RESEARCH
includes research articles that
focus on the analysis and
resolution of managerial and
academic issues based on
analytical and empirical or
case research
Organizational Commitment and
Job Satisfaction among Teachers
during Times of Burnout
Komal Nagar
Executive
Summary
Organizations want to maximize productivity by minimizing stress, as increased levels
of stress and burnout may have significant implications for organizational performance such as reduced job satisfaction and lowered organizational commitment. Also
certain occupations are linked more to burnout than the others. The present exploratory study undertakes the examination of burnout among teachers in the university as
they are an essential part of a successful educational system. Organizational commitment is essential for retaining and attracting well qualified workers as only satisfied
and committed workers will be willing to continue their association with the organization and make considerable effort towards achieving its goals.
This work is significant for two reasons:
a) It attempts to develop and test a model for burnout and its effect on job satisfaction
and the subsequent effect of job satisfaction on organizational commitment;
b) It signifies one of the first attempts to develop a linkage among burnout, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment among teachers.
This study examines three factors of burnout as potential antecedents of 153 university
teacher’s job satisfaction, and the effect of increased job satisfaction on commitment
among employees toward their organization.
Structural Equation Modeling results indicate that:
KEY WORDS
Burnout
Job Satisfaction
Organizational Commitment
Structural Model
University Teachers
Emotional Exhaustion
Employee Turnover
Absenteeism
• All three factors of burnout namely, depersonalization, reduced personal accomplishment, and emotional exhaustion lead to decreased job satisfaction.
• Greater job satisfaction contributes significantly towards an increase in organizational
commitment.
• Out of the three dimensions of burnout, female teachers score higher on emotional
exhaustion and reduced personal accomplishment indicating that they could not work
the way they wanted to with their students or that they have less influence on their
students, whereas male teachers score higher on depersonalization.
• In terms of job satisfaction, females show higher levels of job satisfaction as compared to men, perhaps due to low expectations about job status among female teachers as compared to male teachers.
• A perceived difference in alternative employment opportunities between genders
offers an explanation to the finding that women are more committed to organizations than their male counterparts
The results of the study have implications for the management of educational institutions as employee burnout may have important consequences for the organization. Since
teachers are a valuable resource to educational institutes, management must invest significant resources in the assessment of their working environment, both mental and
physical, to maximize the quality of service delivery.
VIKALPA • VOLUME 37 • NO 2 • APRIL - JUNE 2012
43
J
ob satisfaction has been characterized by researchers as essential to organizational performance
(Mathieu, 1991; Ostroff, 1992). Most people experience some degree of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with
their work which tends to vary from one job to another;
also, some aspects of the job are more satisfying than
the others. It is also believed that satisfaction with one’s
job may influence various aspects of work such as efficiency, productivity, absenteeism, turnover rates, and
intention to quit and also an employee’s overall wellbeing (Baron, 1986; Maghradi, 1999). An employee experiencing high levels of stress may be unable to function effectively in his/her job. In the face of economic
slowdown, forcing the organizations to squeeze more
productivity out of a fewer resources, employees are
experiencing increased job pressures. This may have a
significant overall negative impact on the employees in
today’s marketplace, and may even prove to be fatal.
Past research has found support for the relationship between an employee’s job satisfaction and the level of
stress on employees in an organization. Satisfaction of
an employee with his/her job is affected by job pressures. Employees are faced with a number of pressures
from within the organizations in which they work. One
way of dealing with the constant demands at the workplace is for employees to slow down their work pace or
decelerate. This may result in the workers becoming
detached from work, developing feelings of fatigue,
stress, and cynicism. This form of occupational stress is
known as burnout (Oligny, 1994). Job stress and its more
severe form, job burnout, is increasingly becoming
prevalent in the work environment. Due to high work
stress, employees’ attitude towards their job and their
feeling towards their organization also gets affected.
While the latter reflects the employee’s organizational
commitment, job satisfaction is interpreted as one’s attitude towards the job. High levels of occupational stress
and burnout have been seen to cause reduced productivity (Brown and Campbell, 1994). Also, a number of
job-related behaviour such as job performance, learning, motivation, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment have been found to be negatively linked with
high levels of stress and burnout (Bakker Demerouti and
Schaufeli, 2003; Cropanzano, Rupp and Byrne, 2003;
Davey, Obst and Sheehan, 2001; Llorens et al., 2006). Of
these, job satisfaction and organizational commitment
find special reference in the present study.
44
Work is very important in people’s life, as it occupies a
lot of their time and is a source of financial stability, but
it is also a source of great deal of stress. Therefore, the
job should be attractive and must give the employee
some degree of satisfaction, because reduced levels of
satisfaction may be reflective of counter-productive
employee behaviour and a reason for employee absenteeism and turnover intentions in extreme cases (Spector,
1985; Martin and Miller, 1986; Dupre and Day, 2007).
With accelerated globalization causing an increase in
competition, work pressures are higher than ever
(Nixon, 1992). In response to such challenges, employees are not only to work longer than they did earlier to
meet up with job demands, but are also expected to meet
work deadlines, putting further pressure to perform
more in a short time. Prolonged exposure to such stressful working conditions has been associated with employee burnout (Winnubs, 1993) which affects more than
just an employee’s efficiency and productivity at work.
While some jobs may cause burnout more than others,
practically all jobs entail some degree of pressure. The
extent of stress is largely determined by the nature of
work (Maslach and Jackson, 1981).
A large section of past research on stress and burnout
have focused on jobs that involve intensive labour input. However, later researchers included other professions such as professional programmers, company
executives as well as non-professional areas (e.g., sports)
(Maslach, 1999). In addition to these occupations, teaching has also been characterized as a stressful occupation
(Torelli and Gmelch, 1993; Schwab and Iwanicki, 1982).
Several researchers have studied the level of stress
among educators and have found that teachers suffer
from burnout (Chaplain, 1995; Berg, 1994; Brissle, 1988).
There are many reasons why a service organization like
education should be concerned with levels of stress and
burnout among their employees. Although teaching is
still looked at as a much sought after profession, yet
growing opportunities and well paying career alternatives are making it difficult to attract and retain high
quality teachers (Bian, 2002). Growing stress and burnout among teachers is increasingly making it difficult to
retain good teachers as the job pressures far outweigh
the benefits of working in such a service organization
(Rosenholtz, 1985).
