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Further study of sources of the imported
cobalt-blue pigment used on Jingdezhen
porcelain from late 13 to early 15 centuries
DU Feng1† & SU BaoRu2
1
Institute of Chemistry & Molecular Engineering, Qingdao University of Science & Technology, Qingdao
266000, China;
2
College of Information Science Technology, Qingdao University of Science & Technology, Qingdao
266000, China
Based on the conclusion of modern scientific analysis: the cobalt-blue pigment
applied on Jingdezhen official porcelain during Yuan Dynasty and prior to Xuande
reign of Ming Dynasty (1271―1425) contains high iron and low manganese contents, and the cobalt during Xuande and after Xuande periods (after 1426) of Ming
Dynasty contains high manganese and low iron contents, in combination with the
traditional archaeological method, the related historical textual records were investigated and analyzed, the imported cobalt employed on Jingdezhen official
porcelain was studied comprehensively, systematically and logically. In fact, ‘Su Ma
Li Qing’ (Samarra-blue) and ‘Su Bo Ni Qing’ (Sumatra-blue) are definitely different
cobalt ores originated in different places, because of their very similar transliterations in Chinese, the confusion has appeared in ancient books for more than 400
years, which considered ‘Su Ma Li Qing’ and ‘Su Bo Ni Qing’ as the same cobalt-blue pigment. In this article the mistake was corrected, the possible producing
places and the approximate eras of the two pigments imported to China and used at
Jingdezhen were also suggested.
imported cobalt-blue pigments employed on official blue-and-white porcelain, Yuan Dynasty, early Ming Dynasty, Mn/Fe content ratio, Su Ma Li Qing (Samarra-blue), Su Bo Ni Qing (Sumatra-blue), scientific archaeological research, transliteration
The study of sources of the cobalt-blue pigment employed on ancient Jingdezhen blue-and-white
porcelain first began in Britain. In 1956 a scholar from the Research Laboratory for Archaeology
and the History of Art at Oxford University pointed out that the cobalt used on Jingdezhen porcelain in the 14th century (Yuan to early Ming dynasties) was imported from Persia, and the cobalt
ore was not discovered in China until early 15th century[1]. During the 70―90s of the last century,
Received February 27, 2006; accepted March 21, 2007
doi: 10.1007/s11431-008-0013-0
†
Corresponding author (email: [email protected])
Sci China Ser E-Tech Sci | Mar. 2008 | vol. 51 | no. 3 | 249-259
there were two views among Japanese researchers: one believed that the cobalt used in Jingdezhen was ‘Smalt’ frit from Western Asia[2] during Yuan Dynasty, while another suggested that cobalt of Yuan was made up of a prune-purple and a cobalt-blue ore from Far East[3]. However, a
Chinese scientific scholar inferred that the cobalt-blue pigment of Yuan Dynasty was likely from
Qinghai and Gansu areas in western China[4]. Based on the visual identification for some standard
type wares, Chinese cultural relic connoisseurs found the different blue tones on early Ming official blue-and-white wares, therefore they suggested the cobalt employed on the so-called
‘Hongwu’ official wares (the authors consider these wares seem to be the official porcelain from
Jianwen to early Yongle reign) was likely from China; the cobalt on official wares during Yongle
and Xuande reigns (1403―1435) was applied in three ways: the first was using the imported ‘Su
Ma Li Qing’ only, the second was using native cobalt only, the third was using ‘Su Ma Li Qing’
and native cobalt on different parts of a pattern[5,6]. In addition, some scientific researchers
adopting modern elements analytical technology EDXRF (energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence)
technology to draw the conclusion: Mn/Fe content ratio in the cobalt-blue pigment used on Jingdezhen official wares during Yuan Dynasty to Yongle reign of Ming Dynasty (1271―1425) is
less than 0.1 and the ratio is more than 0.3 after Yongle reign (1425)[7]. In 1980, a Chinese cultural relic researcher stated that the cobalt-blue pigment used in Xuande period (1426―35) was
native[8].
