J OURNAL
OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS EDUCATION
JPAE
VOL. 23
NO. 1
The journal of NASPAA — The Global Standard in Public Service Education
WINTER 2017
Journal of Public Affairs Education
The Journal of Public Affairs Education (JPAE) is the journal of NASPAA, the membership
association of graduate education programs in public policy, public affairs, public administration,
and public & nonprofit management. NASPAA has nearly 300 member institutions located across
the U.S. and around the globe.
NASPAA is the global standard in public service education. Its Commission on Peer Review and
Accreditation is the recognized accreditor of master’s degree programs in the field.
NASPAA has been a national and international resource since 1970, by ensuring excellence
in education and training for public service, and by promoting the ideal of public service.
It accomplishes its mission through direct services to its member institutions and by
•
Developing standards for master’s programs in public affairs, and representing
the objectives and needs of education in public affairs;
•
Encouraging curriculum development and innovation and providing a forum
for publication and discussion of education scholarship, practices, and issues;
•
Building the authoritative source of data on public affairs education;
•
Promoting public sector internship and employment opportunities for
students and graduates;
•
Partnering with practitioner professional organizations;
•
Engaging globally with national and regional organizations involved with
public affairs education.
Founded in 1995, JPAE was originally published as the Journal of Public Administration Education.
H. George Frederickson was the journal’s founding editor. The journal is hosted and edited by the
Daniel J. Evans School of Public Policy and Governance, a NASPAA member school, selected
through a competitive process. In addition to serving as NASPAA’s journal of record, JPAE is
affiliated with the Section on Public Administration Education of the American Society for
Public Administration.
Journal of Public Affairs Education551
Contents
Editorial Perspectives
Teaching Our Students about Evidence
Marieka Klawitter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
555
Public Administration in the Age of Trump
David Schultz. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
557
Articles
I Can’t Believe I Haven’t Been Asked This Question Before: Bringing “Why Government?” and
“Which Government?” to the Classroom
Michael Thom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
563
Beyond the Case Method in Public Affairs Education: Unexpected Benefits
of Student-Written Cases
Maite Careaga, Nadia Rubaii, & Santiago Leyva. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
571
In Proximity to Professionalism: A Regional Analysis of Master of Public Administration
Programs and Local Government Management
Christian L. Janousek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
591
Core Competencies in Master of Public Administration Programs: Perspectives from Local
Government Managers
Brittany Haupt, Naim Kapucu, & Qian Hu. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
611
On-Campus Versus Hybrid Courses in a Master of Public Administration Program
Karl Nollenberger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
625
Rubrics as a Foundation for Assessing Student Competencies: One Public Administration
Program’s Creative Exercise
Billie Sandberg & Kevin Kecskes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
552
Journal of Public Affairs Education
637
Film Review
Review of What Is Philanthropy?
Ashley E. Nickels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
653
Information for Submissions
JPAE Reviewers. .
Articles .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
556
inside back cover
Cover Photo
Minneapolis City Hall and the Hennepin County Courthouse (also known as the Municipal Building),
designed by Long and Kees in 1888, is the main building used by the city government of Minneapolis,
Minnesota as well as by Hennepin County, Minnesota.
Cover and Interior Deslgn
Val Escher
Book design property of NASPAA.
Journal of Public Affairs Education553
554
Journal of Public Affairs Education
Editorial Perspectives
Teaching Our Students
about Evidence
Marieka Klawitter
Co-Editor
Many of us work hard to teach our students
how to use evidence in their work. In statistics,
research methods, policy analysis, program
evaluation, and many issue-area courses, we ask
our students to learn about data quality, data
analysis, and how to effectively communicate
about evidence to policy makers. We live in a
data-rich time: data are available on our
desktops or at the click of a button on almost
any issue. I am not sure if this makes it easier or
harder for students today who still need to
understand which data, manipulated in what
ways, and communicated in what formats will
answer the questions we have.
Several resources will help us engage students
in pondering evidence. The first is the recent
American Statistical Association statement on
the meaning of p values (Wasserstein & Lazar
2016), highlighting the limitations of statistical
significance and the need for care in performing
and presenting data analysis. In short, the
statement reminds us that no one calculation
can reveal a causal relationship and its im­por­
tance. Instead, we must help students develop
the capacity to use a broader set of indicators
and processes for developing evidence. I will be
using this resource in my statistics course, to
help students understand the need for judgment
in creating or understanding evidence.
A second resource is a set of background papers
created by the U.S. Office of Management and
Budget (2016) for the bipartisan Commission
JPAE 23 (1), 555–556
on Evidence-Based Policymaking. The auth­
orizing legislation asks commission members
to consider how to increase the availability
and use of survey and administrative data in
designing and assessing government programs
and policies. The background papers describe
the types of evidence needed for that task,
including general data and evidence and
program-specific analysis, and will serve as
wonderful readings for students. Part of the
motivation for this work is the challenge of
gaining respondent cooperation in datacollection efforts like the U.S. Census and
other surveys in this time of online overload. I
will be assigning the paper on using data for my
statistics and policy analysis courses to
emphasize the need for skills in finding and
applying data.
Encouraging students to see evidence as a key
ingredient in management and policy develop­
ment requires us to help them see it as an
evolving and living enterprise. These resources
point to changing environments and under­
stand­ings of that work.
—Marieka
Klawitter
co-editor
Journal of Public Affairs Education
Evans school of public policy
and governancE
university of washington
[email protected] OR [email protected]
Journal of Public Affairs Education555
M. Klawitter
REFERENCES
Wasserstein, R. L., & Lazar, N. A. (2016). The ASA’s
statement on p-values: Context, process, and pur­
pose. American Statistician, 70(2), 129–133.
U.S. Office of Management and Budget. (2016).
Com­­
mission on evidence based policymaking.
Retrieved from https://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/
management/commission_evidence.
call for reviewers
JOURNAL OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS EDUCATION
opportunities
are available in 2016–2017
ABOUT THe co-editor
is a faculty member at the
Evans School of Public Policy and Governance
of the University of Washington. She holds a
Masters in Public Policy from the Univer­sity of
Michigan and a PhD in Economics from the
University of Wisconsin. Her research focuses
on public policies that affect family work and
in­
come, in­
cluding studies of welfare, family
sav­­­
ings, and anti-discrimination policies for
sex­ual orienta­tion. Marieka teaches courses on
pub­
lic policy anal­
ysis, quantitative methods,
pro­­
gram evaluation, and asset building for
low income families.
Marieka Klawitter
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Journal of Public Affairs Education
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ay !
Editorial Perspectives
Public Administration
in the Age of Trump
David Schultz
Co-Editor
The United States and the world enter a new
era with the Donald Trump presidency. His
election portends and culminates challenges
and trends domestically in the United States and
globally that have been building for 40 years.
The era of Trump is not singularly about what
is happening in one country but represents a
wave that globally is linked to Brexit, the Syrian
refugee crisis, and the capacity of governments
to respond to governance issues that will affect
all nations. Trump’s election is about the crisis
of contemporary public administration.
To understand why Trump’s election cannot be
viewed in isolation, one must first understand
why he won. First, there are many reasons why
Hillary Clinton lost; some are self-inflicted,
others a consequence of bad timing and luck.
Clinton was in the end a weak candidate. She
was a poor public speaker, she lacked a clear
rationale for why she wanted to be president,
and she had a strategy that simply did not
resonate with many voters, especially the white
working class who voted for Trump. She never
had a good explanation about her e-mails and
the use of a private server or about her Wall
Street speeches. She was someone that many
voters did not feel passionate about, resulting
in less of the Democratic Party base voting for
her than the Republican Party voting for Trump.
Clinton also was unable to capture the swing
or undecided voters in large percentages, and
these were the voters who broke decisively in
the last few days for Trump.
JPAE 23 (1), 557–562
But Clinton was also a victim of circumstances.
Her greatest asset was her experience as a
senator and secretary of state, but this hurt her
in a year where being a Washington insider was
a liability. She ran as the status quo candidate
who would continue Barack Obama’s policies,
but the mood of the country was for change.
She was also a victim of sexism, facing unique
problems as a woman that no previous major
party presidential candidate has had to deal
with. There was the unfortunate luck of the
cost increases under the Affordable Care Act
(or Obamacare), and she also became the fifth
victim in American presidential history to win
the popular vote but lose the electoral vote.
But more deeply, global trends explain Trump’s
victory. These trends have been building since
the 1970s. Late in that decade, global stagflation
and economically poor performances across
the world, but especially in the United King­dom and the United States, ushered in Prime
Min­
ister Margaret Thatcher and President
Ronald Reagan. Together, these leaders repre­
sented the emergence of neoliberal economic
policies, both domestically and globally.
Neoliberalism is a political economic theory
committed to the ideology of laissez-faire mar­
ket fundamentalism that traces back to Adam
Smith and David Ricardo (Plant, 2009). It
includes a belief in comparative advantage, a
minimalist state, and market freedom and is, as
articulated in the 1990s and early 2000s, driven
Journal of Public Affairs Education557
D. Schultz
by finance capital. At the state level, neoliber­
alism defines a theory of public administration.
If neoliberalism includes a commitment to
mar­ket fundamentalism, then that also means
it is dedicated to a politics of limited govern­
ment. This includes privatization, dereg­u­lation,
and a scaling back of many traditional functions
that capitalist and Communist states have
performed since at least World War II.
As a theory of public administration, neolib­
eralism dictates specific roles for government
officials. It means, in the case of privatization,
that managers either become contract admini­
strators who oversee previously performed state
functions now being delivered by private actors,
or they oversee the sale of state-run businesses
to private entities. A neoliberal public admini­
stration theory commits managers to cutting
regulations or making them more business
friendly, crafting them in ways to encourage
private capital accumulation. In the United
States, one example of this is the 1999 GrammLeach-Bliley Act, which deregulated banking.
Finally, a neoliberal theory of public admini­
stration also facilitates antiunion rules and those
that make it more difficult for individuals to
secure welfare benefits from the state.
A neoliberal theory of public administration in
the traditional capitalist West also elicits theories
of management such as New Public Manage­
ment and Reinventing Government (Schultz &
Maranto, 1998). Both frameworks seek to
import traditional private sector management
theories that stress efficiency into the public
sector. In former Communist countries, neo­
liberal ideology, especially during the transition
period, emphasized shock therapy: rapid con­
ver­sion from central planning to market econ­
omies that included privatization, dismantling
price supports, and a rapid sell-off of stateowned industries (Åslund, 2007; Åslund, 2009).
But neoliberalism as a theory transcends the state,
providing an international economic theory
committed to free trade and globalism. Steger
(2002) distinguishes between two aspects of
558
Journal of Public Affairs Education
globalism. He describes globalization as a social
process or material process, referring to a form
of a means of production and attendant social
relations that organize the forces of production
(Steger, 2002, p. 13). He contrasts this to
globalism, which is the dominant political
ideo­logy of the day that serves neoliberal inter­
ests. Globalism and neo­liberal­ism are best under­
stood through the lens of New York Times
columnist Thomas Friedman’s work; namely,
The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the TwentyFirst Century (2005).
The neoliberal world that emerged in the early
1990s produced several benefits but also brought
with it significant global restricting of econ­o­
mies. Free-trade agreements such as NAFTA
has­
tened the migration of jobs away from
countries such as the United States to Mexico,
China, or elsewhere. Neoliberalism produced
significant gaps between the rich and poor
within countries and across the globe. There
were clear winners and losers, and when the
world economy crashed in 2008 it appeared
that neoliberalism had lost. President Obama
pro­mised to fix these problems, but in the eyes
of many in the United States, he failed.
Obama’s economic recovery never reached down
to help the working and middle classes. Many
individuals voted for him for change, and it did
not occur. In fact, over a 40-year period in the
United States, from 1976 to 2016, both the
Democratic and Republican Parties controlled
the presidency for 20 years each, and Congress
has also seen shifting party control. Many
voters have found that neither party seems to
address their concerns, and when Donald
Trump came along, positioning himself as an
outsider who would shake things up, his
message resonated with many who felt left out
and ignored.
Trump’s victory represents a repudiation of both
the U.S. government and public admini­stra­
tion. It represents a vote of no confidence in the
status quo means of governance, declaring that
the government has not been representing
Editorial Perspectives
critical voices in society or delivering the goods
to those who feel like they work hard but are
kept down by unfair rules.
Trump’s victory, thus, in many ways is both a
break from the status quo and something new in
that it expects a person with no government
experience to fix the government. This belief
says that only a nongovernmental person can
save government. But his victory is also a con­
tinuation of the Thatcher-Reagan neoliberal
policies that see government as bad and markets
as good. Trump’s win is born of both neo­
liberalism and its rejection, at least in the form
practiced under Barack Obama and espoused
by Hillary Clinton.
But Trump is not only a U.S. phenomenon,
especially in light of the racial overtones that
fueled his campaign. Economic and racial fears
are on the rise worldwide and are driving a new
nationalism. This is Brexit in the United King­
dom, Marine Le Pen of the far-right National
Front in France, Prime Minister Vik­tor Orbán
in Hungary, and President Rodrigo Duterte in
the Philippines. All represent what I have cal­l­ed the crisis of public administration theory
(Schultz, 2011), but they also speak to a crisis
of confidence in democracy.
In the last issue of JPAE, I described 10 policy
challenges that public administration must con­
front, including global warming and economic
inequality. It is unclear whether Trump or
Trumpism will address them. Trump is now
president and the question is what will he do?
He made a lot of noise about building a fence
along the U.S.-Mexican border, wanting to re­
negotiate trade deals, and of perhaps re­thinking
NATO and the U.S. relationship with Russia
and Vladimir Putin. How much of this will or
can he undertake?
Domestically, Trump has called for many
changes, but it is unclear what he can do on his
own. Historian Richard Neustadt once said that
the power of the presidency is the power to
persuade. Presidents are not generals, business
leaders, or monarchs and they cannot just order
people around. They need to persuade others,
including Congress, the bureaucracy, the states,
the media, and the public if they want to
succeed as presidents. Trump’s narrow victory
in a divided America means he will be limited
in terms of whom he can persuade. His own
Republican Party is divided, and it is not certain
that Congress will grant him an easy path.
Because Trump ran a campaign largely devoid
of policy, he has no clear policy agenda.
In addition, presidents are constrained by a
powerful bureaucracy, federalism, checks and
balances, and separation of powers. At the end
of the day, there will be no wall along the
Mexican border, and mass deportations will
not occur. Trump will make America a less
kinder and gentler place, but the extremism
that some worry about will not occur. U.S. pol­
itical institutions are not that fragile, I hope.
In foreign policy, often the best predictor of
what a new president will do is the previous
president. There is far more continuity across
presidential foreign policy than there is
divergence. Obama made marginal changes
from Bush. The foreign policy establishment is
power and it transcends political parties. Trump
may find he is more captured by this bureaucracy
than he realizes.
Trump may try to force changes in trade deals
but faces retaliation from China and the Euro­
pean Union, who will not passively sit by. The
same is true of the World Trade Organization.
Trump may think he knows Putin, but after he
gets burned by him a couple of times Trump
may turn on him. Trump wants to tear up the
Iranian nuclear deal, but it is not clear what he
has to replace it with and it is doubtful the rest
of the world will go along. Unilateral action in
Syria and against ISIS (or Daesh) is possible,
but Trump seems not to have real alternatives.
And even his talk about NATO and its alter­
natives may be more bluster than reality. It just
does not seem feasible that the U.S. foreign and
military policy establishment will let that
Journal of Public Affairs Education559
D. Schultz
happen. Yes, perhaps a new global order needs
to emerge, but the United States in 2017 is not
in the same position to force this change as it
was in 1946, or even at the end of the Cold
War. In short, Trump may simply misunder­
stand or not appreciate how little power he has,
or what the real issues are he needs to address.
Program’s Creative Exercise” focus on impor­
tant pedagogical practices. Ashley E. Nickels’s
review of the Salvatore Alaimo documentary
What Is Philanthropy? completes this issue by
looking at ways that NGOs can address some
of the prob­lems caused by the current govern­
ance crisis.
So how does all this connect to JPAE and pub­
lic affairs? First, for our field to remain relevant
we need to make the case for public ad­min­
istration and demonstrate a capacity to improve
governance. Second, that means that public
affairs teaching and scholarship must be rele­
vant; we must engage the world and confront
the challenges that undergird the forces that
pro­duced Trumpism in the United States and
around the world. Third, this issue features six
articles and a review essay that aim to improve
our capacity to teach and train future public
administrators. “I Can’t Believe I Haven’t Been
Asked This Question Before: Bringing ‘Why
Government?’ and ‘Which Government?’ to
the Classroom,” by Michael Thom, directly
con­fronts the most basic ques­tion Trumpism
asks regarding the relevancy of government.