During the past several years, a number of problems
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT AND JOB SATISFACTION AMONG TEACHERS ...
have emerged as central issues among educators including the concern for job satisfaction, working conditions,
and quality of teachers (Prick, 1986). This dissatisfaction and the resultant burnout are considered to have
evolved from stress, low salary, increased teaching load,
imbalance between work and personal life, non-availability of material resources for teaching, unfavourable
working relationships with their departmental colleagues, lack of involvement of teachers in organizational
planning, and a number of similar issues (Chapman and
Green, 1986; Chase, 1986). Students’ achievement is
greatly affected by the quality of input, that is, teachers’
satisfaction which is ultimately the result of their satisfaction with the profession. Therefore, in order to support a successful educational system, it is essential to
understand the factors that lead to satisfied teachers At
the same time, a teacher’s satisfaction with his or her job
may have strong implications for his or her emotional
attachment to the organization (Meyer et al., 2002). This
emotional attachment or organizational commitment
(Mowday, Steers and Porter, 1979) is essential for retaining and attracting qualified personnel as the cost of
turnover to organizations can be high.
From the perspective of an educational institution, studying burnout among employees is essential not only
from the point of view of a teacher’s satisfaction with
his/her career to ensure retention of valuable educational resources, but also for maintaining and improving organizational commitment. Although it is essential
for the organizations to improve commitment because
of its relationship to productivity, it is also necessary to
expect that organizational commitment will be related
to other behavioural factors like job satisfaction and
burnout, which are equally important for decisions such
as to stay in the organization or not. Although these constructs have been studied independently in different job
contexts like police force, nurses, managers, etc. (Hart
and Cotton, 2003; Toch, 2002 till date, no study has examined the relationship between job satisfaction and
organizational commitment and linked it to burnout
among teachers. Therefore, the present study finds its
need and relevance.
One of the purposes of the present study is to determine if burnout is a predictive factor of job satisfaction
among teachers. Our second goal is to determine the
relationship between job satisfaction and organizational
VIKALPA • VOLUME 37 • NO 2 • APRIL - JUNE 2012
commitment beyond that provided by past researches
which takes two facets of job satisfaction, relating to
extrinsic and intrinsic features of a job (Cooper-Hakim
and Viswesvaran, 2005) and a multi-dimensional organizational construct relating to affective, continuance, and
normative commitment (Allen and Meyer, 1990). Instead
of examining the relationship between facets of organizational commitment and job satisfaction, the present
research studies the relationship between overall job satisfaction (intrinsic and extrinsic) and organizational commitment.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Constructs and Dimensions
Interest in employee burnout, from both academicians
and managers alike, has been growing dramatically especially because it is an important obstruction to productivity and a contributor to health costs to employers
(Lee and Ashforth, 1996). Maslach (1982) defined burnout as “a syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and reduced personal accomplishment” that
can occur among individuals who do ‘people work’ of
some kind such as social work, counseling or nursing. It
is related to measures of psychological and physiological strain, helplessness, and appraisals of perfor- mance
(Lee and Ashforth, 1996).
The words ‘stress’ and ‘burnout’ have been defined in a
variety of ways (O’Driscoll and Brough, 2003). Stress has
been defined as a reaction to demanding events (Selye,
1976), as an event that places tough choices in front of
the individual (Kahn et al., 1964), as an environmental
character which poses a risk to the individual (Caplan
et al., 1975) and as an apprehension by the individual
that he/she might not be able to deliver results as expected out of him/her (Lazarus, 1966; 1971). In particular, within a work environment, occupational stress
refers to “any affect-laden negative experience that is
caused by an imbalance between job demands and the
response capability of the workers. When job demands
are too high to cope with, stress reactions are likely to
occur” (Schaufeli and Enzmann, 1998). Within this context, burnout is viewed as a specific type of job stress.
Unlike stress, it represents a set of responses to unremitting work demands (O’Driscoll and Brough, 2003;
Schaufeli and Enzmann, 1998) and is a result of a significant piling up of work-related stress.
45
Stimuli at both work and outside work act as stressors.
The extra-organizational stressors include factors outside the organization such as family, personal, and social issues. Also, researchers have detailed a number of
factors that act as stressors related to work. A number
of researchers are in agreement on the variables that act
as organizational stressors. Cooper and Payne (1978)
have identified intrinsic job factors ( e.g., poor working
conditions and work overload), role in organizations
(e.g., role conflict and role ambiguity), career development (e.g., lack of growth opportunities and job security), poor relationships at work, and organizational
culture (e.g., politics in organization and lack of participation in decision making) as organizational stre-ssors.
Similar job stressors have also been identified by
Matteson and Ivancevich (1987). All these stressors have
a significant impact on both physical health and the
health of the organization (International Labour Office,
1993).
Conventionally, the nature of work is considered an
important cause of burnout (Maslach and Jackson, 1981);
for example, jobs involving greater physical exertion lead
to higher burnout (Trinkoff, et al., 2003). Research on
the emotional involvement of employees while dealing
with customers shows that emotional work being highly
demanding, significantly contributes to burnout (Cordes
and Dougherty, 1993; Leiter and Maslach, 1988). Combined with these are individual factors, such as physical
health, attitude towards work, and individual personality, etc., which may lead to greater propensity to burnout (Beasley, Thompson and Davidson, 2003; Carroll and
White, 1982; Zellars, Perrewe and Hochwa-rter, 2000).
However, Maslach (1999) found that job factors are a
bigger cause of burnout than personality cha- racteristics.
Dimensions of Burnout
There is agreement within literature regarding burnout
as a multidimensional construct comprising three interrelated but distinct components, namely, emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal
accomplishment (Lee and Ashforth, 1996; Maslach,
Jackson and Leiter, 1996). Maslach describes these as
three primary symptoms. Specifically, exhaustion refers
to “the energy depletion or draining of emotional resources and is characterized by mental, emotional and
physical fatigue” (Maslach, Jackson and Leiter, 1996).
Exhaustion is the fundamental stress component of burn-
46
out, representing a feeling of energy loss and a sense of
being completely drained out of emotional and physical strength. This might be viewed as a source of “compassion fatigue,” which gets coupled with feelings of
irritation or dissatisfaction when employees recognize
that they might not be able to deliver on the job as well
as they did in the past. The energy and enthusiasm to
work which such employees once had, is replaced by a
feeling of depletion of emotional and physical resources.
