The Sacred Letters: Acceptance of Writing in the Hindu Religion
Nirmala R. Kulkarni
Introduction: Contribution of India to the literary tradition is well-known. The Ṛgveda dating back
approximately 1500 B. C. E. has been regarded as the oldest extensive literature of the world. On the
contrary, appearance of writing on Indian screen seems to be comparatively late. The first expression of
writing, the Indus script, has been debated to be labeled as a 'script.' Writing has entered India through
Ashokan inscriptions in the 3rd century B.C.E. References to writing and various writing materials such
as palm leaf and birch-bark etc. are available second century onwards with a few significant specimens
dating back to 450 A.D. (Katre, 1954 pp: 130-131,133,135; Diringer, 1982 : 360-361). Writing was
accepted in royal courts and in non-Vedic religions in the initial stage. In the context of Hindu texts
however, writing was condemned on account of the well-knit oral transmission of religious texts. At the
same time one cannot ignore the enormous manuscript collection of Hindu religious texts in Indian as
well as European libraries. Many of these manuscripts are Vedic as well as copies of various religious
texts. These copies prove to be an evidence of acceptance of writing even in the religious realm. It is an
implication of the changed perception about writing in Hindu religion. The present paper is an attempt to
search for textual evidence for the changing perception towards writing. Copying of manuscripts
described in various Purāṇas forms source of the present paper (Kulkarni, 2002: 47-53; Pundkar, 2010).
The description demonstrates production of manuscripts i.e. the Book in the preprint culture of India
along with the description of scribe and reader.
The Purāṇa texts describing Copying of Manuscripts:
Agnipurāṇa (Mor, 1957), Garuḍapurāṇa (Bhattacharya, 1964), Padmapurāṇa (Apte 1894),
Brahmavaivartapurāṇa (Apte 1935), Brahmāṇḍapurāna (Shastri 1962), Bhaviṣyapurāna (Upadhyay 1972),
Matsyapurāṇa (Shukla 2004), Vāmanapurāna (Sharma 1970), Śivapurāṇa (Shastri 1962), Skandapurāṇa
(Mor 1961), Vāyupurāṇa (Sharma 1967), Devīpurāṇa (Sharma 1976) and Kṛtyakalpataru (Aiyangar 1941)
narrate procedure to copy a manuscript. The description runs similar in all these texts without much
significant variations.
The Context of Copying of Manuscripts: Many of these Purāṇas describe copying of a manuscript in
the context of vidyādāna i.e. gift of knowledge, gift of learning1. All these texts consider it i.e. vidyādāna
as 'atidāna' meaning the best gift2. The Agnipurāṇa classifies vidyādāna into three categories:
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Dharmādharmau na jānāti loko'yam vidyaya vinā|
i)
Brahmadāna: imparting brahma i.e. Vedic knowledge to students
ii)
Śrāvaṇadāna: reciting purāṇas in the temples
iii)
Sārasvatadāna: donation of a copy of manuscript.
The Purāṇas describe copying of manuscripts in the context of Sārasvatadāna.
The Preliminary Ritual: The person desirous of donating a manuscript has to perform some ritual in the
Purāṇa style.
1) The first step is to clean the place where the copying will take place.
2) The donor has to erect a hall and decorate it.
3) He should place the idols in the hall.
4) He should place the manuscript to be copied and the things used in copying on a mat; i.e. the writing
material, ink, pen etc. In this context a verse from the Agnipurāṇa (63.10) is worth noticing. To quote,
"svastike maṇḍale’bhyarca śarayantrāsane sthitam|
lekhyam ca likhitam pustam gurum vidyām harim yajet||"
(Translation: He should worship the teacher, the goddess of learning and Viṣṇu as well as the writing
material along with the manuscript to be copied. The manuscript and the writing material are to be placed
on a mat after having worshiped on a Svastika diagram.)
I find this verse very important for it supplies certain technical terms which are seen in the texts books of
textual criticism. While copying any manuscript two types of manuscripts are needed;
i) The manuscript from which a copy is made. Such a manuscript is technically called 'exemplar' in
the terminology of the textual criticism. The Agnipurāṇa provides us a parallel term for it. It calls it
“likhitapustaka” the manuscript which is already written.
ii) The other term for the manuscript to be written is lekhyapustaka; literally the manuscript material
on which the scribe is going to write.
Copying of the Manuscript:
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tasmāt sadaiva dharmatmā vidyādānarato bhavet|| Agnipurana 63.1
trīṇyāhur atidānāni gavaḥ pṛthvī sarasvatī| Agnipurana 63.2
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Actual copying of manuscript starts after the preliminary ritual is completed. The Purāṇas describe that
the first five verses should be copied by the donor himself3. Before copying he should worship gods and
felicitate the copyist. He may write the Puruṣasūkta in the beginning. Then the scribe should complete
copying.
After the copying is complete, the donor should worship the copied text. Donations and food should be
given to Brahmins. He should felicitate the scribe. The copied manuscript should be shown to all the
people in a procession.
The Scribe: The purāṇa passages describe qualities of a good scribe. A scribe should be vinīta
(modest)4. He should not make any mistake while copying (apramatta). While copying he should
distinctly write serifs i.e. mātras, anusvāra and breaking of words. The handwriting should be even and in
a straight line. The letters should be round and bold. He should write with full concentration (tadgatena
antarātmanā).
The Reader: The manuscripts were donated in the public religious places. In these places they were read
out for commoners. Two types of classes of readers have been described in the Purāṇa texts.
1) Vācaka: This is general class of Purāṇa readers5.
2) Vyāsa: A person who reads out Mahābhārata in the temples. A Vyāsa is described as jayopajīvī
i.e. one who makes his livelihood by reading out Jaya6.