Maite Careaga, Nadia Rubaii, and Santiago
Leyva’s “Beyond the Case Method in Public
Affairs Education: Unexpected Bene­
fits of
Student-Written Cases” demon­strates the power
of students crafting their own problems they
believe need to be solved. Christian L. Janou­
sek’s “In Proximity to Professionalism: A Re­
gional Analysis of Master of Public Admin­
istration Programs and Local Government
Management” looks at the connection between
academic programs and the communities they
serve, while Brittany Haupt, Naim Kapucu,
and Qian Hu raise questions about how these
communities view our programs in “Core
Com­
petencies in Master of Public Admin­
i­
stration Programs: Perspectives from Local
Govern­
ment Managers.” And Karl Nollen­
berger’s “On-Campus versus Hybrid Courses
in a Master of Public Administration Program”
and Billie Sandberg and Kevin Kecskes’s
“Rubrics as a Foundation for Assessing Student
Competencies: One Public Admini­
stration
Trumpism is a challenge to public admini­stra­
tion and affairs. But those of us who care about
the capacity and role of government to improve
everyone’s quality of life must be prepared to
respond to that challenge. I hope what we pub­
lish in JPAE can rise to that challenge.
560
Journal of Public Affairs Education
—David
Schultz
Co-editor
Journal of Public Affairs Education
hamline university
[email protected]
ABOUT THe co-editor
is professor of political science at
Hamline University and professor at the Ham­
line and University of Minnesota Schools of
Law. He is a three-time Fulbright Scholar and
the author of more than 30 books and 100+
articles on various aspects of American politics,
election law, and the media and politics. Schultz
is regularly interviewed and quoted on these
subjects in the local, national, and inter­national
media, including the New York Times, Wall
Street Journal, Washington Post, Economist, and
National Public Radio. His most recent book is
Presidential Swing States: Why Only Ten Matter
(Lexington Books, 2015).
David Schultz
Editorial Perspectives
REFERENCES
Åslund, A. (2007). How capitalism was built: The trans­
formation of central and eastern Europe, Russia, and
Central Asia. New York, NY: Cambridge Univer­sity Press.
Åslund, A. (2009). How Ukraine became a market
economy and democracy. Washington, DC: Peterson
Institute for International Economics.
Friedman, T. (2005). The world is flat: A brief history
of the twenty-first century. New York, NY: Farrar,
Straus and Giroux.
Neustadt, R. (1960). Presidential power and modern
presidents. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Plant, R. (2009). The neo-liberal state. New York, NY:
Oxford University Press.
Schultz, D. (2011). The crisis of public administration
theory in a post-global world. In D. Menzel and
H. White (Eds.), The state of public administration:
Issues, challenges, opportunities (pp. 453–463).
Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.
Schultz, D., & Maranto, R. (1998). The politics of civil
service reform. New York, NY: Peter Lang Publishing.
Steger, M. (2002). Globalism: The new market ideology.
Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
Journal of Public Affairs Education561
D. Schultz
About Us
The Journal of Public Affairs Education [JPAE ) is the journal of NASPAA, the membership
association of graduate education programs in public policy, public affairs, public administration,
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ISSN 1523-6803 (formerly 1087–7789)
562
Journal of Public Affairs Education
I Can’t Believe I Haven’t Been
Asked This Question Before:
Bringing “Why Government?” and
“Which Government?” to the Classroom
Michael Thom
University of Southern California
ABSTRACT
The question “Why government?” is as central to political debate as it is to public affairs education.
This article outlines an approach to teaching “Why government?” and a closely related question,
“Which government?” in an introductory public administration course. I offer five components
that instructors can use in whole or in part. These components can be scaled according to class level
and are not limited to use within the United States. Informal student feedback suggests a high
degree of satisfaction with the exercise, long-term reflection on the underlying questions, and some
integration with other coursework.
KEYWORDS
Federalism, intergovernmental relations, governance, state and local government, philosophy
As Schultz (2015) recently argued in this jour­
nal, the question “Why government?” is central
to both political debates and public affairs edu­
cation. Indeed, within the last few years, several
books have been published about the proper
role of government in society (e.g., Kleinbard,
2014; Schuck, 2014). Yet public opinion on
the issue is often contradictory. Some evidence
suggests that the public wants all levels of gov­
ernment to “do more” (e.g., Schneider, Jacoby,
& Lewis, 2011), but a 2013 Gallup poll found
that 72% of American adults believe that “big
government” is the primary threat to the Un­it­ed
States, while just 21% answered “big bus­iness”
and 5% said “big labor” (Jones, 2013).
Public affairs students will confront the question
of “Why government?” and its polarizing answers
JPAE 23 (1), 563–570
as professionals, taxpayers, consumers, and voters.
They will also confront a key issue embedded
in all federal systems: “Which government?”—
that is, the question of whether federal, state,
and/or local governments should be delegat­ed
responsibility for providing specific public
goods and services. But unfortunately, most
public policy and administration programs
grant little attention to political philosophy
and the relationship between philosophy and
govern­ance (Schultz, 2013; cf. Ringeling, 2015).
This state of affairs comes despite Wilson’s
(1887) seminal directive that public admini­
stration “discover, first, what government can
properly and successfully do, and, secondly,
how it can do these proper things with the
utmost possible efficiency and at the least poss­
ible cost of either money or energy” (p. 197).
Journal of Public Affairs Education563
M. Thom
The lack of normative emphasis has many
causes. Mead (2013) notes that public affairs
programs often separate normative elements
of policy analysis (e.g., social justice) from
empirical elements (e.g., cost-benefit analysis),
placing greater emphasis on the latter. Although
doctoral curricula may require a philosophy
course, master’s-level programs and professional
doctorates typically do not, given their focus on
practice over theory. More generally, the num­
ber of courses a student in any program can
take is limited. Faced with an expansive list of
mandatory classes and internship oppor­tun­ities,
students often find that philosophy can, at best,
be only an elective. For better or worse, norm­
ative public affairs issues are often relegated to
units embedded within courses that focus on
other topics.
This article outlines one approach to asking both
“Why government?” and “Which government?”
in an introductory public administration course.
I first describe my initial motivation for asking
these questions of my students. I then explore
learning exercises that illustrate the challenges
inherent in answering each question, in both
normative and administrative terms. I conclude
by discussing both my observations while
carry­
ing out these exercises and qualitative
student feedback received during and after
the exercises.
BACKGROUND
During conversations with undergraduate and
graduate students, I often notice a pattern:
when asked why government should be in­
volved in a particular area, and which level of
government should be responsible, students
react intuitively rather than rationally. For
instance, students frequently answer that the
public sector should “do more” to remedy a
given problem and they often strongly believe
that the problem is best left to federal, state, or
local officials; but when pressed for details,
students have to stop and think through a
rationale. To the extent that people often
resolve normative dilemmas through intuition
rather than reason, this pattern is not altogeth­er surprising (e.g., Haidt, 2012). But it struck
me as a perfect learning opportunity.
564
Journal of Public Affairs Education
Since 2014, I have covered “Why government?”
and “Which government?” during the first or
second week of each semester in my intro­duc­
tory public administration course. I frame the
questions by asking students to think about
two separate but closely related dimensions.
The normative, horizontal issue is the individ­
ual versus the state. This speaks directly to the
question of “Why government?” by prompt­ing
students to think about the ways in which
responsibility for public and private goods are
currently—and should be—allocated among
in­dividuals, voluntary forms of association, and
governments. The practical, vertical issue is
state versus state, or “Which government?” In
considering this question, students think about
how responsibilities delegated to the public
sector writ large are best allocated across fed­
eral, state, and local levels, as well as about the
benefits and drawbacks of devolution and
shared oversight. Students also begin to link
their philosophies about “Why government?”
with the administrative implications regarding
“Which government?”
DESCRIPTION OF ACTIVITIES
Component 1: Pre-Reading
Prior to the first class meeting, I assign students
two articles regarding the individual versus
the state. Within American political tradition,
this dimension is often shaped by the limitedgovernment philosophy set forth in the U.S.
Constitution. Instead of asking students to read
the Constitution, I assign two articles that ex­
plore the underlying political philosophies.
Kenney (1955) offers a brief, Catholic socio­
log­ical perspective regarding the principle of
subsidiarity, which argues that governments
should not adopt functions that individuals can
perform on their own, that governments should
continually self-regulate to determine if the
goods and services they provide are necessary,
and that functions should be kept as local as
possible. Golemboski (2015) expands on and
critiques subsidiarity, noting that the organizing
principle operates in varied forms in both the
United States (despite the term not appearing
in either the U.S. or any state constitution) and
the European Union (across the governing body,
member nations, and their subnational units).
“Why Government?” and “Which Government?”
The students read three additional sources re­
garding state versus state. Thom and Schneider
(2010) provide a summary of how federalism
and intergovernmental relations have evolved
globally in policy areas that include education,
social welfare, and disaster preparedness. Agra­
n­­off and Radin (2015) dis­cuss Wright’s (1988)
overlapping authority model of feder­alism, for
a symbolic repre­sentation of intergovernment­al
relationships. Peterson (1995) advances a func­
tional theory of federalism in which redistri­bu­
tive programs are best allocated to central govern­
­ments that can more easily correct for inequity
across subnational jurisdictions, while develop­
mental programs, including economic incentives
and education, are best allocated to state and
local governments where competitive factors
compel greater differentiation and efficiency.
Component 2: Lecture and Initial Discussion
I begin the first class by informing students of
the rationale for including theoretical concepts
in a public administration course. I reference
both Wilson’s (1887) argument that public
administration as an academic discipline should
consider the role of government in society as
well as my own belief that “Why government?”
and “Which government?” are essential ques­
tions to ask as citizens, practitioners, and
scholars. This up-front disclosure helps students
FIGURE 1.
Wright’s (1988) Overlapping Authority Model
of Federalism
Federal
Government
State
Government
Local
Government
understand and appreciate why their assump­
tions may be challenged, and it also makes
students more receptive to forthcoming exer­
cises (Stevens & Levi, 2013).
I then give a brief lecture on the readings’
concepts, strengths, and weaknesses and use
that material as a transition to a class dialogue
about how societies determine which functions
should be left to individuals and groups versus
which functions should be delegated to the
public sector. Students offer varied justifications,
including consideration of social justice, the
role of personal industry, incentives and
perverse incentives, efficiency, and classic tradeoffs between liberty and government coercion.
Because instructor modeling is vital to critical
thinking development (Brookfield, 2012),
through­out the dialogue I engage in selective
disclosure regarding my own experiences of
wrest­ling with “Why government?” and “Which
government?” I also engage in elaborative inter­
rogation—asking ancillary “why” questions—
which is critical to pushing the discussion in a
theoretical direction while enhancing learning
and retention (Dunlosky, Rawson, Marsh,
Nathan, & Willingham, 2013; McDaniel &
Donnelly, 1996; Oros, 2007). I allocate about
60 minutes for lecture and discussion, although
actual time depends on class size, and I avoid
prematurely concluding fruitful debates.
Next, I display a schematic of Wright’s (1988)
overlapping authority model and ask the class
to spend about 20 minutes brainstorming
which policy functions currently “fit” into each
segment of either autonomous or shared
responsibility (see Figure 1). The “circle of
voices” discussion style forces students to think
carefully about which level(s) of government
are truly responsible for policy areas that are
increasingly characterized by overlapping or
shared authority (Brookfield, 2012). Students
quickly discover that many functions are at
least partially shared across multiple levels of
government but that, for others, it is difficult to
conclude where the locus of responsibility truly
resides. Many students are also surprised by how
broad the scope of governmental respon­sibility
Journal of Public Affairs Education565
M. Thom
is because, as they often tell me, no one had
ever asked them to think about it before.
Component 3: Small-Team Deliberation
Following lecture and discussion, I divide stu­
dents into small teams tasked with answering
“Which government?” This involves each team
designing its ideal model of federalism—that
is, not the way functions are delegated now, but
what the team collectively believes is a better
way to allocate functions within the overlapping
authority model. Each team has total freedom
to reallocate functions but must offer a rationale
for the choices made. Teams may also divest
functions from government, thus leading stu­
dents back to the “Why government?” question.
The use of groups for this exercise is critical to
learning success. Small-team discussions facili­
tate greater subject-matter understanding, are
more likely to nurture critical thinking, and
elicit more participation from students who
otherwise do not engage (Pollock, Hamann, &
Wilson, 2011). Teams also help keep the view­
point balance of discussion in check (Brookfield
& Preskill, 2012) and foster cultural com­pe­
tency (Saldivar, 2015). The deliberative dialogue
required to form team consensus increases in­
dividual students’ knowledge and robust opin­ion
formation (Latimer & Hempson, 2012). Thus,
while students enjoy developing individual fed­
eralism models, I believe the group com­pon­ent
is, on balance, the more enriching experience.
Component 4: Class Debrief
After about 30 minutes, I ask each team to
draw its model on the board. When finished,
each team describes its model to the entire class,
explaining the reasons for its choices. Between
presentations, I point out commonalities and
differences between the team models and ask
students what they found most challenging
about the exercise.
Component 5: Writing and Reflection
Finally, students write an essay in which they
develop their personal philosophy of “Why
government?” and “Which government?” by
drawing on the readings, discussion, and smallteam deliberations. The essay is due within one
566
Journal of Public Affairs Education
week of the in-class exercises. At the end of the
semester, I reassign the essay as part of a takehome final examination, but in this second
iteration I ask students to reflect on the course
material and articulate how and why their
perspectives have evolved.
Informal Components
The above activities bookend students’ exper­
ience in my public administration course;
students both begin and end the term thinking
and writing about normative elements of
governance. Nevertheless, I make a concerted
effort to refer to these concepts throughout the
intervening 13 weeks. Sometimes, current events
facilitate students’ thinking about the role of
government in their lives (e.g., passage of the
Affordable Care Act and, later, the failed rollout
of healthcare.gov and several state-based insur­
ance exchanges) or about events that illustrate
the complexity of federalism (e.g., No Child
Left Behind legislation and the rise of Common
Core education standards). Although it is
difficult to find documentaries that help
students think about “Why government?” and
federalism, I have had success screening The
Pruitt-Igoe Myth and asking students if, and
how, the Saint Louis Pruitt-Igoe housing pro­
ject’s demise was a product of failed inter­
governmental policy coordination.1
RESPONSES AND FEEDBACK
Student Perspectives
The student essays generated by the above
exercises can be summarized according to four
key points. First, students argue broadly that
government exists as a response to market
failures—that is, to provide public goods not
provided by the private sector. National defense
is an oft-cited example. Second, students tend
to argue the necessity for government to serve
marginalized groups in society, such as through
civil rights protections. Third, students view
government, and the federal government in
par­ticular, as a necessary single point of contact
with foreign governments, as opposed to
private actors. Fourth, students often but not
consistently argue that government exists to
correct inequities across groups.
“Why Government?” and “Which Government?”
Distributing responsibilities across federal, state,
and local governments unfailingly proves to
be more challenging than students anticipate.
For some, the sheer scope of governmental
activit­ies is daunting. One student remarked,
“Wow, government does more than I realized.
It’s almost more complicated than I realized.”
Another more succinctly said, after a point
of disagreement within his small group, “This
is hard.”
Across teams, I have noted some areas of nearuniversal agreement about public sector respon­
sibilities. With one exception, every team has
concluded that national defense should be a
federal responsibility.2 Students also consis­
tently believe that environmental protection
should be a federal responsibility, providing
that implementation involves state and local
governments. They also prefer that emergency
management services and fire protection re­
main purely local in provision and oversight.
I generally find that, for these policy areas,
students’ individual papers tend to mirror their
teams’ conclusions.
But for most policy areas, students have
significant disagreements about which level of
government should retain authority. For
example, teams are often divided over higher
education, a traditional responsibility of state
governments. Students recognize that local
governments cannot feasibly “adopt” state
public university systems, or perhaps even
community colleges, yet they are unhappy with
the cost of higher education. Students often
reason that more federal intervention to control
costs may be desirable, yet they also wonder if
federal student loans may be part of the
problem. Informed by policing controversies, a
similar debate often occurs regarding public
safety. Some students express anxiety over a
purely state or local system of police protection
and desire a greater degree of federal oversight,
especially where civil rights violations may
occur. On these issues, individual papers often
diverge from team conclusions.
