436
436
436
436
436
436
436
ug/m3
10
5
0
1
9
1
0
1
2
liter
135
135
135
135
135
135
135
135
135
ug/m3
7
3
0
1
4
0
1
1
1
Candlebackground
ug/m3
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
3
Air volume
ug
0.9
0.38
<0.03
0.07
0.5
0.051
0.1
0.08
0.09
3
SUM VOC
38
Boxmodel for burning of candles
Gram candle burnt
Measuring period in
minutes
Gram candle burnt/h
Total air volume, m3:
15.97
135
7.10
3.638
VOC emission
VOC emission
61
9
ug/h
ug/g candle
Aerosol concentration:
Aerosol emission:
Aerosol emission:
514
831
117
ug/m3
ug/h
ug/g candle
PAH concentration:
PAH emission:
PAH emission
0.73
1.18
0.17
ug/m3
ug/h
ug/g candle
Taper candle, gold coating, paraffin
0.30
Conc. mg/m3
0.25
0.20
PAH
aerosol
VOC
0.15
0.10
Aerosol
0.05
VOC
0.00
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Hours
47