In researching the cobalt-blue pigments applied on Jingdezhen porcelain during Yuan Dynasty
(1271―1367) and early Ming (Hongwu to Xuande reign, 1368―1435) Dynasty, it is easy to
cause a limitation if the modern elementary analyzing technique or the traditional archaeology or
the antique visual identification is adopted separately, since the research combines natural science
with social science. Based on the antecedent research, a further study for the sources of cobaltblue pigments was carried out, combining the results of the modern scientific analysis with the
traditional archaeology and visual porcelain’s identifying experience. Because there are no detailed records in the historical texts and some information was passed down incorrectly, it is a
Gordian knot to study the imported cobalt-blue sources during Yuan Dynasty and early Ming
Dynasty. Actually, archaeology is ‘supposing’ and ‘interpreting’ ancient eras, but it is not a baseless guess; however, a scientific and logical inference must be based on the direct and indirect
evidences.
1 Results of modern scientific analyzsis for the cobalt-blue pigments
employed on the porcelains during Yuan Dynasty and early Ming
(Hongwu to Xuande reign) Dynasty
The analyzed samples in Tables 1 and 2 seem to be a drop in the ocean when compared to the
large producing quantity of official porcelain in Jingdezhen from Yuan to early Ming, but the data
have their universal law and provide wide representation. Comparing the data[7] obtained using
EDXRF in non-destructive mode with the data using destructive wet chemistry method, although
some systematic errors exist due to employing different analytic instruments, the final conclusions are similar, viz. all cobalt-blue pigments applied on official wares from Yuan Dynasty to
Yongle reign of Ming Dynasty have high Fe/Co and low Mn/Co concentration ratios, in contrast
the cobalt used after Yongle reign have low Fe/Co and high Mn/Co concentration ratios. Professor Li Jiazhi, who works at the Ancient Ceramics Research Center in Shanghai Institute of Ce250
DU Feng et al. Sci China Ser E-Tech Sci | Mar. 2008 | vol. 51 | no. 3 | 249-259
ramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, stated that since 80s of the last century, about 48 blueand-white fragments excavated from the Xuande stratum at Zhanshan site of Ming imperial kiln
in Jingdezhen have been analyzed at the center, and the results show that all cobalt-pigment employed on these porcelains have high Mn/Co and low Fe/Co concentration ratios. Some scholars
have further analyzed the trace elements in the cobalt-blue pigment of Yuan, they suggested that
the typical cobalt of Yuan also contains arsenic and sulfur but copper and nickel are usually absent[12]. In recent years, a British scholar and a Chinese scholar have carried out a cooperative
research, and they compared the composition of cobalt-blue pigments on Chinese Yuan blue-andwhite porcelain with those pigments on Persian and Syrian blue-and-white pottery, ranging in
date from the 13th to the 14th centuries. The results have shown that all of them belong to a
similar compositional group, that is, high iron and low manganese contents[13].
Table 1 Main chemical composition of the cobalt-blue pigments (cobalt-blue+uncolored glaze) on Jingdezhen blue-and-white
and blue-glazed fragments from Yuan to early Hongwu reign[9,10] (w/w)a)
Al2O3
CaO
MgO
K2 O
Na2O
Fe2O3
TiO2
MnO
P2O5
CoO
Sample 1 68.05 15.22
8.78
0.39
2.74
3.14
1.73
0.007
0.09
0.24
0.37
0. 05
Sample 2
9.28
0.40
3.11
2.62
2.91
0.13
0.77
0.05
Sample 3
7.51
0.42
2.85
3.31
1.84
0.11
0.50
0.06
Sample 4
6.49
0.03
2.29
3.85
2.47
0.12
0.58
0.05
6.32
0.03
2.48
3.57
4.26
1.14
0.03
6.50
0.30
3.70
3.54
2.56
0. 34
0.04
Name
SiO2
Sample 5
Sample 6
15.14
0.12
0.058
0.11
0.14
Cu, NiO Mn/Fe
Sample 7 66.76 14.79
6.98
0.36
4.39
2.68
2.83
0.061
0.11
0.19
0.47
0. 04
a) The data in Table 1 were obtained using wet-chemistry destructive analytical method. Samples 1 and 2 are Yuan
blue-and-white fragments excavated from the site of Hutian Jingdezhen; samples 3, 4 and 5 are Yuan blue-and-white fragments
excavated from the site of Yuan capital Dadu (part of modern Beijing); sample 6 is a blue-and-white fragment excavated from
the site of Zhushan Jingdezhen (the author consider it is the ware produced between late Yuan to early Hongwu; this issue is out
of the scope of the present article); sample 7 is a blue-glazed fragment excavated from the site of Zhushan Jingdezhen (the
author considered that it was produced between late Yuan to early Hongwu).