By far, student teams disagree most over the
proper role of the federal government. Reflect­
ing on the challenges of the assignment, one
team leader said, “We kept assigning everything
to the federal government. Then it dawned on
us that we put them in charge of everything,
and we were uncomfortable with that!”
At the same time, students often conclude that
local governments should have the authority to
experiment and vary policy parameters accord­
ing to local needs, but not if such experi­menta­
tion violates minimum standards. Without fail,
students believe that the federal government
should establish those minimum standards in
policy areas such as social welfare, public health,
and education, but that local governments
should be delegated responsibility—along with
federal funding—for implementation.
One of the more humorous elements of the
team discussions is the frequent perception that
state governments do not do anything. Because
many teams determine that they want a com­
bination of local implementation and federal
oversight—the so-called devolution paradox—
they puzzle over how to involve state govern­
ments in the process. Nearing completion of
his team’s model, one student said, “We need
to give the states something to do.” Another
student in a different team remarked, “They
[the states] just seem like a middleman.”
Some policy areas engender a fair amount of
confusion and ambiguity among teams. The
issue of whether or not the space agency NASA
should remain a governmental function at all,
much less a federal responsibility, has prompt­ed sharp debate.3 Teams have a similar dispute
regarding the U.S. Postal Service. All tend
to agree that mail service is best left to the
federal government, and must be according to
the Constitution, but there remains much
debate as to whether or not the service should
continue at all, given the preponderance of
private alternatives.
End of Semester Reflections
By the end of the semester, students grow
more pragmatic in their assessments of “Why
govern­ment?” and “Which government?” Their
essays often reflect a desire for subsi­di­a­rity—for
Journal of Public Affairs Education567
M. Thom
individuals to be left alone—but for government
to act to correct market failures and inequities.
Students tend to long for increased bureaucratic
efficiency but at the same time show a better
recognition the inherent trade-offs. Students
also tend to exhibit a greater recog­nition of
mult­iple stake­holders (e.g., nonprofit organ­
izations and the private sector) and realize that
involving such stakeholders is an ongoing
challenge for public administration and all levels
of government.
Students conclude the semester split on the
ques­tion of federalism. Many express concerns
that excessive decentralization will overly burden
local governments, which is ironic considering
that many begin the course recommending a
combination of federal oversight and funding
with local implementation. But at the same time,
other students have grown into ardent de­fend­
ers of decentralization. One non-U.S. student,
whose home nation is known to have a corrupt
central government, wrote, “Strength­en­ing the
autonomy of state and local govern­ments can
be conducive to creative public-private part­
nerships and decentralized initiatives that are
better fitted for the special characteristics and
circumstances of each city or municipality.”
But for other students, the reflection essay is a
chance to think about their personal evolution.
One student wrote,
I found myself expressing ideas that I did
not even know I held. I became excited
about combining seemingly antithetical
conservative and liberal ideals in devo­
lution coupled with my idealistic vision
of the federal government as watchdog.
I have always considered myself a
Democrat, but this paper and this course
in general made me realize that I have
my own views that need not comply
with any political party.
Alumni Feedback
One calendar year after the end of the first
course in which I implemented these activities,
I e-mailed all 16 alumni from the course to ask
how much they remembered about the exercises
568
Journal of Public Affairs Education
and what they liked and disliked. Every student
remembered the exercises, and their feedback
was complimentary. Although working in small
groups can cause complaints, students spoke
fondly of the team-based component. Echoing
Saldivar (2015), one student responded, “Having
those teams come up with different allocations
of responsibilities helped bring a lot of unique
perspectives to the conversation.” Another wrote,
“I thought it was a good experience because it
really demonstrated how everyone thinks differ­
ently philosophically and to compare that to
reality was pretty interesting.”
Students also appreciated the emphasis on
“Why government?” and the bigger picture.
One student, a nonprofit professional, told me:
The whole concept of subsidiarity was one
of the most useful takeaways from last
summer’s class—and it has come up in
all my subsequent classes. I particularly
liked [the] exercise with the overlapping
circles. … I think it was an “aha” moment
for everyone in the class when we realized
how hard it was to decide.
Another student who had since graduated with
dual Master of Public Administration and
Management-Politics-Law degrees wrote,
As someone who took [the course] after
having already been [in school] for 2
years, I kept thinking, “I can’t believe I
haven’t been asked this question before!”
and I was happy to get to that level of
detail on the issues. The readings were
super helpful and I still think about them
today (and refer other students to them
sometimes). I liked that the assignment
combined both our personal thoughts/
experiences and the readings, and both
the horizontal and vertical elements.
Students also offered constructive feedback.
Nearly all expressed a desire to have more time
to work in their small teams and, of course, on
the subsequent essays. A few students suggested
that it would have been helpful to repeat the
team exercise at the end of the semester to
“Why Government?” and “Which Government?”
develop a “new” model of federalism and then
compare it to their earlier models. One student
also recommended that our graduate programs
find a way to integrate investigations into
“Why government?” and “Which government?”
across the entire curriculum, rather than offer
then in just one course.
CONCLUSION
The exercises outlined in this article offer
several benefits to public affairs students and
instructors. For students, the activities link
governance theory and practice and encourage
them to think critically about the practical and
normative challenges inherent to the role of
government in society. The in-class team exer­
cise exposes students to the difficulty of
assigning functions to government in a colla­
bor­
ate environment of diverse ages, back­
grounds, and ideological perspectives. It also
compels students to recognize the difference
between their ideal governance model (the
public sector in which they would like to work)
and the real world (where they actually will
work). The discussion components further help
students recognize and reflect on the inter­
connectedness of public policy across different
levels of government.
For instructors, the exercises are flexible and
scalable. With little modification, the same
acti­vities could be repeated with public affairs
students on any continent, save for Antarctica.
For example, among European Union member
states, the questions can be asked along two
dimensions—the relationship of the European
Union to individual nations and, within those
nations, the delegation of authority across
central, regional, and municipal governments.
By design, the overall approach has multiple
components that can fit into one long class
period or be broken up across multiple, shorter
periods. The readings can be swapped out to
meet individual instructors’ preferences.
“Why government?” and “Which government”
are increasingly important questions for stu­
dents of public affairs. For a number of reasons,
big-picture questions of this nature are often
overlooked in public affairs programs. However,
instructors can easily embed normative ques­
tions within existing coursework. The exercises
described in this article represent only one
approach for prompting students to think
about the role of government in society as well
as about federalism and intergovernmental re­
la­tions. There are countless other approaches,
and public affairs education can only benefit
from developing them.
NOTES
1 Multiple studies report that using this Pruitt-Igoe Myth
film has a positive impact on student engage­ment
and learning (e.g., Leckrone, 2013; Weber, 2001).
But instructors should consider how to align films
with more traditional exercises (Swimelar, 2013).
2 One team concluded that there should be no system of
national defense, arguing instead that it be replaced
with an international peace-focused institution.
3 I often observe generational differences when this
ques­tion arises. Older students are protective of
NASA; younger students are more critical.
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Michael Thom is assistant professor at the Uni­
versity of Southern California Price School of
Public Policy. His research areas include public
finance, pensions, governance, and regulation.
He holds a PhD from Michigan State University.
Beyond the Case Method
in Public Affairs Education:
Unexpected Benefits of
Student-Written Cases
Maite Careaga
Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia
Nadia Rubaii
Binghamton University, State University of New York
Santiago Leyva
Universidad EAFIT, Medellín, Colombia
ABSTRACT
The case method is a proven pedagogical strategy in public affairs education but it requires the use
of relevant and realistic cases to which students can relate. Absent this condition, faculty must
innovate. This article presents instructor experiences using a pedagogical approach of studentwritten instructor-facilitated (SWIF) cases at graduate public affairs programs at three Colombian
universities. Applying a common evaluation instrument in each instructor’s course, we identify
additional strengths of SWIF case pedagogy beyond initial expectations and beyond the usual
benefits of the case method. The lessons from these courses suggest benefits to students’ developing
their own cases as a means of making sense of the challenges particular to their own contexts. These
observations and findings lead to recommendations for public affairs teaching more generally.
KEYWORDS
Case method, Colombia, pedagogy, student-written cases, Latin America
One of the most important and widely accept­
ed pedagogies within a variety of professions,
including public affairs, is the case method.
Although not without its critics, the case method
has been demonstrated to improve the ability of
students to apply theory to practice, generate
new theories grounded in practice, appreciate
the complexity of decisions, engage in ethical
reasoning, and develop communi­
cation and
inter­personal skills. These skills are important
for public administration professionals through­
JPAE 23 (1), 571–590
out the world, but they are arguably particular­
ly important in Latin America, where the social
problems associated with vast income inequal­
ities, the demand for economic development
tempered by concern for preservation of natural
and cultural resources, and the pressures of glo­
balization must be addressed within weak insti­
tutional systems and widespread corrup­tion.
Realizing the full potential of the case method
requires cases that present problems and allow
Journal of Public Affairs Education571
M. Careaga, N. Rubaii, & S. Leyva
the application of theory to practical situations
that are realistic and relevant. A challenge for
professors teaching public affairs in various
regions and countries of the world is the absence
of relevant cases available in the case banks
where teachers of public affairs usually find
their course materials. The lack of appropriate
cases is particularly notable in South America
and even more pronounced for Colombia,
where very few cases are set and where the unique
historical, geographic, political, economic, and
social characteristics make cases set in other
contexts of limited value.
A long-term solution to the scarcity of cases for
teaching public affairs education in particular
countries or regions is to promote the produc­
tion of cases. As instructors, we devised an
alternative, short-term solution: asking our
students to write cases that can be used to bring
the real world into the classroom.
The use of case writing in undergraduate and
graduate education has received considerably
less attention than using the case method in
teach­ing (Bengtsson & Asplund, 2007; Bailey,
Sass, Swiercz, Seal, & Kayes, 2005; Greenwalt,
1994; Lincoln, 2006). In a self-published on­
line resource about student-written instructorfacilitated (SWIF) case writing, Swiercz (n.d.)
—who may have coined the SWIF label—
describes how to use the pedagogy of SWIF
case writing to expand student engagement
beyond the role of analysts to also that of
researchers, interviewers, negotiators, writers,
editors, and team members. In this process,
the instructor serves as a coach and advisor,
facilitating the process of researching and writ­
ing the case. Swiercz (n.d., pp. 2–3) asserts
seven benefits of SWIF cases: integrating theory
and practice; building tolerance for ambiguity
and incompleteness; developing critical think­
ing skills; learning to distinguish between the
significant and the trivial; developing shared
learning skills; providing opportunity for original
thought; and developing writing skills, however
Swiercz provides no empirical evidence of these
benefits. We found only two articles in peerreviewed journals that present evidence of how
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Journal of Public Affairs Education
the SWIF case pedagogy contributes to enhanc­
ing students’ diagnostic skills when working
with clients, in one case with mental health
disorders (Jones & Woodruff, 2008) and in
another with substance abuse problems (Jones
& Russell, 2007). By systematically analyzing
our experiences across several courses, our goal
is to better document the relative strengths
and weaknesses of the SWIF case pedagogy for
public affairs education and to inform others in
our field.
We each independently decided to use the
SWIF case pedagogy and then later came
together to compare and contrast our exper­
iences. A set of related questions drive our
investigation, specifically:
1.Does having students write cases
(the short-term solution to the lack of
relevant cases) have the same advantages
as using the traditional case method?
2.What are students’ perceptions of the
SWIF case strategy?
3.Are there any additional or different
advantages to using SWIF cases relative
to using prepared cases?
To answer these questions, this article compares
our three experiences with SWIF cases. We
document how we applied SWIF case pedagogy
in graduate-level classes at three universities in
two cities in Colombia. We begin with a review
of the literature on the case method and its
application in public affairs education, followed
by a more detailed explanation of the need for
context-specific cases for teaching in Colombia.
We then briefly describe our three courses and
how we each structured the SWIF cases, to
illustrate similarities and differences among
our approaches. Following that, we present the
results of a common evaluation instrument
used in all three courses to gather student feed­
back on the SWIF case experience. We conclude
by sharing lessons learned—both expected
and unanticipated—and their implications for
the teaching of public affairs and for the
increasing real-world demand for competent
public officials.
Student-Written Cases
THE CASE METHOD
Conventionally, students receive information
from the professor in the form of a lecture and
they are expected to internalize the informa­-­
tion through memorization. Within professional
disci­plines, this method often fails to capture
the attention and interest of midcareer stu­
-­
dents and, more importantly, fails to instill the
necessary problem-solving competencies. The
case method is a more active learning approach.
Cases challenge learners with problems set in
complex, real-world situations. In contrast to
the more traditional and still widely used
lecture format, the case method shifts students
from the role of passive recipient of information
to active and engaged participant in learning.
Cases are also distinct from traditional problemsolving assignments in that they have no one
correct solution or answer. Each case is a de­
scrip­tion of a real situation and illustrates the
complexity and interconnectedness of factors
that might otherwise appear simple when
considered in isolation. Working individually
or in groups, students must analyze and take
owner­ship of the problems; frame them in the
context of the course material and correspond­
ing literature, relevant theories, and professional
values; and evaluate the varied alternatives for
how to respond. Cases are “a vehicle by which a
chunk of reality is brought into the classroom
… [and a] record of complex situations that
must be literally pulled apart and put together
again before the situations can be understood”
(Lawrence, 1953, p. 215).
The case method has a long history, albeit in
slightly different forms, in the teaching of law,
medicine, and business management (Lynn,
1999). Harvard Law School instituted the case
method of teaching in the 1870s, and all
leading law schools followed suit in the early
1900s (Kimball, 1995). In medicine, teaching
students to diagnose and treat using individual
patient cases is a common pedagogical strategy
to prepare for clinical practice (Barrows &
Tamblyn, 1980). As early as 1919, business
faculty at Harvard University recognized the
need for new teaching methods to encourage
creativity and problem solving; they have since
played a leading role in both developing the
case method for that discipline and housing
an extensive bank of cases (Spangler McBride,
1984). The case method spread to public ad­
min­istration in the 1930s and 1940s and then
to education in the 1950s (Merseth, 1996).
Case-based teaching is widely accepted as an
effective instructional pedagogy, one that pro­
motes a learner’s critical thinking skills and
results in higher levels of student satisfaction
and improved learning (Michel, Cater, & Varela,
2009; Salemi, 2002). Studies of effectiveness of
the case method encompass undergraduate and
graduate levels and span multiple disciplines
(Kim et al., 2006). The case method has been
shown to contribute to proficiencies and crea­
tivity among undergraduate economics students
(Salemi, 2002), improved learning outcomes
and greater ability to apply theory to practice
among management and business students
(Christensen & Carlile, 2009; Michel, Cater,
& Varela, 2009), and better clinical problem
solving among medical students (Stjernquist &
Crang-Svalenius, 2007). The case method has
also been shown to help nursing students devel­
op a more holistic perspective and enhanced
capacity for cooperation (Forsgren, Christensen,
& Hedemalm, 2014) and to improve technical
understanding and better interpersonal skills
among software engineering students (Razali &
Zainal, 2013). The case method helps teachers
develop more effective classroom management
and curriculum reform strategies (Merseth, 1996;
Walen & Williams, 2000) and helps archi­tec­ture students see the interconnections among
diverse specialties within their profession
(Spangler McBride, 1984).
In the context of public administration, the case
method has become fundamental to teaching
public management (Feldman & Khademian,
1999) and is extensively used in the teaching
of public policy (Chetkovich & Kirp, 2001).
The case method can help students assess man­
age­ment efforts, strategize and make decisions
(Feld­
man & Khademian, 1999), appreciate
ethical dilemmas, and exercise “moral imagi­­na­tion” (Winston, 2000). Case-based learning
has been identified as an effective strategy for
developing the increasingly important skills of
collaborative governance, particularly when the
Journal of Public Affairs Education573
M. Careaga, N. Rubaii, & S. Leyva
cases are presented to students using a pro­spec­
tive, phased approach in which the case unfolds
in a series of stages (Morse & Stephens, 2012)
rather than using the more common retro­
spective approach in which students read the
entire case at once. The use of cases within pub­
lic affairs education has become even more
valuable as the practice of public management
has shifted from top-down bureaucracy and con­
trol using traditional POSDCORB (Planning,
Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating,
Reporting, and Budgeting) management tech­
niques within government agencies to more
emphasis on networks, collaboration, influence,
and persuasion across multiple sectors.