Further the vācaka class is divided in to three; uttama, madhyama and adhama.
Similarly, three types of listeners are classified as uttama, madhyama and adhama.
Important information provided by the Puranas is about the script and writing material.
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yajamāno gurum vidyam harim lipikṛtam naram|
prāṅmukhaḥ padminīm dhyāyel likhitvā ślokapancakam||
4
Vinītaś cāpramattaś ca tataḥprabhṛtilekhakaḥ|
mātrānusvārasaṃyuktam padacchedasamanvitam|
samāni samaśīrṣāṇi vartulāni ghanāni ca|
lekhayed akṣarāṇīha tadgatenāntarātmanā|
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Compare an epithet in the Jaina religion called 'vācanācārya'. Vācanācārya is the one who makes the student read
the text.
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3
It is an alternative title of the Mahābhārata.
Script and the Writing material: In general all the Purāṇas describe that the manuscript should be
written in the Nāgari script7. The Padmapurāṇa further enlightens us on how to draw the script. To quote
an instance,”
Tasya tu lambarekhā syāt tad ante ca lavitravat|
Ukāraḥ sa hi vijneyo lavitradvayataḥ tad ū||
A long line if added with a form of a sickle becomes 'u', if two sickle forms are added it becomes long 'ū'.
This description clearly indicates that the script described is Devanāgari script.
Donation of Manuscripts: Donation of manuscripts is the key theme of Purāṇas. As it is described
above, the description of copying of manuscripts finds its place in the context of donation. The Bhaviṣya
Purāṇa has more than twenty verses praising gift of books. To quote a representative one,
kapilānām sahasreṇa samyag dattena yat phalam|
tatphalam samavāpnoti pustakasya pradāyakaḥ|| (174.14)
(Translation) The donor of a book i.e. of a manuscript obtains the fruit similar to gift of thousand cows.
Gift of a book is further compared with performance of various sacrifices. Nor only gift of books, but
donation of paper, pen, ink, cloth to tie the manuscripts etc. is also included in the meritorious deed. The
manuscript should be placed in a temple or in a maṭha or in palace. It may also be given to a student or a
scholar.
Concluding Remarks: The description of making of manuscripts in the Purāṇas is one of the evidences
of popularization of writing. The passages do not form integral parts of the original texts. The later
Paurāṇikas have mixed the description of manuscript copying in the original texts very skillfully. The
description of the Devanāgarī script marks the date of such passages around 9th and 10th century. It seems
that writing became popular among common Hindu elite around 10th century CE. Even the first
manuscript of the Ṛgveda scribed by Vasukra bears the date of 1030 CE.
Furthermore, the Purāṇas glorify donation of manuscripts. They have included donation of manuscript in
the 'Sārasvatadāna'; that too at par with brahmadāna. It is an evidence to mark that the society has
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4
Raupyasthamaṣyā haimyā ca lekhanyā nāgarākṣaram| Agni Purāṇa.
accepted writing along with the oral tradition. The inclusion of manuscript in the list of charity items
indicates the elevated status of writing in Hindu culture.
The initial resistance to writing shown in the Vedic tradition was toned down probably after the Puranic
glorification of writing. Some colophonic statements of Vedic manuscripts around 15th century pray god
to bestow favour to both; to the scribe as well as to the reciter/reader (Galewitch, 2011). Many colophonic
statements confirm that the Vedic manuscripts were copied for the reciters (amuka paṭhanārtham). It
marks that even the Vedic reciters were using manuscripts. At present the students as well as teachers of
Vedic pathashalas use printed texts. The Vedamandir at Nasik worships books as well as idol of Veda.
Still there are certain knotty points marking resistance to writing, especially in the Vedic field. I have
observed approximately hundred colophons of manuscripts. In general any colophon cites name of the
scribe in a particular fashion. Manuscript colophons imitate inscriptional colophons. In the inscriptional
colophons gotra of the donee as well as that of the donor is described. In the manuscript colophon
however, gotra of the scribe is not described. Gotra is a religious identity marker. Even today one has to
cite gotra in the religious activities. What has forbidden the scribes to mention their gotra? Is it because
writing was not considered sacred activity in the Vedic sphere? Or was it because writing was not
considered the main professional activity of a Vedic brahmin? Purāṇa texts describe donation of epic as
well as Purāṇa texts in the temples etc. However, these texts do not enlist Vedic texts. It appears that
though writing was accepted in the Hindu religion and it was glorified as a need of the time, it was not
accepted wholeheartedly in the Vedic realm.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
References
Aiyangar, R. A. 1941 Krtyakalpataru of Bhatta Laksmidhara Baroda: Oriental Institute
Apte, M. C. 1894 Padmapurana Pune: Anadashram
Apte, V. G. 1935. Srimaddvipayanamunipranitam Brahmavaivartapuranam Pune: Anandashram
Bhattacharya, A. 1981. Varahapurana Varanasi: Kashiraj Trust
Diringer, David. 1953. The Book before Printing New York: Dover Publications Inc
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Galewicz, Cezary. 2011 "Let Siva's favour be alike with scribes with reciters" motifs for copying or not
copying the Veda" in Travaux de Symposium Internatonal Le Livre, La Roumanie. L'Europe Tome III,
Bucarest : Editeur Bibliotheque de Bucarest, pp.113-146
Katre, S. M. 1954. An Introduction to Indian Textual Criticism Pune: Deccan College
Kulkarni, Nirmala 2002 'Puranesugranthalekhanavidhih' in Sagarika Sagar: University of Sagar
Mor
Sharma 1967
Sharma 1970
Sharma 1976
Shastri 1962
Shukla 2004
Upadhyay 1972
Pundkar 2010
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