Table 2 Main chemical composition of the cobalt-blue pigments (cobalt-blue+uncolored glaze) on Jingdezhen blue-and-white
fragments from late Hongwu to Xuande reign[11] (w/w)a)
Al2O3
CaO
MgO
K2 O
Na2O
Fe2O3
TiO2
MnO
P2O5
CoO
Sample 1
15.65
4.47
1.23
4.22
3.52
3.45
0.047
0.13
0.15
0.15
0.03
Sample 2
15.02
4.03
1.42
4.12
2.70
2.23
0.047
0.11
0.17
0.24
0.05
Sample 3
14.50
4.13
1.06
4.45
2.68
3.09
0.037
0.11
0.18
0. 13
0.04
Sample 4
17.23
5.55
0.28
5.07
2.05
2.87
0.041
0.09
0.14
0.54
0.03
Sample 5
15.24
6.71
0.31
3.71
2.63
1.95
0.35
0.11
0.19
0.35
0.07
Sample 6
15.53
7.06
0.31
3.31
3.07
2.99
0.055
0.11
0.11
0.14
0.04
Sample 7
15.12
5.24
0.36
5.65
2.02
1.51
0.048
0.10
0.16
0.29
0.07
Sample 8 68.94
15.35
5.98
0.97
3.16
2.84
2.17
0.25
0.24
0.12
6.35
0.49
4.05
2.84
1.69
0.23
0.34
0.14
Name
SiO2
Sample 9
Cu, NiO Mn/Fe
Sample 10
17.59
4.73
0.74
5.12
1.91
1.09
2.66
0.13
0.47
2.44
Sample 11
15.79
4.83
1.30
4.53
2.26
1.83
3.40
0.24
0.69
1.86
Sample 12
15.77
5.00
1.31
4.22
2.50
1.61
2.88
0.17
0.59
1.78
a) The data in Table 2 (except samples 8 and 9) were obtained using wet-chemistry destructive analytical method. All the
samples are the fragments of blue-and-white wares excavated from the Zhushan site in Jingdezhen; samples 1, 2 and 3 are the
so-called ‘Hongwu’ official porcelain (the authors think they seem to be made between late Hongwu to early Yongle reign);
samples 4, 5 and 6 are the porcelain of early Yongle period; sample 7 is likely to be the porcelain between late Hongwu to early
Yongle reign; there are systematic errors compared with the data obtained using EDXRF for samples 8 and 9; samples 10, 11
and 12 are the porcelain of Xuande period.
DU Feng et al. Sci China Ser E-Tech Sci | Mar. 2008 | vol. 51 | no. 3 | 249-259
251
2 The historical records related to the imported cobalt-pigment sources during Yuan Dynasty and Hongwu to Xuande reign of Ming Dynasy
Since Chinese emperors traditionally underestimated the significance of science and technology,
it is rare to find the historical texts which recorded the sources of cobalt-blue pigments in Jingdezhen comprehensively and accurately. Chinese historical records related to the source of the
cobalt on Yuan blue-and-white have not been found, but only the following references that mentioned the sources of cobalt-blue pigment used in the Yongle-Xuande period (1403―1435).
Da Ming Huidian, juan 105 (Institutions of the Great Ming, vol. 105) records[14] that: ‘The state
of Sumatra (an island of modern Indonesia) …, in the third year of Yongle reign (1405) …, sent
a mission to pay tribute. From the 5th year of Yongle (1407) to the 6th year of Xuande reign
(1431) (the state) repeatedly sent a mission to pay tribute ……, in the 10th year of (Xuande reign,
1435) (Chinese emperor) conferred the king of the state on his (the Sumatra king’s) son, the tribute included Shi Qing and Hui Hui Qing (two imported cobalt-blue pigments )’.