Cases can help public management and public
policy students develop skills in identifying and
recognizing problems, understanding and inter­­
preting data, distinguishing between assump­­tions
and inferences versus facts, thinking analytically
and critically, under­standing and assessing in­
ter­personal relationships, exercising judgment,
communicating ideas and opinions, and making
and defending decisions. Cases also help public
policy professors balance the “traditional posi­ti­vist
approach grounded in rationality, objecti­vity, and
economics” with the “postpositivist approach
grounded in politics, subjectivity, and demo­cracy”
by illustrating the fusion of pragmatism and poli­
tics (Foster, McBeth, & Clemons, 2010, p. 517).
To be sure, cases and case teaching have also
received considerable criticism. Social scientists
in particular fault the method for being
atheoretical and, hence, lacking in intellectual
rigor. Contemporary cases are also faulted for
implicitly endorsing an “activist” or “heroic” view
of public management, for focusing pri­marily
on high-ranking officials as pro­tagonists, for
ignoring the role of community collaboration,
and for giving minimal attention to issues of
race, class, and gender (Chetkovich & Kirp,
2001; Kenney, 2004). Whereas cases from the
1940s and 1950s portray a functional view of
public managers, recent cases portray managers
as people who actively shape their legal man­
dates and use administrative systems to promote
political objectives, an image that may not match
the reality that students will encounter in their
public service careers. Cases also place demands
574
Journal of Public Affairs Education
on the instructor in terms of preparation time,
the challenge of finding appropriate cases, and
the need for well-developed classroom manage­
ment and group facilitation skills (Williams,
Whiting, & Adler, 2014).
While much of the research about the effec­
tiveness of the case method has focused on the
U.S. context, there are some studies of the case
method in other countries. Apaydin (2008)
suggests that the case method using U.S. cases
is appropriate for management education in
Turkey in large part because the business edu­
cation and business principles in that country
are largely modeled after the United States.
Similarly, Dixit et al. (2005), determine that
the case method in management education in
India will continue to thrive and be a mainstay
but also needs to be revamped to respond to
changing technologies. Rebeiz (2011) provides
advice on the application of the case method
for business teaching in China. In both the
Indian and Chinese contexts, the emphasis is
on using cases from both the United States and
the respective country. Comparative cases have
value when teaching in a cross-national context,
enabling students to assess the extent to which
problems or solutions from one country apply
to another. There is evidence of growing
reliance on cases within the Mexico context as
well (Camacho Gomez, Munoz Aparicio, &
Ancona Alcocer, 2012), using cases developed
specifically for that country. There is a small
but growing Spanish-language literature on the
use of the case method (see, e.g., Andreu,
González, Labrador, Quintanilla, & Ruiz, 2004;
Vazquez, 2007; Wasserman, 1999).
Cases vary considerably in length, detail, pur­pose,
and complexity. They are most often written,
but a growing number are in video or multi­
media formats. A case may focus on a single
individual, decision, policy, or organization or
on an entire community, region, or nation. For
teaching purposes, a case must be relevant,
realistic, engaging, challenging, and linked to
instructional goals (Kim et al., 2006). Cases
should force students to determine what is at
stake, differentiate between fact and opinion,
identify normative or ethical issues, and identify
alternatives available (Gini, 1985). The best cases
Student-Written Cases
are based on real places, events, and people;
they are carefully researched; and they contain
information that serves as a basis for discussion
and learning by others (Merseth, 1996).
To be effective, case studies must be as realistic
as possible, and that means they must be con­
textually relevant. International cases, including
those set in the United States, have value; but
they risk leading students to draw inappropriate
comparisons or make unrealistic recommenda­
tions, just as policy makers have done in real
life. The historical account of M. L. Wilson,
Harold Ware, and Guy Riggin sitting in a hotel
room in Chicago in 1928 and planning “a huge
mechanized wheat farm of some 500,000 acres
of virgin land” in the Soviet Union, and the
subsequent failures of that plan, illustrate the
fundamental flaw associated with assuming that
the key issues are “abstract, technical inter­rela­
tionships” that are “context-free” (Scott, 1998,
pp. 200–201). While it is true that cases set in
other contexts can provide the basis for com­
parison and reflection on similarities and
differences, the most useful cases are those set
in contexts that students can relate to and that
reflect their professional realities. For someone
teaching in public management, public policy,
or related courses in Colombia, locating
appropriate cases—that is, cases set in Colombia
and reflecting Colombian political, social, and
economic conditions—is challenging.
THE SEARCH FOR CASES TO USE IN COLOMBIA
As mentioned earlier, as instructors we were
motivated to use a SWIF case approach based
on our inability to locate appropriate cases set
in a Colombian context. Independently, we
looked for cases on local government manage­
ment challenges in Colombia, inter-sectoral and
intergovernmental relations in Colombia, and
leadership in Colombia that would facil­itate
the application of theories of decentralization,
new public management, state building, public
choice, and leadership, among others. Indiv­
idually, we were unsuccessful in locating cases
we considered appropriate for our respective
courses. It was not until we came together to
analyze our experiences as part of this colla­bor­
ative research effort that we conducted a more
systematic review of case availability.
Several online sites offer cases designed
specifically for public affairs education, most of
which are based in the United States and
practically none of which provide cases that
address the unique conditions and needs of
Colombia (based on a search we conducted in
May 2014). Among the approximately 2,000
cases in the case bank of Harvard’s prestigious
John F. Kennedy School of Government, only
5 are set in Latin America and none are in
Colombia. Of the approximately 125 cases
found in Electronic Hallway based out of the
Evans School of Public Policy and Governance
at the University of Washington and the 48
multimedia cases found in the Hubert Project
at the Humphrey School of Public Affairs at the
University of Minnesota, none deal with South
America or Colombia. Additionally, among the
limited number of cases set in Colombia in
these case banks, none are in Spanish, thus
suggesting they are intended more for an
English-speaking audience outside Colombia
than for those within the country.1
Even within a bank of cases housed in Latin
America and with a more explicit Latin
American focus, there are limited resources set
in Colombia. Of the approximately 640 cases
in the Centro International de Casos (CIC)
compiled and maintained by the Monterrey
Institute of Technology and Higher Education
(ITESM, its Spanish abbreviation), only 23
take place in South America, and only 19 cases
deal with Colombia.
THE COLOMBIAN CONTEXT
The particular characteristics of any country,
city, or region should always be a consideration
in selecting a case study. This is particularly
important in a country such as Colombia,
whose pressing and unique characteristics
demand the use of context-specific cases for the
teaching of public affairs. As in many countries
in Latin America, public affairs professionals in
Colombia must contend with the presence of
corruption and a strong culture of illegality.
Beyond these attributes common to many
Latin American countries, several characteristics
are particularly important in Colombia.
Journal of Public Affairs Education575
M. Careaga, N. Rubaii, & S. Leyva
It is essential that public affairs students under­
stand and appreciate the vast regional diversity
of the country, not only in terms of geogra­phic
characteristics, but also in terms of culture,
language, standard of living, and insti­tutional
capacity. The Constitution of 1991 transfers
considerable power and responsibility from the
national government to the territories. As such,
Colombia is characterized by a higher degree
of decentralization compared to other Latin
Amer­­­ican countries, and this implies an im­ple­
menta­tion process that is highly differ­entiated
according to variations in institutional capacity
and local arrangements. Per capita in­come var­
ies tremen­dously among regions, some rival­ing
the poverty of Haiti and others on par with
the richest states of Brazil and Argentina. The
differences in wealth create vast disparities in
need, distribution of resources, and capacities to
implement public policies. Decentralization in
Colombia exists in an environment of min­i­mal
national oversight or supervision and con­siderable
political fragment­­ation and clientelism (Leyva,
2011). Colombia has a strong electoral tradition
and a recently expanded set of political parties,
but both are driven by a high degree of per­son­
alism (Botero & Raga, 2009).
Colombia is also unique in the extent to which
the courts are involved in the elaboration of
public policy (Rodríguez Garavito, 2010). The
courts have taken an active role prescribing
how the central and local governments must
behave toward, for example, beneficiaries of
public housing in the late 1990s, recipients of
health care after a big legal reform in 2007, and
victims and refugees from the internal armed
conflict in 2004. The Constitutional Court’s
actions have created important changes in both
implementation and supervision, although their
impact reaches only a limited number of cases
and their success varies greatly across different
policy fields, variations that are severely under­
researched in the country.
In addition, Colombia’s more than 50-year history
of armed conflict permeates the development
and implementation of public policy, and cases
that ignore that reality neglect an essential char­
acteristic. The influence of the Fuerzas Arm­adas
576
Journal of Public Affairs Education
Revolucionarias de Colombia (FARC), Ejercito
de Liberacion Nacional (ELN), and other guerilla
groups as well as the paramilitary forces is felt
throughout the country; but in certain localities
and regions, one or more of these groups have
had greater levels of influence to the point of
sometimes directly influencing policy-making
given the differentiated presence of state insti­
tutions (González, 2003). In some territories,
these groups have played a more important role
than the state in providing public services such
as security and justice, even though their role is
difficult to capture in official statistics. At the
same time, armed conflict in a number of regions
has made the implementation of policies to im­
prove health and education almost impossible.2
SWIF CASES FOR PUBLIC AFFAIRS IN COLOM­BIA:
MOTIVATION AND METHODOLOGY
In our teaching, we each confronted the prob­
lem of the lack of relevant cases, and we each
independently opted for the short-term solu­
tion of having our students write cases with
guidance and support from us as instructors.
Although we were motivated by similar con­
siderations—namely the lack of relevant cases
within existing case banks—we each selected this
pedagogical strategy independently and with­
out knowledge of what the others were doing.
We also implemented the strategy in slightly
different ways tailored to our courses. Despite
the independent genesis of the idea and the
individualized implementation, we had remarkably similar experiences and reached simi­
­
lar
conclusions about the value of this peda­gogical
approach, in terms of both expected and un­
anticipated benefits. Because we realized what
the others were doing before the end of the
semester, we were able to apply a common
evaluation instrument and compare student
experiences in the three courses.
Our goals for the SWIF case method were
twofold: (1) to create opportunities in which stu­
dents could apply course materials to situa­tions
and circumstances relevant to their profes­sional
lives; and (2) to use these cases as teaching tools
within our classes to help stu­dents apply theories
and develop management and leadership stra­
tegies. Interestingly, our short-term solution
Student-Written Cases
seems to have added peda­gogical value to our
courses. None of us selected this pedagogical
approach expecting any benefits beyond those
associated with the case method generally; in
fact, we somewhat doubted that student-written
cases could take the place of published cases.
All three of us were surprised by the additional
value generated by the pedagogy.
The three settings in which we utilized SWIF
cases were in public affairs programs at the
graduate level at three private universities in
the two largest cities in Colombia. Each course
had between 25 and 30 students enrolled, all
courses were taught between January and June
2014, and all were taught in Spanish. Table 1
provides a summary of the settings.
The common elements of a SWIF experience
are that the students are responsible for
researching and writing the case and the
instructor facilitates the process. Instructor
facilitation is crucial. The faculty facilitation
role includes providing guidance in selecting an
appropriate topic and setting, ensuring that it is
neither too broad nor too narrow and that it
relates to the course themes and theories.
Writing a good case requires that students not
rely solely on previously published sources; as
such, faculty facilitation involves helping stu­
dents identify appropriate people to inter­view
and data to analyze and guiding them in evalu­
ating the credibility of information received
from those sources. Invariably, students will
encounter problems while gathering data and
writing the case, and the instructor-facilitator
assists in resolving those problems. Finally, as
the individual with the greatest understanding
of the theories, core concepts, and learning
objectives of the course, the instructor has a
responsibility to ask probing questions and
offer suggestions about how to link the case to
relevant theories, beyond an obvious or
superficial level.
Each instructor designed the SWIF cases
somewhat differently to meet the learning
objectives of the course. In providing guidance
to students about the case-writing process, we
relied on the many resources that exist for
faculty interested in case writing (see, e.g.,
Heath, 2002; Leenders, Mauffette-Leenders, &
Erksine, 2001; Naumes & Naumes, 2006), and
we adapted our instructions for our particular
assignments. Based on the needs of the course
and the preferences of the instructor, the SWIF
case experiences varied in terms of whether cases
were prepared individually or in groups; the
case topic criteria; the processes students used
to research, write, edit and reflect on their
cases; and the final products submitted to the
instruc­tor for a grade. Table 2 highlights distin­guishing characteristics of the SWIF cases in
each course setting.
TABLE 1.
Settings for the Use of SWIF Cases
University
Pontificia Universidad
Javeriana, Bogotá
Universidad EAFIT,
Medellín
Universidad de los
Andes, Bogotá
Academic unit
College of Political Science
and International Relations
Department of Government and Political Science
Alberto Lleras Camargo
School of Government
Degree program
Specialization in Government and Territorial
Public Managementa
Master of Government
and Public Policy
Master of Public Policy
Course
Seminar in Public
Management I
Seminar in Territorial
Management Problems
Strategy and Leadership
in Public Organizations
Number of students
25
29
28
Specializations (especializations, in Spanish) are common in Colombia and similar to executive education master’s degrees. They generally are
offered in intensive weekend formats, are completed within a single year, and have slightly fewer credits and more of a practitioner emphasis
than many master’s degrees.
a
Journal of Public Affairs Education577
M. Careaga, N. Rubaii, & S. Leyva
As mentioned earlier, although each us selected
the SWIF case pedagogy independently, we came
together in time to prepare and administer a
common evaluation instrument. We asked all
students in each course the following questions:
1.What was your initial reaction when
you learned that you would have to
write a case?
2.What did you find most valuable
about this experience?
3.What was most difficult about
this experience?
Each of us also had the opportunity to tailor
the evaluation to meet our particular needs by
adding questions. Those additional questions
asked about initial expectations (Pontificia
Universidad Javeriana and Universidad de los
Andes), preferences for individual or group
work if writing a case in the future (Javeriana),
perceptions of advantages and disadvantages
of the pedagogy (Universidad EAFIT), and
the most surprising aspect of the experience
(Los Andes).
Although completion of the evaluation was
voluntary in all three courses, we had response
rates of 100%, 86%, and 79% at Javeriana,
EAFIT, and Los Andes, respectively. The use of
the common assessment tool enables compari­
son of the various SWIF case strategies used by
the three instructors. All questions were openended, and thus responses were in narrative
4.What additional information
would have been useful to improve
the process and the results?
5.What knowledge or skills do you
have now that you did not have
prior to this experience?
TABLE 2.
SWIF Case Assignment Characteristics
University
N cases
Pontificia Universidad
Javeriana, Bogotá
Universidad EAFIT,
Medellín
Universidad de los Andes,
Bogotá
1
1
2
Individual Group cases researched and
written in teams of five students,
or group
the teams assigned by the in­struc­tor to balance experience
and geographic representation
Group cases researched
and written in teams
of three students
Individual cases, using
peer groups of three
students for feedback
Parameters
for topic
selection
Students selected from two types
of cases: (1) regional studies of
intergovernmental relations/
management with a focus on
patronage capture of programs,
nonprogrammatic distribution policy, and coordination
problems arising from dispersed
authority and a general lack of
supervision; (2) local studies on
the political capture of local
government, looking at whether
NGO processes and burgeoning
democracy, either consolidate
the supply and quality of public
administration, or instead accentuate political capture
and poor institutional quality.
Each student wrote two
personal cases: (1) a case of
past leadership failure; (2) a
current case of leadership
challenge. The purpose of the
leadership failure case was
for students to identify an
experience where they
wanted and could have
changed an undesirable
status quo in a human system
that they belong to but were
not successful. The current
leadership case required
students to choose a leadership challenge they were
facing, in which it would be
useful for them to make
progress during the semester.
578
Teams had to select one of
three thematic areas:
(1) collaboration among levels
of government and/or between
government and nongovernmental/civil society/nonprofit
organizations; (2) promoting
transparency, accountability,
citizen participation, democratic
processes, managing for results,
and/or ethical conduct; or
(3) sustainable economic
development in Colombian
territories while respecting
diversity, multiculturalism,
individual dignity, and the
challenges of reconciliation
in the transition to post-conflict
and peace.
Journal of Public Affairs Education
Student-Written Cases
TABLE 2.
SWIF Case Assignment Characteristics
University
N cases
Pontificia Universidad
Javeriana, Bogotá
Universidad EAFIT,
Medellín
1
1
Universidad de los Andes,
Bogotá
2
General
goals
Regardless of topic, teams
were expected to focus on
using the case to illustrate
importance, opportunities,
and challenges and the extent
to which public management
theories applied. Teams were
required to select a situation
based in a Columbian municipality or region in which the
public management actions
and outcomes—successful,
partially successful, or failed—
could be analyzed and
evaluated using the theories
of the course.