The second component of burnout is depersonalization
which is also known as cynicism or disengagement in
literature. It refers to “negative, cynical attitudes toward
the recipient of one’s services and is characterized as a
dysfunctional kind of detached concern” (Maslach, et al.,
1996) representing feelings of unresponsiveness in relation to the job. In a state of depersonalization, an employee alienates himself from the job and develops a
casual and uncaring attitude towards the job and towards those who are associated with it (e.g., customers,
coworkers). The employee may even develop cynicism
while dealing with coworkers and clients, exhibiting
emotional detachment in all his dealings. He may display feelings of lost identity and meaninglessness.
Reduced personal accomplishment or reduced efficacy represents the self-evaluation dimension of burnout (Cordes
and Dougherty, 1993; Maslach, Schaufeli and Leiter,
2001). Reduced personal accomplishment refers to “feelings of incompetence, reduced ability to do the job, and
a lack of accomplishment.” Because individuals feel ineffective and useless in their jobs, they also develop feelings that their contribution in the organization no longer
makes a difference. Therefore, they tend to judge their
own work negatively with a belief that their work lacks
skill and ability to perform. Such feelings are often accompanied by a sense of poor self-esteem and ineptitude. (Maslach, 1993).
For several authors (Maslach, 1993; Maslach, Jackson and
Leiter, 1996; Schaufeli and Enzmann, 1998), the three
factors of burnout have differential associations with the
antecedents and consequences. For example, demands
at the workplace, both physical and emotional, have a
direct bearing on the emotional exhaustion component
of burnout, while depersonalization and personal accomplishment are a result of insufficient job resources
(Bakker et al., 2003; Demerouti, Bakker and Schaufeli,
2001; Lee and Ashforth, 1996). Although a number of
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT AND JOB SATISFACTION AMONG TEACHERS ...
researchers have conceptualized burnout as a three component construct, yet the emotional exhaustion component of burnout is considered to be the most important
of the dimensions (Koeske and Koeske, 1989; Rohland,
Kruse and Rohrer, 2004; Shirom and Ezrachi, 2003). On
the other hand, depersonalization and reduced personal
accomplishment, though considered to be different, are
theoretically related variables, which accompany emotional exhaustion (Koeske and Koeske, 1989; Shirom and
Ezrachi, 2003). Therefore, emotional exhaustion is often
used as the central measure of burnout phenomenon
(Stremmel, Benson and Powell, 1993).
Organizational Commitment
Organizational commitment, an extensively researched
topic in the field of organizational behaviour, has been
studied by several researchers as a variable related to
the behaviour and performance of employees (Allen and
Meyer, 1990, 1996; Finegan, 2000; O’Reilly and Chatman,
1986; Park, Henkin and Egley, 2005; Tarter, Hoy and
Kottamp, 1990; Yu, Leithwood and Jantzi, 2002). It refers to “the strength of an individual’s feelings of attachment to, identification with and obligation to the organization” (Putti, Aryee and Liang, 1989; Vanderberg and
Lance, 1992; Allen and Meyer, 1990; Cook and Wall, 1980;
Mowday, Steers and Porter, 1979). Originally, it was
conceptualized as “the strength of an individual’s identification with and involvement in a particular organization, characterized by a strong belief in an acceptance
of an organization’s goals and values; a willingness to
exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization;
and a definite desire to maintain organizational membership” (Porter, et al., 1974; Cook and Wall, 1980).
Organizational commitment has been conceptualized by
early researchers as essentially a function of individual
behaviour and willingness of individuals to give their
energy to the organization through actions and choices
over time (Becker, 1960; Kanter, 1968). Becker (1960)
described organizational commitment as “the tendency
to engage in consistent lines of activity, such as intent to
stay in the organization if they willingly continue with
the organization and devote considerable effort to
achieving its goals” (Raju and Srivastava, 1994).
Dimensions of Organizational Commitment
Different conceptualizations of organizational commitment have been used in the literature and although there
VIKALPA • VOLUME 37 • NO 2 • APRIL - JUNE 2012
has been little consensus among the definitions found
in the commitment literature, yet a three-component
model of commitment put forward by Meyer and Allen
(1991) has received much empirical support and substantial popularity. A number of models of organizational commitment were proposed during the 1980s and
1990s and they all underline the multidimensional nature of commitment (Meyer and Allen, 1991; O’Reilly
and Chatman, 1986).
Three essential components related to the definitions of
organizational commitment have been found in literature. These three types of commitment are: affective,
continuance, and normative (Allen and Meyer, 1990,
1996; Greenberg, 2005; Karrasch, 2003; Turner and
Chelladurai, 2005). Affective commitment refers to “a positive affection toward the organization, reflected in a
desire to see the organization succeed in its goals and a
feeling of pride at being part of the organization” (Cohen,
2003). Employees with strong affective commitment
keep working for the organization voluntarily and eagerly not only because they need the occupa- tion, but
because they want to work (Meyer, Allen and Smith,
1993). In such type of commitment, the individual and
the organization share similar values and therefore the
interaction between them is positive (Shore and Tetrick,
1991).
Continuance commitment refers to “an individual’s awareness of the costs of leaving the organization” (Meyer,
Allen and Smith, 1993). This is related to one’s experiences and what one has given to the organization. An
employee with continuance commitment finds it difficult to give up his organization due to the fear of the
unknown ‘opportunity cost’ of leaving the organization
or having few or no alternatives. Employees with high
level of this type of commitment therefore remain a
member of the organization because they need it.
When an employee feels obligated to stay employed in
the organization, it refers to Normative commitment. Employees high in normative commitment feel that they
must maintain membership in the organization, because
that is the “right and moral” thing to do (Meyer and
Allen, 1991). Wiener and Gechman (1977) attributed
normative commitment to the organization as a result
of a socialization process that individuals experience as
a member of the family during their growing years. Such
a commitment also gets manifested during their
47
socialization as newcomers to the organization. Normative commitment can increase when an individual feels
indebted to his organization for having invested its time
and resources on him and feels responsible to repay for
the benefits that he gets from the organization by putting
effort on the job and staying in the job (Meyer et al., 1993).