Kuitian Waicheng by Wang Shimou finished prior to the 17th year of Wanli reign (1589)
states[15] that ‘(The kiln) was specially established in Jingdezhen of Fuliang County, during the
period from Yongle to Xuande, Nei Fu (the court) ordered to fire (porcelain at the kiln), (the porcelain) was decorated with Su Ma Li Qing (an imported cobalt-blue pigment) …, but Hui Qing
(another imported cobalt-blue pigment) did not appear. Hui Qing was from outside China, during
Zhengde period (1506―1521) it (Hui Qing) was found by the eunuch in Yunnan …’
Gao Lian’s book Zunshen Bazhan finished in the 19th year of Wanli reign (1591) also records[16] that: ‘The cobalt-blue on official wares of Xuande was Su Bo Ni Qing (an imported cobalt-blue pigment). After all of them were exhausted, all blue on official porcelain were using
Ping Deng Qing (a native cobalt pigment from Jiangxi) during Chenghua reign.’
‘Su Ni Bo Qing’ has been mentioned in many texts of Qing dynasty such as: Wenfang Sikao
(1778) by Tang Hengquan, Tao Shuo (Study for Ceramic) by Zhu Yuan and Jingdezhen Taolu (the
Record for Jingdezhen Ceramic) by Lan Pu. But it should be ‘Su Bo Ni Qing’, the two original
Chinese words ‘Bo’ and ‘Ni’ were reversed as ‘Ni’ and ‘Bo’ due to the information coming down
incorrectly. But ‘Su Ma Li Qing’[16] was not recorded in Qing Dynasty[16]. The reliability of these
records from the texts of Qing Dynasty seems to be less than the texts of Ming Dynasty. ‘The
History of Chinese Pottery and Porcelain’ published in the 80s of the last century has believed
that the ‘Su Ma Li Qing’, ‘Su Bo Ni Qing’ and ‘Su Ni Bo Qing’ were the same imported cobalt
ore in different Chinese transliteration.
3 The results of modern scientific analysis and the confusion from
some records in ancient text
The results[7,17] of modern scientific analyzing indicate the typical cobalt on official wares from
Yuan Dynasty to Yongle reign of Ming Dynasty (1271―1425) are the same or similar to the imported cobalt ores (high iron and low manganese contents), and the typical cobalt-blue pigment
used after Yongle reign (after 1425) of Ming Dynasty (high manganese and low iron contents)
seems to be similar to the native cobalt-blue pigments. But Wang Shimou in Kuitian Waicheng
recorded[13] that the cobalt-blue from Yongle to Xuande reign (1403―1435) was all the imported
‘Su Ma Li Qing’. It is obvious that the scientifically analyzed data are more reliable; it is likely
252
DU Feng et al. Sci China Ser E-Tech Sci | Mar. 2008 | vol. 51 | no. 3 | 249-259
that ‘Su Bo Ni Qing’ was confused with ‘Su Ma Li Qing’ in Kuitian Waicheng.
Kuitian Waicheng is a miscellanea based on some folklores passed down by word of mouth,
not a historical text edited by normal official, so it is likely that some facts were misrepresented
due to all that happened about one hundred years ago. The imported ‘Su Ma Li Qing’ is a cobalt-blue pigment (high iron and low manganese contents) used in Yongle reign, but another totally different cobalt (high manganese and low iron contents) used in Xuande regin is ‘Su Bo Ni
Qing’. It is possible that the author of Kuitian Waicheng confused ‘Su Ma Li Qing’ with ‘Su Bo
Ni Qing’, because of the similar transliterations in Chinese. However, where was the imported
cobalt-blue from during Xuanden reign?