Students were expected to
enrich their reflection and
critical analysis of Colombian
public administration as it
related to theories of the
separation of politics and
administration, decentralization,
public choice, new public
management, state building,
and democratic transitions.
The cases were part of a
broader pedagogy of
creating secure spaces in
which students could practice
leadership, defined either as
a set of experiments and
strategic actions directed
toward mobilizing people and
resources to make progress
in complex collective challenges or as opportunities to
improve. The cases sought
to allow students to practice
and develop different analytical, emotional, and social
skills useful for leadership.
Guidelines
for case
development
The instructor assigned students
to teams to reflect common
interests in issues and diversity
of work experiences and
geography. Teams had class
time for team meetings and
division of labor, and did
required additional work outside of class. The case site was
to be based where at least
one team members could
engage in interviews and
original source document
review. There were multiple
opportunities for instructor
and peer feedback.
The instructor presented
students with theory and
cases developed by other
students in previous classes.
Students were required to
travel to the case sites and
do fieldwork and conduct
interviews so the work was
not entirely theoretical.
A series of different analyses
were required for each case,
applying various theories
and methodologies from the
course. Three class sessions
were dedicated to counseling
and guidance on the cases.
For both cases, the instructor
provided students with a
guiding set of questions.
Students brought a copy
of the case to class and
worked in peer groups of
three, randomly assigned.
Peer groups followed strict
rules of engagement and
time limits for presentation
and feedback. Peers
engaged in a process of
rediagnosis and brainstorming.
For the leadership failure case,
students then submitted a
second part of the case in
which they discussed lessons
learned from writing the case,
how their perceptions changed
based on working with peers,
and their perceptions of the
value of the entire exercise
as a learning tool to develop
leadership competencies.
For the current leadership
challenge case, students
presented their cases during
class so the entire group could
analyze the case, rediagnose
it, and apply course concepts.
Final
products
Written case accompanied
by an “instructor’s guide”
with related readings,
discussion questions, and
supporting materials
Written case
Two written cases and
substantial class discussion
and written reflection on
the cases
Presentation to the class
followed by discussion
Class presentation to discuss the
application of theory to the case
Journal of Public Affairs Education579
M. Careaga, N. Rubaii, & S. Leyva
format. Each instructor thematically coded the
qualitative data within each individual question
and across all responses. We placed student
re­sponses into categories representing the atti­
tu­dinal sentiment and/or substantive focus of
the comment. Summary results are presented
in Table 3.
This process of categorizing student responses
and portraying them side by side improves our
ability to compare responses across the three
courses, however our comparisons are made
with­in a framework of acknowledged differences.
We did not force the responses into the same
categories across the three courses. Given the
distinct course objectives and unique structure
of the SWIF case assignments in each course,
it would be inappropriate to aggregate the
responses. Additionally, the numbers reported
are intended to give a sense of patterns rather
than serve as the basis for quantitative analysis
or tests of statistical significance.
In relying on student evaluations, we must con­
tend with the same challenges as any other
course evaluation tool associated with the in­
herent power differential between student and
professor: the potential for students to report
what they think the instructor wants to hear or
to be concerned that negative comments will
adversely affect their grades. We took reasonable
precautions to minimize these risks. In all
three settings, evaluations were anony­
mous
and voluntary. The Los Andes course offered
an added measure of protection for students
through an informed consent form distributed
at the beginning of the course, letting students
know that they were participating in research
and providing them the opportunity to opt out
without any consequence; this option was
offered in large part because of the highly
personal nature of this course’s case-writing
assignments. Additionally, we advised students
in all three courses that we, as instructors,
wanted and needed their candid feedback
about the SWIF case pedagogy in order to
inform our decisions about whether to use it
again in the future.
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Journal of Public Affairs Education
In the Javeriana and EAFIT contexts, the stu­
dents were midcareer practitioners with sufficient
experience to allow them to adequately gauge
whether the new and different pedagogical
approach was contributing to their knowledge
and skill base. Midcareer students are generally
not shy about expressing their discontent if they
find materials or methods to be insuffi­ciently
relevant to the demands of their professional pos­
itions. In the Los Andes course, the cases were
inherently personal and required self-reflection;
thus these cases were evaluated partly based on
their reference to appropriate theories, models,
and concepts from the course and partly through
self-assessments. The latter was a legitimate and
essential form of evaluation given the personal
nature of the assignment. In the findings that
follow, we supplement student comments with
our own observations and assessments of the
quality of their work and their performance in
the courses. We offer these findings, not as defi­
nitive assessments of the SWIF case pedagogy,
but rather as assessments of how the method
worked in our three courses, which may be
reinforced or challenged by further research in
other contexts.
FINDINGS
Several notable findings emerge from the quali­
tative analysis of student responses, including
(1) convergence toward positive final assess­ments
of the SWIF case experience regardless of initial
reactions; (2) different types of challenges
depending on the SWIF case particulars, and,
most importantly; (3) identification of acquired
competencies that include and go beyond those
usually associated with the case method. We
discuss each finding in turn below, referring to
data reported in Table 3.3
Finding 1: Regardless of Initial Reactions
the Final Assessment Is Positive
When asked to describe their initial reactions
upon learning that they would be writing their
own cases and that this assignment would be a
substantial portion of their course grade (50%
at Javeriana, 60% at EAFIT, and 40% for the
two cases combined at Los Andes), students
used a variety of phrasings to describe their
feelings. In the Javeriana and EAFIT courses,
Student-Written Cases
TABLE 3.
Categorization of Student Responses to In-Common Questions Evaluating SWIF Case Experience
University
Pontificia Universidad
Javeriana, Bogotá
Universidad EAFIT,
Medellín
Universidad de los
Andes, Bogotá
Responses
25 of 25
23 of 29
24 of 28
Initial
reaction
Positive = 22
Neutral = 1
Negative = 4
Positive = 16
Neutral = 0
Negative = 7
Positive = 11
Neutral = 6
Negative = 11
Most
valuable
Working with
diverse peers = 14
Applying theory
to practice = 6
Getting to know
a community = 4
Going from problems
to solutions = 3
Other = 2
Sharing the cases = 8
Personal insights = 13
Sharing with others and
getting feedback = 8
The learning and
teaching methodologies
of the course = 3
Coordinating
group work = 8
Locating information = 6
Focusing and
selecting a topic = 4
Short duration of course = 3
Writing the
instructor’s guide = 3
Nothing, it wasn’t difficult = 2
Other = 2
Incorporating
different types
of analysis in
a single case = 9
None/information
was sufficient = 7
Access to
better data = 4
More examples
of good cases = 4
Just need
more time = 2
Other = 2
Detailed instructions
at first class = 4
Knowledge of topic
and community = 7
Applying theory
to practice = 5
Appreciation of
complexity = 5
Improved analytical
skills = 4
Ability to leverage
group diversity = 6
Understanding
Colombian diversity = 3
No response = 1
Applying theory
to practice = 14
Most
difficult
Additional
information
sought
New
knowledge or
competencies
acquired
Learning to locate
information = 6
Time-consuming
but productive = 4
Applying theory
to practice = 3
Other = 2
Getting the data = 6
Working in groups = 4
Other = 4
Self-reflection = 7
Sharing experiences
with others = 6
Being honest/objective = 5
Getting used to the course
environment = 3
Pushing myself to act/
improve = 2
Nothing = 1
None/information was
sufficient = 13
More clarification on
grading criteria = 4
More personal feedback
from professor = 4
Other = 2
Access to the other
groups’ cases = 4
Access to statistics,
maps, etc. = 3
Clarity on the methods of analysis = 2
Examples of similar cases = 2
Other = 6
Improved
analytical skills = 9
Value of reflection/introspection
and sharing regarding
self/past/options = 6
Emotional management
tools = 6
Strategic action tools = 5
Applying theory
to practice = 2
Ability to apply multiple
perspectives = 2
Note. The evaluation was administered using paper at Javeriana and EAFIT and via online survey at Los Andes. Number of respondents may not equal
number of students in the course because completion of the evaluation was optional. Because the questions were open-ended, it was possible for a
student to provide more than one response to each question, thus total responses may exceed 100%. The “Other” category aggregates responses given
by only one student that do not fit in any of the other categories.
Journal of Public Affairs Education581
M. Careaga, N. Rubaii, & S. Leyva
we categorized a clear majority (88% and 70%,
respectively) as having a positive initial reaction;
these students used descriptions such as “excite­
ment,” “opportunity,” and “recognition of the
practical value” about their feelings, and they
expressed an expectation that the experience
would be “relevant,” “useful,” and “enriching.”
We characterized a smaller but not insignificant
number of student responses (16% and 30%,
respectively) as negative reactions; these expres­
sed trepidation and mentioned “concern about
doing something I had never done before” or
being “uncertain” or “nervous.” Perhaps due to
the personal nature of the SWIF cases required
of students in the Strategy and Leadership in
Public Organizations course at Los Andes, nearly
half (46%) of the students who com­pleted the
evaluation reported having negative reactions
of anxiety and uncertainty about “exposing
[themselves] to others” and “facing tough past
experiences”; an equal proportion (46%) had
positive initial reactions, similar to the students
in the other courses.
Regardless of students’ initial reactions, there
was near-unanimous positive assessment of the
value of the SWIF case experience among those
who completed the evaluation. This does not
mean that students did not express criticisms
but rather that every student also saw value in
the pedagogy. Whether they began from a
position of excitement and enthusiasm or one
of nervousness and doubt, students finished
their respective courses appreciative of what the
process and the end product taught them. Across
the three courses, 70 students (representing
99% of the students who completed the
evaluation and 87% of all students enrolled)
reported new knowledge or competencies
which they attributed to the SWIF case
experience. Students commented that “the
experience allowed me to not only understand
the situation and the problems of a particular
policy, but also [have] the possibility to create
solutions and possible alternatives to overcome
the pressures and failures” and that “writing a
case is a good way to make the theories real and
to see how reality can be seen through the eyes
of academia.” Even among the 11 students who
expressed concerns about exposing their leader­
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Journal of Public Affairs Education
ship failures to their classmates at the start of
the semester, all concluded with comments such
as, “By writing cases, I could close old stories
and acquire leadership skills” and “Sharing
personal experiences with others brings new
perspectives, allows you to see blind spots, helps
you understand better, and it is liberating.”
Finding 2: Challenges of SWIF Cases
Depend on Type of Case Assignment
Students in all three courses identified chal­lenges
associated with their respective SWIF case
assign­ments, but the nature of those challenges
differed depending on the course. Among the
students at Javeriana and EAFIT universities, the
most challenging aspects of the experience center­
ed on locating reliable and current information
needed for the case, working in groups, and
having sufficient time to complete the require­
ments. In Colombia, many sources of informa­
tion are not kept up to date. Information on
Colombian municipalities may be located in
disperse, not always obvious locations or may
be nonexistent. Reports and data submitted to
national government agencies sometimes exist
but often are not current or accurate.4
Working in groups presented challenges related
to balancing competing perspectives and coordi­nating the completion of the work. EAFIT
students indicated that working with fellow
students presented challenges of understanding
different professional and personal perspectives
and ideologies, which sometimes made it
difficult to discuss complex and controversial
subjects such as corruption, national authority,
and patronage in public administration. For
students at Javeriana, the challenges of group
work centered less on their teammates’ points
of view than on the logistics of coordinating
group work; members of the group lived far
from each other, some did not have reliable
access to technology to communicate regularly
between class meetings, and many had extensive
work responsibilities and demands on their
time. Notably, however, students also indicated
that despite these difficulties, working in groups
was worth the trouble; as one student described
it, “More than being difficult, the experience
[of working in a group] was very enriching.”
Student-Written Cases
Thus, for example, while 8 students (35%)
from Javeriana identified group work as the
most difficult part of the SWIF case process, 14
(56%) indicated that working with their peers
was the most valuable aspect of the experience;
notably, the latter group includes 7 of the 8
from the former.
Students mentioned that time constraints creat­­
ed pressures from the earliest stages of selecting
a case topic through the research, data analysis,
writing, and presentation. This chal­lenge was
particularly keen at EAFIT, where students need­
ed to apply several types of analysis to each case.
The time challenges for students at Javeriana
centered on the intensive weekend scheduling
format of courses within the specialization;
despite being provided designated time during
class meetings, students reported difficulty
completing tasks within the two-month time
frame of the course.
Los Andes students faced somewhat different
challenges. They focused on the difficulties
associated with being honest and objective,
writing about personal experiences, sharing
experiences with others, and pushing oneself
out of one’s comfort zone. The majority (54%)
of respondents from the Los Andes course were
not able to identify any additional information
they needed to write their cases, whereas 17%
indicated a desire for more clarification of
grading criteria and another 17% wanted more
personalized feedback from the instructor.
When asked what additional information would
have been most helpful, students at both
Javeriana (16%) and EAFIT (13%) expressed
frustration with the lack of reliable and
accessible data to support their case research. A
small number of students in all three courses
indicated that it would have been helpful to
receive examples of good Colombian case
studies to illustrate the expectations (16%, 9%,
and 5% at Javeriana, EAFIT and Los Andes,
respectively). Only the instructor at EAFIT
was able to provide examples from prior courses
to illustrate expectations to students; all three
instructors are hopeful that our use of the
SWIF case process will allow us to share such
examples with students in future semesters.
Finding 3: The SWIF Case Pedagogy Provides
Intended and Unintended Benefits
For the purposes of our research, the most
revealing evaluation questions were those that
asked about the most valuable aspects of the
SWIF case experience and students’ perceptions
of knowledge or competencies gained. While
we acknowledge that students’ perceptions of
acquired skills does not constitute definitive
evidence of competence, we note that their per­
ceptions are supported by our own obser­vations
and assessments of their classroom interactions
and the products they submitted. In selecting
the SWIF case pedagogy, we had hoped simply
to overcome the absence of published cases and
find a way to realize the benefits of the case
method. The student evaluations and our
observations of the quality of work submitted
indicate that the SWIF case approach not only
provided the expected benefits of using cases
but also contributed to important additional
competencies among the students.
Javeriana students made reference to the value
of working with and learning from their peers
from other regions of the country (56%) and of
acquiring a depth of knowledge of a topic and
a community (28%). The EAFIT students em­
phasized application of theory to practice (61%)
and analytical skills acquired (39%). The
students from Los Andes found the personal
insights most valuable (54%), and they reported
that they developed skills in self-reflection
(25%) and emotional management (25%).
Among the expected benefits noted were
increased appreciation for the complexity of
pub­
lic problems specific to the Colombian
context and an ability to apply theory to
practice and to critically evaluate theories.
Comments such as “I’ve learned and streng­
thened regional analysis from the viewpoint of
public management and developed a sense of
the influence of these in the development,
implementation, monitoring, and control of
development plans of the various local auth­
orities” suggest an understanding of the
Colombian context and its complexities.
Another student noted,
Journal of Public Affairs Education583
M. Careaga, N. Rubaii, & S. Leyva
The ability to think in practical terms is
key. To theorize and search for biblio­
graphic references that justify an argument
is relatively easy. But to use these arguments
to find why [a particular problem] is
present in certain situations and not in
others demands a higher level of com­plex­
ity. The fact is that the case study puts
one in a position to think about these
things and it is an important benefit.
Sample student comments reflected an appre­
ciation for the value of praxis: “the most valuable
aspect of the experience was to be able to con­
duct a study to examine a particular problem
and contribute to the community, organizations,
and academia”; writing a case allowed us to
“identify ways to bridge the gap between prin­
ciples of governance and reality and to identify
the challenges for effective participation”; “the
case is a good way to apply the theoretical
content and see how reality can be seen through
the contributions of academia”; and “writing
my cases gave me the opportunity to see the
practical applications of the tools discussed in
class and readings.” These student perceptions
were reinforced by our observations and assess­
ments. As instructors, we evaluated the written
products submitted based on their reference to
appropriate theories, models, and concepts from
the course readings, and we were impressed
with students’ ability to engage in critical analysis
of the theories. We evaluated cases in all courses
using rubrics that included a criterion related
to integration and application of theory. The
cases the students identified, researched, and
wrote about provided opportunities to examine
and critique various tenets of New Public
Management, models of decentralization and
public choice theory, and adaptive leadership
theories and leadership as practice. As in­
structors, we found that students did this more
effectively than we had experienced in other
courses using a more conventional case method.