Job Satisfaction
The issue of job satisfaction has been given a lot of attention in literature as it is a subject that affects both the
employee as well as the organization. Job satisfaction
reflects how content employees are with the job and their
reactions toward their work experiences (Berry, 1997),
emotional state or reactions toward the job (Gruneberg,
1979; Landy and Conte, 2004), how positive people feel
about their jobs, aspects of their job (Spector, 1997) and
work situations (Wood, Wood and Boyd, 2007). It is the
function of the degree to which one’s needs can be satisfied (Glimmer, 1966) and operationalized as a discrepancy between ‘how much is there’ and ‘how much there
should be’ (Wanous and Lawler, 1972).
There are several reasons for studying job satisfaction.
Organizations measure job satisfaction because it is indicative of work behaviour such as absenteeism, turnover, and productivity (Cranny, Smith and Stone, 1992).
Research indicates a number of dimensions that have a
strong relation with employee’s overall experience of
job satisfaction. It is not only related to environment factors such as physical and psycho-social but also with
individual, emotional, and economic factors and have
been found to be related to job turnover, absenteeism,
and tardiness (Brayfield and Crockett, 1955).
Hypothesizing the Relationship between Constructs
Many theories of burnout have been associated with job
roles characterized by role conflict, role ambiguity, role
overload, workload, work pressure, feelings of frustration, and low morale (Bakker, Demerouti and Euwema,
2005; Lee and Ashforth, 1996; Savicki, Cooley and
Gjesvold, 2003). Research also shows that stress and
burnout are linked to a range of negative individual
outcomes including depression, mental strain, psychosomatic complaints (e.g., heart circulation disturbances),
health problems, and high risk or problematic patterns
of alcohol consumption (Burke and Mikkelsen, 2006;
Demerouti et al., 2002; Gana and Boblique, 2000; Stearns
and Moore, 1993). Similarly, occupational and organi-
48
zational characteristics such as the extent to which rewards and punishments are linked to performance, and
the context of the job (e.g., nature of the employee-client
relationship), appears to relate to higher levels of burnout (Lee and Ashforth, 1996; Whitehead, 1987).
Apart from these organizational characteristics, certain
occupations have been linked to employee burnout more
than others. Studies have found that teaching profession is a high risk occupation for burnout (Cordes and
Dougherty, 1993; Schaufeli and Enzmann, 1998), with
experienced levels of burnout being an important aspect of a teacher’s well-being. Studies have strongly
linked burnout with a number of work-related attitudes.
Lee and Ashforth (1996) found that job satisfaction correlates comparatively highly with all the three burnout
dimensions but most highly with depersonalization (27%
shared variance), followed by exhaustion and reduced
personal accomplishment (20% and 16% shared variance). Maslach, Schaufeli and Leiter (2001) reported that
teachers have the highest level of emotional exhaustion,
whereas the other two components are close to average.
Burned out educators are unable to deal successfully
with the overwhelming emotional stress of teaching
(Brouwers and Tomic, 2000). This failure to cope gets
manifested into an individual’s work situations.
The aforementioned findings and discussions highlight
that burnout and job satisfaction are prominent in today’s educators and that these two constructs have been
linked to each other. The effect of burnout dimensions
on job satisfaction of an employee as indicated in the
literature leads to setting up of the following hypotheses.
H01: Increased depersonalization will have a
negative impact on job satisfaction
H02: Employees with high emotional exhaustion
content will exhibit low levels of job satisfaction
H03: Reduced personal accomplishment is negatively related with job satisfaction
The construct of organizational commitment refers to
“the strength of an individual’s identification with and
involvement in an organization” (Putti, Aryee and Liang,
1989). It has been understood that when the organization provides valued properties in work settings such
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT AND JOB SATISFACTION AMONG TEACHERS ...
as better working conditions, etc., the employee perceives them as rewards and responds positively by
putting in more effort, greater attendance or more involvement in activities (Angle and Perry, 1983).
According to Becker (1960), employee’s organizational
commitment is a psychological construct that is recognized as employee’s emotional attachment to their organization and which develops through their actions and
choices over time. It is therefore a function of individual
behaviour and their willingness to devote their energy
to the organization they work for. Further, Porter et al.
(1974) identified three factors influencing organizational
commitment: acceptance of the organiza- tion’s goals and
values, willingness to work on behalf of the organization, and strong motivation to remain in the organization (Porter et al., 1974). To this end, organizational
commitment is also influenced by the nature of job and
an employee’s experience at the workplace as it is influenced by such attributes as organizational climate
(House et al., 2004) and opportunities for professional
and technical growth (Baugh and Roberts, 1994), which
are related to an employee’s job. This effective response
of an employee toward specific aspects of his/her job,
represent job satisfaction (Willia-ms and Hazer, 1986).
Porter et al. (1974) found that job satisfaction and organizational commitment are empirically distinct concepts.
They suggested that since job satisfaction is primarily
one’s attitude toward the job and tend to be associated
with aspects of work environment, therefore it would
develop more quickly than commitment, which is an
effective response to the whole organization and thus
requires a comprehensive assessment of an employee’s
relationship with the organization. Further, Williams and
Hazer (1986) argue that the dynamic nature and rapid
onset of satisfaction suggest that it is a cause of commitment, but they concede that it has not been established
conclusively. While individuals recognized with high
levels of organizational commitment seem to be highly
satisfied with their job, it also seems to improve performance of employees and decrease absenteeism and
intention to leave the organization (Gibson et al., 2003;
Valentine, Godkin and Lucero, 2002; Loi, Hang-Yue and
Foley, 2006), because then individuals tend to look at
themselves as part of the organization who are committed to its values and goals. Such individuals, therefore,
have higher morale, lower turnover, increased job satisfaction and increased productivity (Meyer and Allen,
VIKALPA • VOLUME 37 • NO 2 • APRIL - JUNE 2012
1997; Mowday, Porter and Steers, 1982).
Nevertheless, most researchers reveal that job satisfaction has a strong influence on commitment (Steers, 1977;
Marsh and Mannari, 1977; Meyer and Allen, 1997;
Arciniega and Gonzalez, 2002; Jernigan, Beggs and
Kohut, 2002). In a study by Farrell and Rusbult (1981),
job satisfaction was studied as an antecedent to organizational commitment. They later found support for their
model in a longitudinal study (Rusbult and Farrell, 1983),
clearly indicating that the causal direction is from satisfaction to commitment.