Based on careful study of the most authoritative official texts of Ming Dynasty, some traces
have been found in Da Ming Huidian, which notes that two cobalt-blue pigments ‘Shi Qing’ and
‘Hui Hui Qing’ were imported from Sumatra[15] state (part of modern Indonesia), one of the imported cobalt-blue was called ‘Hui Hui Qing’ (the Islamic blue) in Chinese, since the people living in Sumatera believed in Islam, the record seems to have high reliability. Another cobalt-blue
‘Hui Qing’ (also could be translated as ‘the Islamic blue’ in English, ‘Hui Hui’ and ‘Hui’ are the
names in Chinese for the nations believing in Islam) mentioned in Kuitian Waicheng was from
outside China. It did not appear during Yongle and Xuande reigns (1403―1435), it seems to be
the ‘Hui Qing’ used in Zhende reign (1506―1521), and it is unlikely to be the ‘Hui Hui Qing’
mentioned in Daming Huidian. The ‘Hui Hui Qing’ and the ‘Hui Qing’ seem to be two different
imported cobalt-blue pigments from different places of Islamic nations, the two cobalt-blues were
confused very easily as there is only one word difference in Chinese. Another ‘Hui Qing’ from
Turpan area in Xinjiang has also been recorded[14,18]. A native cobalt-blue pigment used in Jingdezhen was called ‘Wu Ming Zi’. It had another name ‘Shi Zi Qing’ originated of Ruizhou in
Jiangxi Province and recorded in the 15th year of Zhengde reign[19] (1515). By comparison of the
‘Shi Zi Qing’ with the ‘Shi Qing’ recorded at Da Ming Huidian, there is also only one word difference in Chinese, so that the names were also garbled very easily. In fact they are totally two
different cobalt-pigments used in different periods of Ming Dynasty, as well as they also rooted in
different places from inside and outside China. The native cobalt-blue pigments used in middle
and late of Ming Dynasty (16th century) include: ‘Shi Zi Qing’ from Reizhou, ‘Hui Qing’ from
Turpan and ‘Hui Qing’ from Yunnan. Their names are similar probably because of their similar
main chemical compositions with high manganese and low iron contents. The similar blue tones
occurred when the ‘Shi Zi Qing’ from Ruizhou or the imported ‘Shi Qing’ in Xuande reign was
employed on porcelain, and the similar tones also occurred when the ‘Hui Qing’ from Turpan or
the ‘Hui Qing’ from Yunnan or the imported ‘Hui Hui Qing’ in Xuande reign was employed on
porcelain. It is possible that the ancient artisans called them ‘Shi Zi Qing’ and ‘Hui Qing’ as the
joint names without reference to their producing places, finally the names are sanctified by usage
in passing down from generation to generation.
4 The source of imported cobalt-blue pigment applied on Jingdezhen
Yuan blue-and-white wares
Decorating pottery with cobalt-blue pigment was first from Persia of Western Asia. A beautiful
blue tone occurred when cobalt-blue pigment was fired under high temperature, which is favored
by the nations of Muslim. A scholar notes[20] that during the period of Abassid Caliphate (758―
DU Feng et al. Sci China Ser E-Tech Sci | Mar. 2008 | vol. 51 | no. 3 | 249-259
253
1258), the cobalt-blue ores contained in the north of Al Amarah and Al Hayy in Iraq were used
widely; Samarra was the center of pottery manufacturing in ancient Iraq during the 9th century,
from 836 to 892AD, Samarra was the capital of the Abassid Caliphate Dynasty (see Figure 1);
Samarra was translated into ancient Greek as ‘Souma’, as ‘Sumere’ in Latin and as ‘Sumra’ in
Syrian. In addition, a blue color is also called ‘Smalt’ in English, the pronunciations of above
words are very similar to the Chinese transliteration ‘Su Ma Li’, but there is a notable difference
between them and the Chinese transliteration ‘Su Bo Ni’.
Figure 1
The map of modern lraq.
Yuan Dynasty had vast land spanning Eurasian continent, and the areas of modern Iraq used to
be a dependency of Yuan Empire. As Persia of Western Asia was lack of the source of Kaolin clay
(containing Al2O3), only blue-and-white pottery could be produced. The overland channels between Eastern and Western Asia and even Europe were built in Yuan Dynasty. The merchants and
artisans from Middle East brought their own cobalt-blue pigment ‘Su Ma Li Qing’ (Samarra-blue)
and came to Jingdezhen, the capital of Chinese ceramic, to customize blue-and-white porcelain
liked by their nations. In combination with the high quality imported cobalt-blue (Samarra-blue),
the best body, glazing materials and mellow technology of Jingdezhen porcelain manufacturing,
finally the famous Yuan blue-and-white porcelain with the world reputation was produced. Yuan
court was attracted by the great profit from the ceramic industry, therefore the official institute for
supervising ceramic industry―Fuliang Ciju[21] (Fuliang Ceramic Bureau) was established at
Jingdezhen in the 15th year of Zhiyuan reign (1278). The establishment of Fuliang Ceramic Bureau marked that Jingdezhen had become the center of ceramic industry in China and the world.