Among the unexpected benefits were a broader
set of analytical skills, an increased appreciation
of the value of diversity of perspectives and
experiences, improved skills in active listening
and collaboration, and greater appreciation for
the importance of and ability to utilize emo­
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Journal of Public Affairs Education
tional intelligence. Analytical skills are also
commonly associated with the case methodo­
logy in the sense that students must interpret the
situation and analyze potential consequences of
alternative courses of action. This was true for
the SWIF cases as well, but this pedagogy also
had the advantage of contributing to students’
research skills. Students reported that they
“acquired new skills in making theoretical
arguments and skills to propose improvements
to different problems,” “new ways to engage in
investigation,” and the ability to “flesh out
ideas and present information relevant to under­
standing a subject.” As one student explained,
“Before, I had a quick and everyday vision of
behavior, and now I have the technical tools for
a case analysis.”
In each of the courses, students mentioned the
opportunity to learn from each other and a
greater appreciation for the diversity of per­
spectives and experiences that their classmates
brought to the case-writing process. One
student indicated that “the most valuable thing
was to learn from the lives of my colleagues
and to better understand the situation in differ­ent regions of the country.” Other students
emphasized the value of “working in groups,
where different people from different regions
and completely different professions united
from the same point to investigate, analyze, and
resolve a public management case” and the
usefulness of “seeing another point of view
from different experiences, which made me
realize that I have much to learn and we have a
huge responsibility in this respect.” On a more
personal level, students referenced the value of
“sharing with others to get different perspectives
of myself, the challenge, and the system” and of
“sharing an experience with others as a means
of promoting personal and professional growth.”
Because the SWIF case exercise in the Javeriana
course grouped students into teams, we also
asked students to evaluate the group experience.
Despite the challenges of working in groups
with individuals living in distant and remote
locations, 80% of students indicated a prefer­
ence for completing this type of assignment in
groups rather than individually. They cited the
value of diversity of ideas, perspectives, and
Student-Written Cases
experiences and the need to develop practical
skills for the real world of work. Students char­
acterized their written cases as being stronger,
their personal experiences more enriching, and
their analysis more critical and deep for having
been completed in diverse groups. Only two
students (less than 1%) expressed a desire to
work alone if tasked with a similar case-writing
assignment in the future.
Among the Los Andes students, 83% described
the process in terms that suggest a level of selfreflection, self-control, and emotional intelli­
gence, stating that the process contributed to
the ability to “consciously regulate my level of
frustration by properly evaluating my exper­
iences” and to have greater “self-awareness, selfregulation, social skill, empathy, and motiva­
tion.” Similarly, 50% of Los Andes students
mentioned that the SWIF cases contributed to
their strategic management skills; one student
said that the process provided “tools to deal
with groups, tools to identify and make alli­
ances, and other leadership tools to achieve
goals more easily.”
Students’ perceptions of the value of the SWIF
case experience were also influenced by their
under­standing of how their cases could contri­
bute to the development of a bank of cases for
future use by others. We told students that, at a
minimum, we would use their cases in subse­
quent semesters and that the cases might be
submitted to an existing case bank or a new
one. Students were motivated by the idea that
their work could aid others in subsequent sem­
esters. Both on the evaluations and in more
informal conversations with instructors, students
commented that they felt pride in doing
something that might be of use to future public
affairs students in Colombia and that also might
help public affairs students elsewhere better
understand the public management and policy
challenges faced within Colombia. While we
have yet to determine a strategy to bring to
fruition this plan outside of our own courses, it
remains a goal.
INTERPRETING THE FINDINGS
As documented above, student responses to the
SWIF case experience were largely positive.
Student comments suggest that the SWIF case
pedagogy not only contributed to our shortterm goal of having relevant Columbian cases
to use in our teaching as well as all the usual
benefits of the case method, but also generated
additional benefits by virtue of students’ higher
level of engagement. Students were forced to
identify appropriate subjects for case studies in
their organizations, communities, or their own
professional experiences; engage in data collec­
tion through document and archival analysis
and interviews; evaluate the relative quality
and adequacy of the information they collected; analyze data using appropriate techniques;
reflect on prior decisions and actions of them­
selves and others; and work collaboratively with
their classmates either as part of a team or in
providing feedback on individual SWIF case
assignments. Despite some students’ initial
trepidations about the SWIF case process, the
final assessment was almost overwhelmingly
positive. We acknowledge that this may be in
part a function of the absence of assembled case
studies in Colombia, and thus we present this
finding as preliminary; more studies are needed
in contexts where case studies already exist.
As instructors, we were also impressed by the
quality of many of the cases produced by the
students in terms of students’ ability to apply
theoretical material and analytical tools from
the course to the specific case, to present the
case in a compelling and interesting way, and to
reflect on their learning at macro and micro
levels. We also see potential for these cases to be
used in future courses to illustrate public
management, public policy, and organizational
leadership within a Colombian context.
Although this pedagogy was initially conceived
of as a short-term alternative “fix,” each of us is
inclined to use this pedagogy again based on
the benefits realized. We will, of course, modify,
refine, and improve the SWIF case process based
on our own observations and student feed­back,
and we will use some of the cases writ­ten by
students in as illustrations and examples. It is
from that perspective that we offer recom­mend­
ations for others engaged in the teaching of
public affairs not limited to those in Colombia.
Journal of Public Affairs Education585
M. Careaga, N. Rubaii, & S. Leyva
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE
TEACHING OF PUBLIC AFFAIRS
Based on our experiences, we have three
recommendations for public affairs educators.
Specifically, we recommend (1) that faculty
might consider the SWIF case pedagogy even
when formal cases already exist, if it supports
their learning objectives, and that they learn
from our experiences; (2) that existing and
new case banks provide a venue for screening,
publishing, and disseminating cases written by
practitioner-students through SWIF processes,
including those written in languages other than
English; and (3) that public affairs programs,
particularly those in developing countries with
a shortage of cases, commit to a systematic
process of case development and dissemination.
The SWIF case method is particularly useful
when teaching in circumstances that present
unique contextual factors not found among
existing formal cases; however, our research
suggests that this method should not be
relegated to only those settings. Lack of cases
may not be an issue for faculty teaching in
developed countries or even in particular parts
of Latin America, for example, in Mexico. For
those experienced with the case method of
teaching, the convenience, familiarity, and
polish of published cases may be attractive.
Our research suggests, however, that there may
be additional benefits associated with the SWIF
case process that are particularly appropriate
and contribute to fundamental competencies
needed for governance in the 21st century.
Faculty interested in helping students enhance
their teamwork, research, or self-reflection skills
can tailor the SWIF case process to provide
opportunities to practice while also realizing
the typical benefits of the case pedagogy. Thus,
if the learning objectives of the course include
developing teamwork, gathering and inter­
pret­ing original data, effective communication
across diversity, empathy, and self-reflection,
then the SWIF case pedagogy may be parti­
cularly appropriate.
The SWIF case pedagogy is not appropriate in
all public affairs classes. Researching and writ­
ing cases requires a level of professionalism and
experience that makes this method more suited
586
Journal of Public Affairs Education
to a midcareer practitioner-student group than
to an entirely preservice class. Additionally, the
SWIF case pedagogy requires the faculty mem­
ber to assume the role of an engaged facilitator
who provides guidance but allows students to
make choices and who responds to issues as
they arise, rather than dictating the learning
sequence and outcomes. The time commitment
on the part of the faculty member is not insigni­
ficant, although the time burden asso­
ciated
with grading is comparable to other methods of
evaluating work that involves providing feed­
back on drafts of written materials throughout
the semester and grading a major product at
the end (e.g., research papers). To reduce the
grading burden at the end of the course, each of
us required components of the full product to be
submitted at various stages during the semester
so that the final product was largely a compil­­a­
tion of sections that had already received feed­
back. In the Javeriana and EAFIT courses, we
placed students in groups to reduce the total
num­ber of cases submitted, and this had the
add­ed benefit of helping students advance their
teamwork skills. In the course at Los Andes, stu­
dents provided feedback to their peers so that
not all of that responsibility fell on the instructor.
The other adjustment that faculty need to make
is to surrender some time during class sessions
that might ordinarily be devoted to substantive
content and dedicate that time to the process of
case research and case writing. The challenge
for the faculty member is to use these oppor­
tunities as a way to illustrate course concepts
and the application of theory.
Based on our experiences and student feedback,
we offer three more detailed recommendations
for faculty interested in trying this approach.
First, students want to see examples that
illustrate what the instructor’s expectations are
for their cases. Even if examples do not exist
within the particular country or regional
context, a carefully selected case from another
setting can still help students appreciate the
elements of a well-written case. If possible, an
instructor should provide two or three examples
to illustrate the variety of presentation styles
possible and to avoid a formulaic approach to
Student-Written Cases
case writing (a possible temptation if students
only have a single illustrative example).
Students do not generally see the instructor’s
guides or teaching notes that accompany cases,
but if preparing such a document is part of the
assignment, the instructor should provide
examples of these as well.
Second, faculty should anticipate that students
will need some assistance in locating and
accessing appropriate source materials for a
case. Part of the instructor’s role as facilitator in
the case-writing process is to help students
determine where information may be stored
and what approvals are necessary to access it.
When written documents do not exist, students
need to be prepared to gather information
through other means, including observation,
interviews, focus groups, and so on. Faculty
must determine whether students will already
have the necessary research skills from other
courses in the program or if some time must be
dedicated within the course for this purpose.
Related to this, if students are interviewing
public or other officials as part of their research
processes, they need to be able to accurately
inform those officials if the information will be
used solely for a class project or if it might
ultimately be more widely distributed.
Third, if the SWIF case pedagogy is selected
intentionally in place of a traditional case meth­
od that uses cases written by others, the activity
should be designed to advance parti­cular goals.
If a program or course seeks to emphasize
collaboration, then the SWIF cases can be at a
group level. In contrast, if the goal is to develop
individual skills or to reflect on individual
experiences, the cases can be written separately.
In either instance, our experiences suggest that
there is value to interaction with classmates in
the process of case development and reflection.
Similarly, the goals of the SWIF case approach
relative to course learning objectives will dictate
whether the course is designed around case
writing as the main activity or if that process is
a smaller component of the course.
We do not present SWIF cases as a replacement
for the banks of cases that exist but rather as a
tool to augment those case banks and to
encourage more of them to include a wider
diversity of cases. The absence of teaching cases
for the Colombian context was the motivating
force behind our individual and collective
decisions, and we are hopeful that this is a
situation that will be remedied over time, either
through the addition of Colombian cases to
existing case banks (such as in Monterrey,
Mexico, or those in the United States), and/or
through the development of a case bank within
Colombia. Either way, we recommend that all
case banks—existing and future—examine ways
to incorporate student-written cases and cases
written in a variety of languages in their review
processes, to make the best cases available to
others. Practitioner-students working under the
guidance of experienced faculty can bring a
wealth of knowledge and expertise to cases.
Addressing the lack of sufficient cases in
Colombia or other Latin American countries is
a collective responsibility and should not depend
on a single individual or a small group of pro­
fessors. At the level of programs, universities,
countries, and regions, there is the opportunity
to collaborate to improve the process of
developing high-quality case studies. Graduate
programs in public affairs have the potential to
contribute greatly to this process, particularly
when students have work experience to draw
upon and the graduate program can provide
the time, structure, and instructor guidance for
stu­dents to gather information, apply and criti­
cally analyze theories, and utilize appropriate
methodologies to develop strong cases. A
common critique of the case method is the lack
of generalizability. Although we utilized widely
different approaches to the SWIF case process
and we see benefits to this diversity, we also
recognize the value of developing and applying
a common structure and method across courses,
programs, and even countries to increase the
ability to compare and contrast across cases
within a given case bank. In addition to con­
tributing to the development of cases, graduate
programs in public affairs at leading universities
can be depositories for the kinds of information
(documents, archives, interviews, current data,
maps) needed to develop quality cases.
Journal of Public Affairs Education587
M. Careaga, N. Rubaii, & S. Leyva
In sum, we suggest that there is a role for SWIF
cases in the teaching of public affairs. For in­div­
idual faculty interested in trying the SWIF case
pedagogy, we offer our enthusiastic support and
are happy to share syllabi, assignment in­struc­
tions, grading rubrics, and advice beyond what
is presented in this article. The case method in
its traditional form using published cases has
many benefits in the form of devel­op­ing realworld competencies needed for effective manage­
­ment. However, our experiences suggest that
SWIF cases offer many of the same benefits as
well as some additional ones. For this reason,
we advocate this method as both a short-term
solution to the lack of cases in certain locations
and as a long-term strategy for effective teaching
of current and future public affairs professionals.
2 Beyond these historical factors contributing to a
distinct Colombian context, an additional layer
of unique circumstances surrounded our courses
in 2014. Negotiations were occurring in Havana,
Cuba, between representatives of the government
of President Juan Manuel Santos and leaders of the
FARC. In that context, public policy debates and
public management decisions were shaped in large
part by anticipation of a negotiated end to the
armed conflict and the challenging transition to a
postconflict state of peace. Cases developed during
this period could not help but incorporate to some
degree that aspect of Colombian life.
3 Though we taught our courses in Spanish, we
have trans­lated all examples of student comments
into English.
4 Arguably, coping with limited information can be
an advantage of the SWIF method, since it helps
train students to work in situations where information is incomplete.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
An earlier version of this article was presented
in Spanish at the XIX Congreso Internacional
de Centro Latinoamericano de Administración
para el Desarrollo (CLAD) in Quito, Ecuador,
November 10–14, 2014. We appreciate the re­
search assistance of Sebastian Estrada Jara­millo
and Paola Caro, and the useful comments on
earlier drafts provided by Carlos Caballero Ar­
garéz, Mónica Pachón, Pablo Sanabria Pulido,
Sandra Garcia, and Susan Appe. Professor Rubaii
would like to acknowledge the support of the
Fulbright Scholar Program for the 2013–2014
Core Scholar research and teaching award,
which facilitated her experience in Colombia
and established the basis for this collaborative
effort with Professors Careaga and Leyva.
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Maite Careaga is assistant professor of leader­
ship and strategy in the Alberto Lleras Camargo
School of Government of the University de los
Andes in Bogotá, Colombia, where she is also
director of the Center for Public Leadership.
She received her PhD in political science and
government from Stanford University. Her
research focuses on leadership, communication,
behavior, and public affairs education. She is
also a coach trained by Columbia University.
Nadia Rubaii is associate professor of public ad­
ministration in the College of Community and
Public Affairs at Binghamton University, State
University of New York, and was a Fulbright
Scholar at Pontificia Universidad Javeriana in
Bogotá, Colombia, in spring 2014. Her research
focuses on issues of diversity and cultural
competence, innovative pedagogies, and the
internationalization of public affairs education.
Santiago Leyva is a professor in the Department
of Government and Political Science of EAFIT
University in Medellín, Colombia, where he also
serves as the current head of the depart­ment. He
received his PhD from Lancaster University in
the United Kingdom. His research centers on
political science and public policy education,
urban politics, and public policies in contexts
of harsh restrictions (weak stateness, patronage
politics, implementation problems, etc.).
In Proximity to Professionalism:
A Regional Analysis of Master of
Public Administration Programs and
Local Government Management
Christian L. Janousek
University of Nebraska–Omaha
ABSTRACT
Differences in the status of professionalism in local government management among U.S. states may
be attributed to various cultural, regional, and institutional factors. The prominence of the Master
of Public Administration (MPA) degree in the local government profession denotes the influential
role of graduate education institutions of public administration and affairs in professionalization.
This study examines the impact of municipal proximity to university-based MPA programs on the
nature and occurrence of professional local government management in states of the West North
Central Midwest region. The findings suggest that an increase in a municipality’s physical distance
from a state or regional MPA program is negatively associated with local government professionalism.
Despite dissimilarities in composition and local government specificity among regional MPA
institutions, the results support the proposition that university-based MPA programs may
contribute to professional public administration within a geographic sphere of influence.
KEYWORDS
Professionalism, MPA programs, local government, regionalism
In the field of public administration, the label
professional carries a distinct connotation,
referring to both the individual occupying the
position and the manner and structure in
which related duties, responsibilities, and tasks
are performed. In local government, managerial
professionalism signifies the appointment or
em­ployment of a chief executive administrating
officer (CAO), in the figure of a city manager
or administrator, who possesses the qualifi­ca­
tions and expertise to oversee the daily functions
of the modern city and embodies professional
standards of practice. Throughout the United
States, differences abound among cities, states,
and regions in relation to the nature and oc­cur­rence of local government professionalism;
JPAE 23 (1), 591–610
and, according to the literature, the reasons for
these deviations may be due to various formative factors representative of the ambient
setting. In other words, there is evidence that
professional management may be viewed as a
product, an amalgamation of stimulating
dynamics that create a particular environment
conducive to the reception and development
of professional local government structures,
managers, and administration.