The above literature led to the formation of the following hypothesis:
H04: Higher the level of job satisfaction, higher
the organizational commitment.
MODEL
The theoretical model used to assess the effect of job
burnout factors on job satisfaction and the subsequent
effect of satisfaction with employees’ commitment to the
organization is presented in Figure 1. The model is tested
for good fit to the data using AMOS Ver.16.
Despite the vast amount of work that has tested the individual relationships of workplace stress, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment, very few studies
have tried to link them together. In one of the studies,
Elangovan (2001) examines the interrelationships between work related stress, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment. In an analysis of 155 graduate
business students from a Canadian University, he found
that perceived work stress did not directly affect organizational commitment. Rather, he found that increased
stress was associated with low job satisfaction, which in
turn was associated with lower commitment. Based on
these results, it would appear that work stress indirectly
leads to lower organizational commitment through lowered job satisfaction.
Further, a number of researches suggest that job satisfaction plays a significant role in understanding of the
effects of various antecedent constructs of commitment.
Earlier studies investigating organizational commitment
(Price and Mueller, 1981; Taunton, Krampitz and Woods,
1989; Williams and Hazer, 1986) have suggested that the
various antecedents of commitment are mediated
49
through job satisfaction. For example, Williams and
Hazer (1986), used structural equation modeling to conclude that a number of variables such as age, pre-employment expectations, perceived job characteristics and
leadership style, all influence organizational commitment via their effects on job satisfaction. Similar results
were obtained by Iverson and Roy (1994), Mathieu and
Hamel (1989) and Michaels (1994). In line with majority
of the above studies, our proposed model (Figure 1) logically relates job satisfaction as a causal antecedent of
commitment.
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
The study is an attempt to empirically investigate the
relationship among dimensions of burnout and job satisfaction and between job satisfaction and organizational
commitment. Specifically, this study examines three
potential antecedents of teacher’s job satisfaction and
whether job satisfaction affects organizational commitment.
Sample Size and Design
The sample comprised teachers working in the University of Jammu. There were 255 teachers working in
Jammu University which was the total research population. Around 60 per cent (153) of the teachers population were chosen as respondents for the study. The
sample was selected on the basis of a three-digit random number table (Webster, 1995) from the alphabetical list.
Data Collection Form and Generation of Scale Items
To produce a reliable questionnaire, both primary and
secondary data were collected. The measures of burnout, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment
were drawn from previous studies. A brief discussion
of each study variable and its measurement is as follows.
Burnout
Several different instruments have been developed to
measure burnout. The most widely used and validated
instrument for the measurement of burnout is the
Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) developed by Maslach
and Jackson (1986). The MBI measures all three core dimensions proposed by Maslach (1982) and was originally designed for use in human service occupation. A
second version was later developed for use among workers in educational institutions. It has been tested, validated, and normed for educators. For example,
Cronbach alpha coefficients ranging from 0.71 to 0.90
have been reported for three sub-scales (Maslach,
Jackson and Leiter, 1996). The MBI is designed in a manner that dissects burnout into three subscales based on
the definition of burnout noted earlier – Emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment. Personal accomplishment is reverse coded such
that reduced personal accomplishment is related to burnout. There are twenty-four questions (i.e., 8 per dimension). These items reflect adaptations of the original
measures of Maslach and Jackson (1981). The survey
employs a Likert-type scale with scale ranging from 1 to
7, 1 representing strongly disagree and 7 representing
strongly agree.
Organizational Commitment
Organizational commitment was assessed via 18 commitment scale items. Responses were operationalized
using a seven-point scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Respondents rated their agreement with statements such as ‘I would be happy to spend
Figure 1: Theoretical Model Used to Assess Construct Relationships
Depersonalization
Reduced Personal Accomplishment
Job Satisfaction
Organizational Commitment
Emotional Exhaustion
50
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT AND JOB SATISFACTION AMONG TEACHERS ...
the rest of my career with this organization’. Scale scores
were obtained by calculating the average of the 18 responses, such that higher scores indicated greater organizational commitment. The internal reliability of the
organizational commitment scale is well documented
in earlier studies. In fact, Meyer, Allen and Smith (1993)
reported that the reliability coefficients obtained for the
scale ranged from 0.74 to 0.83.
Exhibit 1: Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
No.
Respondent’s Characteristics
1
Age group
% of Respondents
20-30
44.44
30-40
37.04
40-50
18.52
64
2
Gender
Male
Female
46
3
Marital status
Married
78
Unmarried
22
Job Satisfaction
Several instruments which measure job satisfaction were
examined (e.g., Hackman and Oldham, 1975; Smith,
Kendall and Hulin, 1969; Cochran, 1977). The study of
these scales indicated that the sub-scales were not particularly informative.
The Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) was
chosen for this study to measure teachers’ job satisfaction. MSQ has been used far more frequently than the
other instruments over the last thirty years. Twenty items
were used to measure intrinsic job satisfaction, extrinsic
job satisfaction, and general job satisfaction on a fivepoint scale.
These twenty job satisfaction statements have been included in numerous other studies of job satisfaction in
education (Priskett, 1988; Smith, 1976, Parker, 1974;
Schaefer, 1982). MSQ has a high reliability coefficient
ranging from 0.87 to 0.92.
Before the finalization of the questionnaire, pre-testing
of the questionnaire was carried out for qualitative investigation. For this, the questionnaire was administered on
ten per cent of the total sample. Subsequently, the language of some of the questions was simplified. For data
collection, visits were paid to teachers in the colleges
who were personally briefed about the purpose of the
study and all queries of the respondents were clarified.
RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
The total number of respondents in this research was
153 (refer to Exhibit 1 for demographic profile of the
teachers).
Factor analysis was carried out through SPSS to simplify and reduce the data. To investigate the underlying
dimensionality of the burnout scale, a principal component factor analysis was conducted, using varimax rotation. The KMO value was 0.72 and Bartlett’s test was
VIKALPA • VOLUME 37 • NO 2 • APRIL - JUNE 2012
significant at 0.00 level. This demonstrates the sampling
adequacy for conducting factor analysis (Malhotra,
2005).