Comparing the chemical composition of cobalt-blue pigments on the Western Asian blue-andwhite pottery in the period closing to era of Yuan with the pigments on Jingdezhen Yuan blue254
DU Feng et al. Sci China Ser E-Tech Sci | Mar. 2008 | vol. 51 | no. 3 | 249-259
and-white porcelain, it has been found that the main compositions of these pigments are similar[13]
(high iron and low manganese contents). Thus, it seems to be believable that the imported cobalt-blue pigment ‘Su Ma Li Qing’ (Samarra-blue) employed on Yuan porcelain originated in
Persia.
5 ‘Su Ma Li Qing’ (Samarra-blue), ‘Su Bo Ni Qing’ (Sumatra-blue) and
the ‘Shi Qing’ and ‘Hui Hui Qing’ from the State of Sumatra
Since there is only a two-word difference in Chinese transliterations for ‘Su Ma Li Qing’ and ‘Su
Bo Ni Qing’, the accents for words ‘Ni’ and ‘Li’ in southern China areas including Jingdezhen are
almost indistinguishable. Therefore, the two different pigments were confused very easily by the
artisans of Jingdezhen passing them down from generation to generation. But the view of the cobalt-blue used in Xuande reign being ‘Su Bo Ni Qing’ has been recorded at Zunsheng Bazhan[16],
which seems to be correct and suggests not all documents of Ming have problem. However, was
‘Su Bo Ni Qing’ just ‘Shi Qing’ and ‘Hui Hui Qing’ considered as a group, which had been paid
tribute by Sumatra state in Xuande reign? The answer is that there is a high possibility. The reason is as follows:
1) The term of ‘Su Ma Li Qing’ could be a transliteration for the place producing pigment material ‘Su Ma Li’ (Sammara); the name of ‘Su Bo Ni Qing’ also could be a transliteration from its
producing places, the state of Sumatra (Sumatra island of modern Indonesia in Figure 2) and the
state of South Boli (modern Banda Aceh, the northernmost of Sumatra island in modern Indonesia, Figure 2). Although it is hard to find the historical documents about whether a cobalt-blue
pigment was included in the tribute to Xuande court paid by the South Boli state, nevertheless
according to the geological theory, both Sumatra and South Boli states were located in the Sumatra island, therefore it seems to be possible that the cobalt-blue pigment ores with the same or
similar composition were contained in the two states.
2) The features of perfect cobalt-blue tones appearing on Xuande imperial blue-and-white
wares include: one assuming a deep and brilliant blue tinged with purple and having some black
or brown crystal spots sunk in glaze. The employed cobalt is likely to be the ‘Hui Hui Qing’ from
Sumatra, the blue tone is also similar to the typical blue tone of ‘Hui Qing’ used on
blue-and-white wares in the era from late Zhengde to early Wanli (early 16th to early 17th centuries), but the blue tone in this era (early 16th to early 17th centuries) without crystal spots is much
more tinged with purple (due to more Mn content in the pigment). Another feature shows the blue
tone tinged with gray and almost having no distinct crystal spots sunk in glaze. This cobalt seems
to be the ‘Shi Qing’ from Sumatra. Ceramic connoisseur Geng Baochang has found the blue tone
on Xuande blue-and-white wares is similar to the tone on Zhengde blue-and-white wares. The
two imperial wares produced during Xuande and Zhengde reigns are confused easily if their imperial reign marks have not been written on these wares[22], but the cobalt-blue pigment ‘Shi Zi
Qing’ applied on most of Zhengde imperial wares originated in Ruizou. Co plus some metals under the conditions of a suitable ambience in the kiln and at about 1300℃ high temperature can
exhibit a gorgeous blue tone. MnO can show a purple hue. In the past, a traditional view believed
the black or brown crystal spots sunk in glaze were due to high iron concentration in cobalt-blue
pigments; but the results of modern scientific analysis suggest the typical crystal spots on Xuande
imperial wares are the crystal of MnFe2O4, and the similar visual spots on the official wares prior
DU Feng et al. Sci China Ser E-Tech Sci | Mar. 2008 | vol. 51 | no. 3 | 249-259
255
to Xuande reign is the crystal of Fe3O4[7]. Actually, these spots sunk in glaze were taken for a defect by ancient artisans of Jingdezhen. The defect seems to relate to the washing and grinding
processes of the cobalt-blue pigments. Till middle and late Ming Dynasty (beginning from middle
or late Chenghua reign), no crystal spots on imperial wares seemed to be related to the improving
of the washing and grinding processes.