One such factor that may be influential is
education. The notion of a profession of local
government administration has long been
associated with the educational skills and train­
ing of managers, continuing White’s (1927,
Journal of Public Affairs Education591
C. L. Janousek
p. 282) identification of “recognized means of
preparation” as a component of professional sta­
tus. In particular, the International City/County
Management Association (ICMA), the premier
local government professional practi­tioner or­
gan­ization, advocates for education pertaining
to the study and application of public service and
administration, most notably in the form of the
Master of Public Administration (MPA) degree.
The MPA degree represents advanced edu­ca­tion­al
and academic attainment in the field, encom­pas­
sing an array of public service knowledge and
disci­plines relating to public policy, organ­iza­
tional and personnel management, govern­
ment­al operation, and budgeting and finance.
University-based MPA programs may also offer
further substantive educational and assistive
contributions to the development, enhance­ment,
and utilization of professional public admini­
stration within their geographic regions, as
faculty, staff, and students participate in
interactive and collaborative activities such as
university extension and outreach, consultation
and research, promotion and engagement,
internships and volunteerism, and community
board and committee involvement. As of the
year 2000, approximately 60% of surveyed city
managers say they possessed a master’s degree
in public administration, business admini­stra­
tion, or another related area (Renner, 2001).
The ICMA 2012 State of the Profession Survey
affirms that the MPA is the most common edu­
cational degree among practicing profes­sional
managers of U.S. local governments. In this way,
the MPA degree has become the “de facto
requirement for most positions in local govern­
ment management” (Hansell, 2002, p. 184).
The purpose of this study is to assess the impact
of municipal proximity to a university-based
MPA program on the nature and occurrence of
professional local government management. A
basis for this research is the concept of political
regionalism, a topic extensively examined by
Elazar (1994) and others. This concept suggests
that the governmental systems of states and
local entities reflect the composition of specific
592
Journal of Public Affairs Education
social, political, and environmental proclivities
and sentiments of the associated populace and
other influential institutions. The education pro­
vided by university-based graduate pro­grams of
public administration and affairs represents one
of these influential institutions. In addition,
according to ICMA (2015a), the actualization
of professional local government management
varies among U.S. states, even in contiguous
states of similar cultural and regional dispos­
itions. While researchers have identified many
factors that may contribute to these differences,
the aspect of education has been relatively
underexplored. With the recent movement
toward professionalization in the public admin­
istration field and among MPA programs, this
research will assist in further understanding this
important relationship.
This study is organized as follows: First, a review
of the literature details the indicators and in­flu­
encing factors of professional local govern­ment
management and the role of MPA education.
Next, I present the methodological framework
for the study, followed by the results of the data
analysis. Finally, a discussion investi­gates the
implications and conclusions of the findings.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Indicators of Professional Management
Evidence from the literature identifies at least
three primary indicators of professional local
government management. The first is form of
government, which affects the operations, auth­
orizations, and responsibilities of local govern­
ment managers. Historically, the council-manager
plan has been endorsed as the archetypical struc­
­ture for professional management in mun­icipal
governments (Stillman, 1974). Partic­u­lar­ized
features such as qualifications and experience,
technical expertise, ethical standards, admini­
strative discretion, and political neutrality
demonstrate the normative criteria of profes­
sionalism assigned to the city manager position
and, in turn, the council-manager structure
(Ammons, 2008). Accordingly, the addition of
CAOs, as city administrators, to other forms
MPA Programs and Local Government Management
of local government depicts a structural
mod­i­fi­cation toward professional management
(Fred­erickson, Johnson, & Wood, 2004; Nelson
& Svara, 2012; Renner & DeSantis, 1999).
The distinction of having a specialized chief
administrator distinguishes the profes­
sional
managerial model from other more political
forms of local government such as the mayorcouncil structure.
The second indicator involves the individual
competencies and achievements of local govern­
ment managers (Childs, 1965; Newell, 2004;
Slack, 1990), including both formal means of
university education (such as bachelor and
graduate degrees, notably the MPA) and exper­
iential and shared knowledge (e.g., through
professional development and certifications).
The council-manager form of government is
predicated on the technical skills and admin­
istrative capacity of the city manager, which
substantiates individual professional aptitude
as a condition for employment (Nalbandian,
1991). For example, ICMA (2015b) endorses
educational attainments toward professional
proficiency, and the association has a voluntary
credentialing program that assesses expertise and
experience as part of an individual’s commit­
ment to career-long professional development
and learning.
This relates to the third indicator, which in­
cludes memberships, professional recognitions,
and standards promulgated through practitioner
associations (Ammons, 1994). The status of
pro­fessional connotes the existence of and ad­
herence to regulatory criteria and norms that
provide some discernible guidelines of profes­
sional conduct and integrity (Kline & Blanchard,
1973; White, 1927). ICMA and its state affiliates
contribute to professionalism through promo­
tion and sponsorship, education and training,
the recognition of structural and individual
professional attributes, and ethical enforcement.
In this way, the professional associational affil­
iations of local government managers imply a
tacit acknowledgement and fulfillment of the
ideals represented by such organizations (Streib
& Rivera, 2009).
Influences on Professional Management
While form of local government is typically the
most visible indication of professional manage­
ment, research suggests that the development
of these indicators of professionalism may be
affected by various factors, contexts, and
relationships. Political culture may present an
underlying paradigm in governmental operation
that guides policies, actions, and institutions,
such as state legislation and citizen expectations
for local government management (Mouritzen
& Svara, 2002). City politics produce a unique
temperament emblematic of the disposition,
diversity, and size of urban areas, which may
pro­mote or impede the reception of profes­sion­
alism in local structures (DeSantis, Glass, &
Newell, 1992; Nalbandian, 2005). Invariably,
political representation has been an issue for
council-manager cities, due to the allotted auth­
ority and discretion of the city manager position
(Box, 1993; Skidmore, 2001). Political tensions
may catalyze local governmental adapt­ation, a
structural configuration approach that attempts
to combine political and admin­is­tra­tive qual­
ities, such as the addition of CAOs to mayorcouncil governments (Frederickson & John­son,
2001), which may assist in the nego­tia­tion of
conflicts arising from cultural and representa­
tional concerns (Svara & Watson, 2010).
However, internal governmental procedures may
likewise affect the inclination for pro­fes­sion­al­
ism. The inherent division of authority implied
in the politics-administration separation, exem­
plified in the council-manager form, plays an
important part in the scope of professional prac­
tice and discretion exerted by city managers and
administrators (Saltzstein, 1974; Svara, 1999).
The popular election of the mayor, most com­
mon in political forms of government, may
influence the perception of professional man­age­
ment as well as the latitude afforded to
the CAO (Kammerer, Farris, DeGrove, &
Clubok, 1962). Moreover, the size and electoral
processes of the city council can shape the
political climate of the local govern­ment and
the administrator-council relationship (Svara,
2002). In other words, governmental rubrics
Journal of Public Affairs Education593
C. L. Janousek
may dictate the degree of intervention by
elected officials in administrative affairs, as
those structures that demonstrate more admin­
istrative attributes generally experience less
political infringement in professional admin­
istration (Whitaker & DeHoog, 1991; Zhang,
Yao, & Cheong, 2011).
Further studies have assessed specific attributes
of regional and jurisdictional composition in
relation to the prevalence of professional local
government management. Certain socioecono­
mic and demographic variables, when assessed
within regions, may be significant predictors of
the form of local government, such as city size,
population growth and density, median family
income, median housing value, percentage non­
white, education level, homeownership, and age
of the city (Dye & Macmanus, 1976; Nelson,
2011; Schnore & Alford, 1963; Sherbenou,
1961; Wolfinger & Field, 1966). For example,
reform­
ed structures, most associated with
council-manager forms of government, are
more likely to be in municipalities of smaller
populations with higher levels of educational
attainment, owner-occupied homes, white-collar
employment, and suburban locations (Freder­
ick­son et al., 2004; Lineberry & Fowler, 1967).
Other related studies have yielded similar results,
distinguishing the political affiliation, race, age,
and education of city populations as potential
determinants of local government structures
(Berman & Merrill, 1976; Simmons & Simmons,
2004; Svara, 1977).
The Role of MPA Education
in Professional Management
Overall, the findings of prior research suggest
that professional local government management
may be associated with multiple contributory
factors. Notably, however, the impact of edu­ca­
tional institutions on professionalism has not
been amply examined within this context.
According to the literature, education plays an
important part in the primary indicators of
professional management, relating to the
training and qualifications of CAOs as well as
in the public’s receptivity to administrative
structures of government.
594
Journal of Public Affairs Education
The MPA degree is the most common educa­
tional attainment among U.S. local government
managers (ICMA, 2012; Renner, 2001), and
university-based MPA programs may contribute
to the promotion and advancement of pro­fes­
sional public administration within their geo­
graphic regions (Gabris, Davis, & Nelson, 2010).
Scholars have identified certain features of
MPA programs—such as educational approach
(Wang, Bunch, & Stream, 2013), program
de­­sign (Koven, Goetzke, & Brennan, 2008),
core curri­culum (Roeder & Whitaker, 1993),
depart­mental status (Baldwin, 1988), intern­
ships (Reinagel & Gerlach, 2015), and program
outcomes (Poister & Ingraham, 1991)—as
instrumental in the quality of public service
education and the development of professional
public administrators. What is more, some
studies have deemed university-based education
integral to meeting the modern demands for
professional training in the public sector
(Mirabella & Wish, 2001) and have distin­
guished the MPA as fundamental to the future
vitality of the local government management
profession (Svara, 2010). Given the emphasis
on educational aptitude in professional admin­
istration and management, the specific prepar­
atory and outreach contributions of MPA
programs, and the current predominance of the
MPA degree among practicing city managers
and administrators, the effect of the proximity
and access to university-based MPA programs
on local government professionalism compels
further examination.
METHODOLOGY
Research Question
The research question that guided this analysis
is, What is the impact of municipal proximity
to a university-based MPA program on the nature
and occurrence of professional local government
management in regional U.S. states, controlling
for other state and municipal characteristics?
Acknowledging the prominent role of the MPA
degree and programs in the promulgation of
pro­fessional local government management, the
MPA Programs and Local Government Management
primary research hypothesis is that an increase
in the distance of a given municipality from a
state or regional university-based MPA program
will have a negative impact on the nature and
occurrence of local government professionalism.
Units of Analysis and Sample
Using regional delineations of the U.S. Census
Bureau (2013) and Elazar (1994), I selected
the West North Central Midwest region for the
sample. Reasons for selecting this particular
region are relative similarities in population
demographics and distribution, geographic and
cultural traits, and patterns of urbanization.
The units of analysis of the sample included
all municipalities in the states of Iowa (n = 139),
Kansas (n = 104), Minnesota (n = 228), Missouri
(n = 211), Nebraska (n = 50), North Dakota
(n = 15), and South Dakota (n = 27) with pop­
ulations of 2,500 or more (N = 774). I selected
municipalities as units of analysis based on the
general representation of professional forms of
local government, which suggests that profes­­
sional management is most likely to occur in
municipal governments of populations above
2,500, as opposed to smaller local government entities or other types, such as counties
(ICMA, 2014).
Research Design
An ordinary least squares (OLS) multiple
regression analysis was used to test the stated
hypothesis; this provided a method to isolate
the effect on local government professionalism
of proximity to MPA program while holding
constant other state and municipal variables.
Previous studies have identified a range of fac­
tors representing cultural, structural, economic,
institutional, and political forces that may con­
currently influence the nature and occurrence
of professionalism in local government manage­
ment. As such, assessing the individual impact
of a specific contributor necessitated a statistical
method capable of distinguishing the predict­ed variation in the dependent variable while
controlling for other factors and mitigating
issues of omitted variable bias (Kennedy, 2003).
The dependent variable Local government pro­
fes­sionalism was represented by an indexical
composite score of characteristics derived from
the literature determined to be indicative of the
nature and occurrence of professional local
government management. The indexical com­
posite included five elements: (1) the structural
form and ICMA professional recognition of
the municipal government; (2) the number of
CAOs on the municipal staff; (3) the number
of full ICMA members on the municipal staff;
(4) the number of ICMA-affiliated state asso­
ciation members on the municipal staff; and
(5) the number of ICMA-credentialed officials
on the municipal staff. To address issues of
exclusivity and correlation, the five dependent
variable elements were weighted through a
principal component factor analysis.
The primary independent variable Proximity to
MPA program was defined as the closest dis­
tance (in miles) of a municipality from a state
or regional university-based Master of Public
Administration/Affairs program. This study
defines a university-based MPA program as
an institution of higher learning that awards
grad­uate degrees in public administration/affairs
and that meets the membership criteria of the
Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs,
and Administration (NASPAA). While this
defini­tion includes MPA degrees offered in both
traditional and online formats, the limitation
of a physical location was intended to illumi­nate
possible educational and assistive contributions
as well as aspects of political culture and
regional/state presence that may not be evident
with Web-based programs. The justification for
the limitation of NASPAA member institutions
pertains to the distinction of NASPAA as the
principal membership association among MPA
degree programs. Full NASPAA member­ship
signifies curricula that contribute to professional
graduate education in public administration/
affairs, eligibility for NASPAA accreditation,
and adherence to the missions of the association
(NASPAA, 2015). However, this limitation may
preclude some state and regional universitybased MPA programs from the analysis for
Journal of Public Affairs Education595
C. L. Janousek
TABLE 1.
Variables of the Operational Model
Variables
Data definition
Dependent
Local government professionalism: Indexical composite score of structural
designation, CAOs, ICMA membership, state association membership, and
ICMA credentialing of municipality
Primary
independent
Proximity to MPA program. Closest distance (in miles) of municipality from
a state or regional university-based MPA degree program
Independent
control
Population: Number of residents of municipality
Population growth: Change in municipal population since 2000
Age of city in years since official incorporation of municipality
City classification: U.S. Census statistical definition of municipality—
rural, micropolitan, metropolitan
Education level: Percentage of municipal population with bachelor’s degree or higher
Median family income of municipality in 2012 dollars
Rate of homeownership: Percentage of owner-occupied housing units
in municipality
Median housing value of municipality in 2012 dollars
Percent nonwhite: Percentage of municipal population identified as a race
other than white
Median age in years of residents of municipality
Political orientation: Affiliation of congressional district representative
of municipality—Republican or Democrat
Mayoral election: Electoral process of mayor of municipality—
popular election or selection by council
Council election: Electoral process of city council of municipality—
by district or at-large
Size of council: Number of designated city council seats of municipality
Nature of MPA programs: Ordinal state composite value of MPA program character­
istics—MPA degree, local government concentration, or NASPAA accreditation
State culture: Ordinal state measure of represented political subcultures by
Elazar (1994)—individualistic, moralistic, traditionalistic
various institutional reasons, namely budget
constraints toward membership dues or other
NASPAA membership restrictions. These issues
are acknowledged within this limitation.
The basis for the limitation of Master of Public
Administration/Affairs programs relates to the
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Journal of Public Affairs Education
prevalence and stature of the MPA (in assorted
forms) in the local government management
pro­fession. While there are programmatic devia­
tions between master’s degrees of administration and affairs, the inclusion of MPA programs
in this analysis was based foremost on the
NASPAA membership of graduate public ser­
MPA Programs and Local Government Management
vice education programs in the selected regional
states of the sample, which accommodated a few
alternate degrees. Of the four MPA programs
included in the analysis that offer other than a
Master of Public Administration degree, three
maintain NASPAA accreditation.
and outreach/extension research. Based on the
inclusionary conditions at the time of data
collection, there were 19 regional universitybased MPA programs identified for the analysis.
The 16 other independent variables used in
the operational model, designated as control
vari­ables, were selected from previous studies
as be­ing found to have a significant association
with the nature and occurrence of professional
local government management (see Table 1).
The stat­istical research for this study was obser­va­tional and cross-sectional. Data collection
for all variables occurred from 2012 through
2013 and involved secondary data sources and
online information from the U.S. Census
Bur­eau, ICMA and affiliated state associa­tions,
Rand Mc­Nally mapping tools, state govern­
ments, mun­i­cipalities, universities, and NASPAA.
(See the Appendix for summary statistics of
variables of the operational model.)