Principal component factor analysis with varimax rotation was used to identify the underlying dimensions.
Items exhibiting low factor loadings (<0.45), high cross
loadings (>0.40), or low communalities (<0.30) were
eliminated (Hair et al., 1998). The data was subjected to
factor analysis twice. Initially it was carried out with all
the statements from three sections, which comprised the
different dimensions of burnout. As burnout is a multidimensional construct, statements that were clubbed in
all the three factors belonged to different dimensions of
burnout. Therefore, factor analysis was again carried out
for each dimension separately.
The factor solution accounted for approximately 61.07
per cent of the total variance. Furthermore, all factors
had high alpha reliability coefficients, ranging between
0.74 and 0.90. The factors were labeled as depersonalization, reduced personal accomplishment, and emotional exhaustion (Exhibit 2).
Factor 1 – depersonalization – had all the statements
dealing with negative attitude towards others. Factor 2
– reduced personal accomplishment – had all the statements related to attributions of inefficacy, reduced motivation, and low self-esteem. All the statements which
loaded into factor three —emotional exhaustion — were
concerned with depleted energy due to excessive psychological demands. These three principal components
are the dimensions on which job burnout is based.
Test of the Proposed Model
A Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) technique was
used to test the model. AMOS Ver.16 was employed for
this purpose. The observed variables used to predict the
51
Exhibit 2: Factor Extraction Result for Burnout Items
Factors
Factor-wise Dimension
Depersonalization
Reduced Personal
Accomplishment
Emotional
Exhaustion
Factor
Loading
Values
%age of
Variance
Coefficient
Alpha
Treat students like impersonal objects
0.911
28.56
0.851
Indifferent toward students
0.881
Lack of personal concern for boss
0.880
Become more hardened toward boss
0.830
Become callous toward co-workers
0.748
Feel insensitive toward co-workers
0.732
Becoming less sympathetic toward top management
0.675
I feel alienated from top management
0.662
18.03
0.904
14.48
0.742
I feel I perform effectively to meet needs of students
0.893
I feel effective in solving the problems of my students
0.879
Feel I am important asset to my institution
0.870
Feel my institution values my contribution to the institution
0.852
Feel my coworkers truly value my assistance
0.825
Feel I am a positive influence on my coworkers
0.818
Feel I satisfy many of the demands set by the management in
My institution
0.779
Feel I make a positive contribution toward institutional goals
0.697
Working with students is really a strain for me
0.922
Feel I am working too hard for my students
0.890
Working with my HOD/ Principal directly puts too much stress on me
0.843
Feel emotionally drained by the pressure my institution puts on me
0.801
Feel frustrated because of working directly with coworkers
0.744
Feel I work too hard trying to satisfy coworkers
0.738
Feel dismayed by the actions of top management
0.674
Feel burned out from trying to meet top management’s expectations
0.606
latent variables in SEM were obtained by processing the
data in the instrument. Results of SEM analysis indicate
that the model offers a good fit to the data.
Seven fit indices which are commonly used in the literature (Chi-square/degrees of freedom, GFI, AGFI, NNFI,
CFI, RMSR, RMSEA) were employed to test the model
fit. The commonly used measures of model fit, based on
results from an analysis of the structural model, are summarized in Exhibit 3. In practice, Chi-square/degrees of
freedom less than 3, GFI, NNFI, CFI greater than 0.9, an
AGFI greater than 0.8, RMSR less than 0.1, and RMSEA
less than 0.06 or 0.08 are considered indicators of good
fit. As seen in Exhibit 3, all goodness-of-fit statistics are
in the acceptable ranges.
The graphical presentation of results is shown in Figure
2. The Figure shows the standardized path coefficients,
illustrating the significant relationships among the study
52
variables. Hypothesis 01, 02, and 03 – that depersonalization, reduced personal accomplishment, and emotional exhaustion have a negative effect on job
satisfaction – are postulated. The direct path from depersonalization to job satisfaction is significant since the
regression coefficient is 0.72 with t value of t = 11.46,
and p<0.05. Therefore, the hypothesis that increased
depersonalization will have a negative impact on job
satisfaction is supported. Also, the direct path from reduced personal accomplishment to job satisfaction is significant since the regression coefficient is 0.18 with t
value of t = 4.01 and p<0.05. The second hypothesis –
employees with high emotional exhaustion content will
exhibit low levels of job satisfaction – is accepted. The
third hypothesis – emotional exhaustion is negatively
related with job satisfaction – is also accepted because
the direct path from emotional exhaustion to job satisfaction is significant since the regression coefficient is
0.15 with t value of t = 2.70 and p< 0.05.
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT AND JOB SATISFACTION AMONG TEACHERS ...
Exhibit 3: Summary Statistics of Model Fit
Fit Index
Recommended Values*
Observed Values
Chi-square/degrees of freedom
<=3.00
1.71
GFI
>=0.90
0.95
AGFI
>=0.80
0.87
NNFI
>=0.90
0.98
CFI
>=0.90
0.97
RMSR
<=0.10
0.09
RMSEA
<=0.08
0.07
GFI=goodness-of-fit index; AGFI=adjusted goodness-of-fit;NNFI= non-normed fit index; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSR= root mean square
residual; RMSEA= root mean square error of approximation.
* Source: Schumacker and Lomax (2004)
Figure 2: Test of Research Model
Depersonalization
0.72
Reduced Personal Accomplishment
0.18
Job Satisfaction
0.33
Organizational Commitment
0.15
Emotional Exhaustion
Finally, the fourth hypothesis – higher levels of job satisfaction lead to higher organizational commitment – is
supported in that the direct path from job satisfaction to
organizational commitment is significant since the regression coefficient is 0.33 with p< 0.05.
Demographic Profile and the Constructs
Gender
Gender and Burnout: Analysis of the data shows that
female teachers experience a higher degree of burnout
(4.86) as compared to the male teachers (4.38), indicating that the feeling of tiredness, frustration, or stress is
more among females. Out of the three dimensions of
burnout, female teachers score higher on emotional exhaustion and reduced personal accomplishment indicating that they could not work the way they wanted to
with their students or that they had less influence on
their students, whereas male teachers tend to score
higher on depersonalization.