Figure 2
The map of modern Indonesia.
In summary, ‘Su Bo Ni Qing’ should not be ‘Su Ma Li Qing’ (Samarra-blue), and it was likely
to be the ‘Hui Hui Qing’ and the ‘Shi Qing’ from Sumatra island considered as a group at that era.
‘Su’ in Chinese seems to represent Sumatra and ‘Bo Ni’ in Chinese seems to represent South Boli,
so ‘Su Bo Ni Qing’ could be translated into English as ‘Sumatra-blue’ or ‘Sumatra-boli-blue’.
6 Analysis of the sources of imported cobalt-blue pigment during
Hongwu to Xuande reign (1368―1435)
The formal Ming imperial kiln was very likely to be established at the end of Hongwu reign[23],
viz. the second half of the 31st year of Hongwu reign (1398) just after the succession of Jianwen
(this issue is out of the scope of the present article). The kiln established at Jingdezhen in the 2nd
year of Hongwu period (1369) should be an official kiln[24], but actually it was not a formal imperial kiln and the kiln seemed to be the successor of the ‘imperial clay kiln’ supervised by the officials of Fuliang Ceramic Bureau during Yuan Dynasty, viz. Yuan official kiln. This is because:
1) So far any records of the establishment in 1369 have not been found from Ming official
texts. On the other hand, the architecture ceramic tiles with ‘Zhao Wanchu’ marks and the coarse
clay saggars with ‘Guanxia’ marks have been excavated at Zhushan site in Jingdezhen. These
findings further suggest that the kiln established in 1369 actually was an official kiln.
2) A mix of the so-called official ‘Hongwu’ and traditional Yongle fragments have been exca256
DU Feng et al. Sci China Ser E-Tech Sci | Mar. 2008 | vol. 51 | no. 3 | 249-259
vated from Jingdezhen.
3) Two fragments bearing inscriptions dating to the first and fourth years of Yongle reign (1403
and 1406) have been excavated in Jingdezhen, and they have no distinct difference from the
so-called ‘Hongwu’ underglaze copper-red.
4) The so-called ‘Hongwu’ official porcelains, especially the blue-and-white and underglaze
copper-red wares have not appeared in the tombs of archaeological excavation.
5) As Hongwu emperor advocated frugality, it seems to be impossible for him to order to establish an imperial kiln special for himself enjoying in the 2nd year of his reign (1369) under the
situations of such full-scale reconstruction being under way.
In fact, most blue-and-white wares produced in Hongwu period cannot be distinguished from
the ‘Zhizheng’ style blue-and-white wares of late Yuan. Whether by shape, pattern, body and
glaze or by manufacturing and firing processes as well as raw materials, they should be the continuation of Yuan wares. The so-called ‘Yuan’ blue-and-white wares excavated from the tombs of
generals and imperial relatives in Nanjing and other areas around China should be produced during early and middle Hongwu reign even later. Therefore, the cobalt-blue pigment applied on
these wares seems to be ‘Su Ma Li Qing’ (Samarra-blue) carried over from Yuan Dynasty. Since a
policy of closed-door and ban on maritime trade during Hongwu reign, all connections with outside China were almost cut off, as a result the source of ‘Su Ma Li Qing’ (Samarra-blue) was also
obstructed. During late Hongwu to early Yongle reign (late 13th century to early 14th century),
the large-scale production of underglaze copper-red instead of blue-and-white seemed to relate to
the deficient of the imported ‘Su Ma Li Qing’ (Samarra-blue). However, the high quality
blue-and-white possibly still employed the ‘Su Ma Li Qing’ (Samarra-blue, maybe mixing some
native cobalt-pigment in ‘Su Ma Li Qing’), but most of the blue-and-white porcelains showed
gray-and-black in tone. In the authors’ opinions, it was probably related to the ambience in the kiln,
which was difficult to be controlled when large number of underglaze copper-red and a small
amount of blue-and-white wares were fired together in one kiln.