A possible explanation for such observations could be
that women are more emotional and respond emotionVIKALPA • VOLUME 37 • NO 2 • APRIL - JUNE 2012
ally to situations both at home and at workplace and
are also more open about such emotional disclosures as
compared to men. Also demands at work add to the
additional responsibilities at home leading to working
women experiencing burnout compared to working
men.
The results and conclusions regarding burnout and gender remain confusing as studies in the past have given
mixed and at times contradictory results. For example,
some studies have indicated that women are more likely
to report higher levels of burnout (Maslach et al., 2001)
whereas others have found the opposite (Tung, 1980).
However, the current study found a significant difference in the stress dimensions among male and female
teachers. While studies still need to investigate differences with respect to gender, the issue is clearly more
complex than gender alone.
Gender and Job Satisfaction: In terms of job satisfaction, the mean score for female teachers was higher (3.45)
than that of the male teachers (2.83) and the difference
was found to be statistically significant when subjected
53
to test of significance (Exhibit 4). This implies that females show higher levels of job satisfaction as compared
to men.
One of the critical components of job satisfaction is salary. In the Indian context, the male members are invariably responsible for running the household. In this
context, their expectations from their job are primarily
related to money gain. Dissatisfaction with salary leads
to overall dissatisfaction with the job among men.
Women, on the other hand, are more satisfied with their
job because they shoulder lesser responsibilities in terms
of monetary contribution at home. Another reason for
this can be attributed to low expectations about job status among female teachers as compared to male teachers.
Gender and Organizational Commitment: The mean
score for organizational commitment was higher among
female teachers (4.94) compared to the male teachers
(4.39) indicating that female teachers show a higher degree of commitment towards the organization. An analysis of this result leads to an explanation that there is a
perceived difference in alternative employment opportunities between genders. Another explanation offered
for this finding is that women have to overcome more
barriers than men to gain membership of organizations
(Grusky, 1966) though the problem seems to be receding.
Age
Age and Burnout: The relationship between age and
burnout was analysed in three age groups: 20-30 (young),
30-40 (Middle age), and 40 and above (aging). ANOVA
results show that age is negatively related to the probability of having burnout in the age group of young
teachers and positively related to the probability of having burnout in the middle aged and aging workers. Results were significant at five per cent level (v1=2, v2=69;
Fcal=4.73; Ftab=4.26). One reason for such an outcome
could be that in the early years of one’s job, workers are
enthusiastic and take on challenges of the job with ease.
But at the final stage of one’s work career, growing demands for learning and flexibility may tax aging workers more than the younger workers.
Age and Job Satisfaction: Age-wise analysis of job satisfaction reveal significant difference between mean of
the three age groups (v1=2, v2=57; Fcal=3.26; Ftab=3.15).
Older employees report higher degree of job satisfaction compared to younger employees. It seems probable
that older employees tend to lower their expectations in
some respects as they age, making them more satisfied
with their job, while younger employees are dissatisfied because of the high expectations which are not met
with through their jobs.
Age and Organizational Commitment: Results of the
present study reveal a significant difference in the three
age groups with the older teachers having a stronger
commitment towards their organization (v1=2, v2=51;
Fcal=3.98; Ftab=3.15). These findings are in line with past
research. Much of the literature reveals a positive relationship between age and organizational commitment
(Mathieu and Zajac, 1990). One possible explanation for
this could be that with age, older workers become more
mature, have longer experience with them, and also enjoy better positions in the organization.
DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS
Psychologists and researchers have made considerable
effort to bring to light the attributes in a worker’s life
that lead to satisfaction toward his/her job. Teachers are
an essential part of a successful educational system.
However, very little research has emerged on the factors that lead to job satisfaction and also of the subsequent effect of increased job satisfaction on the
commitment of a worker toward his/her organization.
Therefore, we have sought to address this gap with a
study of three constructs of burnout, job satisfaction, and
organizational commitment in a university setup.
Exhibit 4: Burnout, Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment among Female and Male Teachers
t-test for Equality of Means
Female Teachers (Mean)
Male Teachers (Mean)
t-value
Burnout
4.86
4.38
1.87*
Job satisfaction
3.45
2.83
2.42*
Organizational commitment
4.94
4.39
3.18*
*Significant at 5% level
54
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT AND JOB SATISFACTION AMONG TEACHERS ...
Studies in the past have linked increased burnout with
negative effects such as depression, decreased self-esteem, anxiety, and other health problems. Results of the
present study reveal that job burnout, which has been
recognized as an issue of serious concern for employees
and employers, is linked to decreased job satisfaction.
In conjunction with the results of Maslach and Jackson
(1986), our study reveals that burnout is a syndrome of
emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced
personal accomplishment. The hypothesis test shows
that increased depersonalization has a negative impact
on an employee’s satisfaction with his/her job. One can
attribute this finding to a number of reasons. Depersonalization is characterized by negative feelings and cynical attitude towards the recipients of one’s services
(Maslach and Jackson, 1986). As conditions at the workplace become acute, one of the problems poised to become the prominent challenge for teachers is managing
time in teaching-related activities including preparing
lectures, delivering lectures, coaching and mentoring,
advising, attending professional meetings, guiding research, convening extra-curricular activities, etc. Teachers entering the field spend a majority of their life at
work, initially trying to establish themselves and later
getting involved in administrative jobs alongside teaching, leading to a lack of time and thus a lot of stress.
Any stress they experience in relation to their job gets
carried over to their overall satisfaction with their job.
Teachers spend a minimum of six hours per day directly
with their students. Lack of time for managing too many
jobs leads teachers to develop a cynical attitude towards
their students, as they feel that too much is being demanded from them in too little time. Teachers experiencing high levels of depersonalization eventually suffer
deterioration of their relationship with students which
in turn leads to a reduced sense of satisfaction with various aspects of their job.
Another aspect of burnout is emotional exhaustion,
which is energy depletion or draining of emotional resources characterized by mental, emotional, and physical fatigue. The findings reveal that teachers with high
levels of emotional exhaustion exhibit lower levels of
job satisfaction. Working beyond one’s capacity to match
up with institutional demands lead employees to overwork, thereby significantly affecting their health. This
finding is also supported by a growing body of evidence
that links the effects of stress on performance and health.
VIKALPA • VOLUME 37 • NO 2 • APRIL - JUNE 2012
This feeling of fatigue consequently leaves a worker
unhappy and dissatisfied with the job as he/she is unable to deal with the ever increasing demands of the
workplace.
Another contributor to decreased levels of job satisfaction is the feeling among employees of being inefficient.
Undoubtedly, our society values some jobs more than
the others. Therefore people make effort to attain such
jobs. Once in the organization, individuals work hard
seeking opportunities to grow. However, lack of sufficient resources or role ambiguity sometimes lead employees towards a feeling of low personal accomplishment. The absence of desired rewards in response to
dedication and hard work, leads to negative evaluation
of one’s work and feelings of inefficiency and poor selfesteem thereby leading to decreased levels of satisfaction with one’s job.
The study concludes that job satisfaction is a significant
predictor of a teacher’s commitment toward his/her
organization. Teachers high on job satisfaction are more
likely to exhibit greater organizational commitment.
Since teachers satisfied with their jobs are more likely to
be happy and have a stronger will to work hard, they
may be more effective and successful in performing their
roles. This satisfaction and positive feeling toward one’s
job further promotes feeling of commitment toward the
organization that acts as the very source of such satisfaction.
Thus, the emotional attachment or commitment of teachers with their institution should be encouraged by developing and strengthening the feeling of accomplishment that one derives from one’s job.
The results of the study have implications for the management of educational institutions as employee burnout may have important consequences for the organization. Constant stress can result in decreased employee
involvement with the job, decreased organizational commitment, and lower levels of job satisfaction. It may even
result in increased levels of turnover and absenteeism.
The cost of turnover to organizations can be high. Due
to high work stress, the turnover of teachers is another
important outcome of stress. In such a scenario, management needs to spend considerable amount of time in
order to deal with issues related to stress management.
If the work becomes too stressful, chances are that the
employees will be inefficient, ultimately putting their
55
own position in jeopardy. Therefore, understanding the
possible causes of burnout as an antecedent to decreased
levels of job satisfaction is important. If stress is reduced,
employees are more likely to remain happy, productive,
and generally satisfied with their job.
One of the most alarming outcomes of decreased job
satisfaction is its effect on health. There is growing evidence that job conditions may be eroding job satisfaction thereby directly damaging physical and mental
health of employees. Lowered levels of job satisfaction
results in unhappy workers, which in turn is likely to
affect their performance leading to lowered productivity. This may further cause a greater sense of job dissatisfaction. While happy workers would turn up more
often to work as they enjoy it, a dissatisfied worker would
try to remain absent from work to avoid it. Such dissatisfied workers are also more likely to leave the organization. As a result, employee turnover leads to skilled
employee shortages and affects organizational commitment (Mathieu and Zajac, 1990). Lowered organizational
commitment further has implications for organizational
outcomes comprising loyalty, intention to leave, and job
performance.
Therefore, organizational commitment is essential for
retaining and attracting well qualified workers as only
satisfied and committed workers will be willing to continue their association with the organization and make
considerable effort toward achieving its goals. An employee’s positive attitude toward his/her job engenders
greater commitment toward the organization. Educational institutes require individuals with a high level of
commitment towards their job so that they can contribute wholeheartedly in the interest of all the stakeholders.
Teachers with strong commitment are self-motivated
and honest in whatever they engage themselves in.
When organizations provide favourable work settings,
the job holders view them as rewards and thus respond
by making a psychological contract which may be demonstrated through more effort, regular attendance, and
greater participation in work (Angle and Perry, 1983).
Therefore, understanding of a psychological construct
like organizational commitment creates practical usefulness for human resource practitioners who might
develop commitment by designing work conditions that
allow employees to be more involved in their work, creating a heightened sense of pride and ownership from
56
working in that organization. Satisfaction, promotions
(Wasti, 2003), and organizational identification (House
et al., 2004) are the strongest predictors of organizational
commitment. Therefore, providing job security, structured progression and development, and meeting uncertainty avoidance needs become essential. Therefore,
organizations may re-examine its policies related to
building commitment by employing strategies such as
rapid promotions, pension plans, participative work
culture, etc., for improving organizational commitment.
Burnout, another psychological construct, is a source of
concern for the management. One possible work design
that may be adopted for burnout management involves
encouraging teachers to attend orientation programmes
which include stress management. Job-related stress may
be reduced by employing more clerical staff to help
teachers with non-teaching matters so that teachers can
focus more on teaching. Stress is also found to be related to role ambiguity. Role ambiguity exists when there
is insufficient information about work roles and when
there is uncertainty about expectations from the higher
authorities and coworkers. Stress arising out of such
ambiguities can be reduced if the human resource management policies indicate a clear job description for each
teacher, head of the department, and administrative
staff.
To conclude, since teachers are such a valuable resource
to educational institutes, management must invest significant resources in the assessment of their working
environment, both mental and physical, to maximize the
quality of service delivery.
LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH
Although the present study took a positive approach in
reviewing previous literature of job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and burnout and the analysis of
the relationship among them using advanced statistical
tools, there are some limitations worth acknowledging.
These include issues with the research sample size in
relation to and with the actual population of teachers in
educational institutions of Jammu; the constraint may
have direct impact on possible generalizations of the
research outcomes and may, therefore, call for further
research using a larger sample size. Further, although
the study examined burnout factors affecting organizational commitment and job satisfaction, these variables
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT AND JOB SATISFACTION AMONG TEACHERS ...
were studied in the context of university teachers alone.
As a result, there may be differences in the findings between this sample and a more traditional sample including teachers from government and private institutes as
well as teachers from schools and colleges in addition
to university teachers, resulting in increased confidence
when it comes to making generalizations.
Research in future attempting to determine a relationship between burnout, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment may thus want to elaborate on the
participants of the present study. Expansion of the
present study may include a larger sample size, both
public and private educational institutes, and a more
geographically diverse sample.
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Komal Nagar is an Assistant Professor at the Business School,
University of Jammu. A Ph.D. in Marketing, she has over seven
years of corporate and academic experience. She has conducted
training for government officers, corporate managers and executives and students. Her research interests lie in the areas of
Brand Management, Advertising, and Consumer Behaviour.
She has authored a book and has to her credit publications in
reputed national and international journals including Management Review and Vision and has presented her research findings in various national and international confe- rences within
and outside the country.
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e-mail: [email protected]
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT AND JOB SATISFACTION AMONG TEACHERS ...