The sea route connecting Eastern and Western Asia was opened again when Muslim eunuch
Zheng He was first sent with maritime mission (the 3rd year of Yongle reign, 1405). The ‘Su Ma
Li Qing’ (Samarra-blue, with high iron and low manganese contents) in far Persia was imported
to China by Zheng He’s fleet again and employed on the high grade ‘diplomatic porcelain’ in
Jingdezhen. The blue-and-white porcelain gradually became a favorite of Ming court and nobility.
During the period of middle and late Yongle reign, the production of underglaze copper-red wares
was gradually reduced, and the blue-and-white wares using the ‘Su Ma Li Qing’ (Samarra-blue)
became the main products at official kilns. However, the cobalt-blue pigment used at Xuande
imperial kiln was the ‘Su Bo Ni Qing’ (Sumatra-blue, with high manganese and low iron contents)
with lower transportation cost, which was originated in Sumatra Island.
7
Summary
The imported ‘Su Ma Li Qing’ (Samarra-blue) with high iron and low manganese contents used
on blue-and-white wares in Yuan Dynasty was probably originated from Persia in Western Asia,
and it was imported by the Persian merchants.
(1) The imported cobalt-pigment with high iron and low manganese contents used on the blueand-white wares during Hongwu to the beginning of Yongle reign seems to be the ‘Su Ma Li
Qing’ (Samarra-blue) left from Yuan Dynasty, maybe it was mixed with some native coDU Feng et al. Sci China Ser E-Tech Sci | Mar. 2008 | vol. 51 | no. 3 | 249-259
257
balt-pigments, as ‘Su Ma Li Qing’ seems to be gradually exhausted at the end of Hongwu reign.
(2) In early Yongle reign, after Zheng He’s first maritime mission, the Persian cobalt-blue
pigment ‘Su Ma Li Qing’ (Samarra-blue) with high iron and low manganese contents was likely
imported to China again.
(3) The ‘Su Bo Ni Qing’ (Sumatra-blue) differs from the ‘Su Ma Li Qing’ (Samarra-blue). It is
very likely to be the ‘Hui Hui Qing’ and ‘Shi Qing’ considered as a group from Sumatra island
(the Sumatra island in modern Indonesia), which contains high manganese and low iron contents.
It was possibly imported to China in Xuande reign, and stopped import around the early Chenghua regin when the relationship with Southeastern Asia was terminated.
(4) The ‘Hui Hui Qing’ and ‘Shi Qing’ with high manganese and low iron contents used in
Xuande reign differ from the ‘Hui Qing’ and ‘Shi Zi Qing’ also with high manganese and low
iron used during the middle and late periods of Ming. Because the Mn/Fe ratios are different.
Figure 3 The frame figure describing the imported cobalt-pigment sources from Yuan Dynasty to early and middle reign of
Ming Dynasty.
(5) The first confusion for the two different imported cobalt-pigments ‘Su Bo Ni Qing’ (Suma258
DU Feng et al. Sci China Ser E-Tech Sci | Mar. 2008 | vol. 51 | no. 3 | 249-259
tra-blue) and ‘Su Ma Li Qing’ (Samarra-blue) has been found in Kuitian Waicheng written by
Wang Shimou in late Ming.
(6) The imported cobalt-pigment with high manganese and low iron contents applied on
Xuande blue-and-white wares should be the ‘Su Bo Ni Qing’ (Sumatra-blue).
(7) Adopting non-destructive EDXRF technique to analyze the Mn/Fe concentration ratios of
the cobalt-blue pigments should be the effective way to distinguish those unmarked official wares
of Yongle and Xuande scientifically.
Based on a comprehensive analysis and logical inferences, a logic frame (Figure 3) can be
constructed, which only describes the sources of imported cobalt-blue pigments from Yuan Dynasty to early and middle Ming Dynasty, although some native cobalt-blue pigment was also used
in Jingdezhen during this period. The eras described in Figure 3 are rough.
The authors would like to thank Prof. Wang Changsui in the Graduate University of Chinese Academy of Sciences for his suggestions.
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