Regression Analysis
To supplement the statistical results, a com­par­
ative content analysis was conducted for the
university-based MPA programs within the
selected regional U.S. states, which included
the categorization and coding of data to sort the
attributes and themes of units into organized
classes to facilitate comparability and interpre­
tation (Berg, 2009). This information provided
the general complexion and differences of the
MPA programs as they related to local govern­
ment education and outreach. Using evaluation
criteria from MPA literature, the comparative
analysis focused on the composition and local
government scope of university-based MPA
programs in the selected regional states. This
included NASPAA accreditation, metropolitan
location, a freestanding department of public
administration/affairs, the offering of a local
government concentration, requirement of
in­­tern­­ship and capstone project, online availa­
bility, admission standards, breadth of the core
curriculum in local government compe­tencies,
and extent of local government faculty special­
izations, scholarship opportunities, certifications,
DATA ANALYSIS
The OLS multiple regression analyses included
two primary independent variables: proximity
to MPA program in the state and proximity to
MPA program in the region. The purpose for
including two measurements was to delineate a
potential difference of state and regional
influence, particularly across state boundaries.
Due to the inclusion of two state-level control
variables, representing the nature of MPA
programs and state culture, separate analyses
were conducted for each independent variable.
Robust standard errors were used due to
indicate heteroskedasticity of residuals. Table 2
displays the results for proximity to MPA
program in the state; Table 3 displays the results
for proximity to MPA program in the region.
The results of the OLS multiple regression an­
alyses exhibited a negative association be­tween
the proximity to MPA program variable and
local government professionalism, suggest­
ing
that the nature and occurrence of pro­fessional
local government management decreases as the
distance (in miles) from a state or regional
university-based MPA program increases. Spec­
ifically, on average, holding other variables
constant, for every 1 unit change in proximity
to an MPA program there is a –.002 change
in local government professionalism. With
the range of the indexical composite dependent variable being approximately 0–5, the
estimated coefficients indicate that the sample
municipality with the farthest distance from a
university-based MPA program of 471.7 miles
may experience approximately a 1 unit decrease
in local government professionalism. The est­
imated coefficients of the proximity to MPA
program variables, in both the state and region,
were found to be statistically significant at the
p < .001 level.
Journal of Public Affairs Education597
C. L. Janousek
TABLE 2.
Regression Models for Proximity to MPA in State (Robust SE )
Regressors
Coefficients
Coefficients
–.002
(.000)
–.002c
(.000)
c
Proximity to MPA state
Population
3.27E-07
(2.22E-06)
4.61E-07
(2.22E-06)
Population growth
5.35E-05b
(2.02E-05)
5.38E-05b
(2.01E-05)
Age of city
.002a
(.001)
.002a
(.001)
City classification
.137b
(.045)
.141b
(.045)
Education level
.025c
(.005)
.024c
(.005)
Median family income
Rate of homeownership
Median housing value
4.70E-06
(5.09E-06)
–.012b
(.004)
–1.92E-06a
(9.62E-07)
3.16E-06
(5.11E-06)
–.012b
(.004)
–1.38E-06
(1.03E-06)
Percentage nonwhite
.005
(.003)
.005
(.003)
Median age
.009
(.007)
.008
(.007)
Political orientation
–.112
(.073)
–.131
(.072)
Mayoral election
.880c
(.115)
.829c
(.114)
Council election
–.121
(.085)
–.095
(.082)
–.004
–.008
(.026)
(.025)
–.011
(.007)
—
—
Size of council
Nature of MPA programs
State culture
Intercept
—
.036
—
(.018)
–.524
–.654
(.447)
(.432)
15.14c
15.25c
Adjusted R2
.286
.287
SER
.845
.844
F statistic
Note. N = 774
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Journal of Public Affairs Education
MPA Programs and Local Government Management
TABLE 3.
Regression Models for Proximity to MPA in Region (Robust SE )
Regressors
Coefficients
Coefficients
–.002
(.000)
–.002c
(.000)
c
Proximity to MPA region
Population
3.71E-07
(2.21E-06)
4.69E-07
(2.21E-06)
Population growth
5.14E-05b
(2.01E-05)
5.43E-05b
(2.01E-05)
Age of city
.002a
(.001)
.002a
(.001)
City classification
.147b
(.045)
.151b
(.044)
Education level
.025c
(.005)
.024c
(.005)
Median family income
Rate of homeownership
Median housing value
4.40E-06
(5.07E-06)
–.012b
(.004)
–1.82E-06a
(9.61E-07)
2.97E-06
(5.11E-06)
–.012b
(.004)
–1.32E-06
(1.04E-06)
Percentage nonwhite
.005
(.003)
.005
(.003)
Median age
.009
(.007)
.008
(.007)
Political orientation
–.112
(.074)
–.127
(.073)
Mayoral election
.879c
(.115)
.836c
(.114)
Council election
–.085
(.085)
–.082
(.082)
–.006
–.009
(.025)
(.025)
–.011
(.007)
—
—
Size of council
Nature of MPA programs
State culture
Intercept
F statistic
—
.032
—
(.018)
–.606
–.709
(.443)
(.429)
14.62
c
14.74c
Adjusted R2
.282
.284
SER
.847
.846
Note. Significant at the 5%a, 1%b, or 0.1%c level
Journal of Public Affairs Education599
C. L. Janousek
However, the estimated coefficient of the vari­
able representing city classification—using U.S.
Census Bureau definitions of rural (1), micro­po­
l­itan (2), or metropolitan (3)—was statisti­cal­ly
significant at the p < .01 and p < .001 levels in
the state and regional regression mod­els, respec­
tively. This result indicates that an increase in the
statistical definition of a given sample mun­ici­
pality may be positively asso­ciated with local
govern­ment professionalism. Correspondingly,
the estimated coefficient of the variable for
pop­­
ulation growth, defined as change in
population since the year 2000, was also
statistically signi­ficant at the p < .01 level in
both models. This result indicates that an in­
crease in municipal population, which may be
most likely to happen in suburban or metro­
pol­itan areas, may also be positively re­lated to
the nature and oc­currence of local government
professionalism. These findings coincide with
pre­­vious research that reveals an increased like­li­
hood of pro­fes­sion­al manage­ment with suburban
location and city growth (Fred­erickson et al.,
2004; Nelson, 2011). Approx­imately 90% of
the university-based MPA programs included
in this study are located in metropolitan areas,
which may sug­gest a presupposed incidence of
local govern­ment professionalism.
Yet, the estimated coefficient of the variable for
age of city, defined as age in years since official
incorporation, was statistically significant at the
p < .05 level in both regression models. This
result indicates that increased age of a muni­ci­
pality is positively associated with local govern­
ment professionalism. While this finding may
con­tradict previous research that connects de­
creased city age and probability of administrative forms of government (Dye & Macmanus,
1976), it may lend substantiation to the signi­fi­
cance of proximity to MPA programs. In effect,
for the sample municipalities, a more brief
tenure of incorporation, which is more likely in
suburban or metropolitan jurisdictions, may
not neces­sarily translate to a higher propensity
for profes­sional local government management.
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Journal of Public Affairs Education
The estimated coefficient of the variable for
may­oral election, defined as popularly elected (0) or selected by the council (1), was
statisti­
cally significant and considerable in
magnitude of effect. This result indicates that
the appointment of the mayor by the city
council, which is most practiced in councilmanager forms of government, is positively
associated with the nature and occurrence of
local government professionalism. This finding
is consistent with prior studies that associate
this process of mayoral election with the
tendency for and structural dynamic of pro­
fessional local government management (Svara
& Watson, 2010; Whitaker & DeHoog, 1991).
The estimated coefficients of the variables for
education level, rate of home­ownership, and
median housing value were also statistically
significant. However, regression diagnostic tests
revealed issues of multi­
col­
linearity among
these socioeconomic variables, which limited
interpretation of their signifi­
cance. The re­
gression diagnostics included tests for variance
inflation factor (VIF) as well as tolerance and
correlation tests of coefficients. The VIF meas­
ures and correlations among the other variables
of the operational model were within the
acceptable values for social science research.
Comparative Analysis
As shown in Table 4, the 19 university-based
MPA programs analyzed display differentiations in program features and local govern­
­
ment specificity, which suggest divergences in
insti­tu­tional nature and contribution to local
govern­ment professionalism. Only 7 of the MPA
programs offer a local government field of
concentration; the focus on local government
in the curriculum, certifications, scholarships,
faculty specializations, and outreach/extension
research varies considerably between programs.
Potentially, these programmatic distinctions
may manifest in the influence of universitybased education on the nature and occurrence
of professionalism, implying that municipal
proximity to MPA programs with a more
dev­
eloped focus on local government may
trans­
late to a higher propensity for profession­al management.
MPA Programs and Local Government Management
TABLE 4.
Comparison of Regional University-Based MPA Programs by State
States
Iowa
Kansas
Minnesota
Missouri
Number of
programs
3
3
4
6
1
1
1
NASPAA-accredited
programs
1
3
1
5
1
1
1
Metropolitan
location
2
3
4
6
1
1
0
Public administration
department
0
2
2
4
1
0
0
Local government
concentration
0
1
1
3
1
0
1
Require
internship
0
2
1
4
0
1
1
Require
capstone
2
1
4
3
1
1
1
Online
availability
Low
Low
High
Moderate
High
High
Low
Admission
standards
Low
Moderate
Low
High
High
Moderate
High
Local government
curriculum
Moderate
High
Low
Moderate
High
Low
Moderate
Local government
faculty
Low
High
Moderate
Moderate
High
Low
Moderate
Local government
scholarships
Low
High
Moderate
Low
Moderate
Low
High
Local government
certificates
Low
High
Low
High
Moderate
Low
Moderate
Local government
outreach
Low
High
Moderate
Moderate
High
Low
Moderate
Evaluation
criteria Nebraska N. Dakota
S. Dakota
Journal of Public Affairs Education601
C. L. Janousek
TABLE 5.
Percentages of ICMA-Member CAOs of Recognized Municipalities Who Hold MPAs
MPA from program
within state
MPA from program
within region
Iowa
20% (12)
36% (22)
Kansas
46% (33)
54% (39)
Minnesota
16% (16)
23% (23)
Missouri
24% (17)
37% (26)
Nebraska
020% (6)
030% (9)
N. Dakota
000% (0)
000% (0)
S. Dakota
020% (1)
040% (2)
State
For instance, Table 5 appears to support this
assertion, comparing ICMA-member CAOs
of ICMA-recognized municipalities (ICMA,
2015a) who hold MPA degrees from state and
regional university-based programs. States con­
taining MPA programs with local government
specialties, such as Kansas, have a higher pro­
portion of professional CAOs who hold MPAs
from within the state. This may also augment
the geographic impact of MPA-granting insti­
tutions. Thus, despite contrasts in institutional
composition and local government specificity,
the features of the university-based MPA pro­
grams—in combination with the nega­
tive
association of municipal proximity and local
govern­
ment professionalism—may illustrate
the contribution of regional MPA programs
within a geographic sphere of influence.
DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS
The purpose of this study was to assess the
impact of municipal proximity to universitybased MPA programs on the nature and occur­
602
Journal of Public Affairs Education
rence of professional local government manage­
ment, recognizing the potential influences of
cultural regionalism and educational institu­tions
on professionalism. Because much prior research
on this topic is relatively dated, and because the
impact of physical proximity/access to MPA
programs has not been amply examined in this
context, addressing this gap was an objective of
this study. The primary research hypothesis was
that an increase in the distance of a given
municipality from a state or regional universitybased MPA program would have a negative
impact on local government professionalism.
The results of this analysis suggest that the
nature and occurrence of professional local
government management decreases as the
distance (in miles) from such an MPA program
increases. This lends support to the proposition
that university-based MPA programs may con­
tribute to professional public administration
within a geographic sphere of influence.
An intention of this study was to add to the
literature about possible state and regional
MPA Programs and Local Government Management
dis­parities in the institutionalization of pro­fes­sionalism in local government management.
Previous research substantiates several factors
that may affect such professionalism. Studies
sug­­
gest that state statutes (Nelson, 2011;
Ostrom, Bish, & Ostrom, 1988), structural
adaptations (Frederickson & Johnson, 2001;
Nelson & Svara, 2012), political representation
and politics (Box, 1993; Skidmore, 2001), and
city dynamics (DeSantis et al., 1992; Svara,
2002) may influence the propensity for
professional local government management.
Moreover, specific situations and relationships
have revealed other contributing factors, such
as socioeconomic composition and demo­
graphics (Schnore & Alford, 1963; Simmons
& Simmons, 2004), population size and city
classification (Lineberry & Fowler, 1967; Wol­
finger & Field, 1966), political affiliation and
electoral structures (Berman & Merrill, 1976;
Kammerer et al., 1962; Zhang et al., 2011),
and cultural setting (Mouritzen & Svara, 2002).
The statistically significant association between
a municipality’s proximity to a university-based
MPA program and professional local govern­
ment management identifies an additional
factor: the proximity of graduate public service
programs may affect local government profes­
sionalism at a municipal, state, and regional
level. This finding raises further prospects for
the role of public affairs educational institutions in the promulgation of professional
public administration.
However, research that directly addresses the
reasons for state and regional differences in
local government professionalism is relatively
limited. This is particularly true for research on
the impact of public service education;
inconsistencies in the results and measures of
these studies suggest a need for further
examination. While multiple factors have been
deemed consequential in the institutionalization
of professional local government management,
conflicting outcomes imply an incomplete
understanding of contributors. For instance,
the findings of this study exhibited the
negligible effects of population size, political
orientation, median age, race, city council
election processes, and size of city council on
local government professionalism; but prior
research found all these factors to be significantly
associated with such professionalism. This may
indicate that context and scale—such as local,
state, regional, or national levels of analysis—
may intensify or diminish the effect of certain
factors, which may similarly be extrapolated to
the development of professionalism in various
capacities and settings. As this analysis shows,
additional unknown factors may influence these
phenomena, substantiating the need for further
study in this area.
It may also be useful to revisit the definitions
and measurements of professionalism within the
field of public administration. The literature
defines professionalism in local government
management as exemplifying several distinct
properties. While government structures that
involve the appointment or employment of
CAOs, namely the council-manager plan, are
said to indicate professional management (Nal­
bandian, 1991; Renner & DeSantis, 1999),
other attributes have likewise been associated
with professionalism. Specifically, education
and technical training (Childs, 1965; Slack,
1990), adherence to standardized and ethi­cal
practices (Kline & Blanchard, 1973; Streib &
Rivera, 2009), and membership in pro­fessional
associations (Ammons, 1994; Still­man, 1974)
may also be representative of profes­sional local
government management.
Yet, much of the previous research in this area
posits municipal structural configuration as the
primary indicator of professional management,
taking into account aspects such as legalized
form (council-manager or mayor-council) and/
or qualities of reformed or unreformed govern­
mental models. These dichotomous classifica­
tions, however, may be inherently limited in
scope, failing to reflect adaptations in organi­
zational arrangement and the individual pro­fes­
sional merits of city managers, admin­istrators,
and staff (Carr & Karuppusamy, 2008; Fred­
erickson et al., 2004; Nelson & Svara, 2010).
Journal of Public Affairs Education603
C. L. Janousek
The indexical composite measure of local gov­
ern­ment professionalism utilized in this study
may provide a framework for future research
that moves beyond the traditional dichotomy
of council-manager/mayor-council structural
distinctions vis-à-vis professional local govern­
ment management.
For future study, it may be useful to expand the
dimensions of professionalism to include other
descriptive indicators that reflect the role of
educational training and field-related develop­
ment. For instance, the ICMA recognitions of
individual managers’ professionalism that ex­
tend beyond structure, such as associational
membership and credentialing, may provide a
more inclusive and accurate portrayal of pro­
fessional institutionalization in local govern­
ment management. The growing functions and
duties performed by CAOs and the increasingly
blurred boundaries between administration and
politics signal the importance of individual
professional development (Nalbandian, O’Neill,
Wilkes, & Kaufman, 2013); these trends also
suggest the need to broaden what professional
means in local government management and
public administration in general (Fox, 1992).
Further indicators of individual professional­
ism and proficiency may be warranted, such
as attain­
ment of a graduate degree, specific
areas of training or expertise, years of experience, certi­
fications, and levels of authority
and performance.
A premise of this analysis was the concept of
regionalism or sectionalism, which, as Elazar
(1994) contends, demarcates the geographical
character of regional political subcultures that
influence governmental systems, social ideals,
and societal institutions. For example, previous
research suggests that MPA programs tend to
reflect regional predilections and practices
(Gabris et al., 2010), thus generally institu­
tionalizing the culture and necessities of the
area. In other words, the very existence of an
MPA program within a state may indicate
elements of political culture such as regional
demand and institutional preference. The results
604
Journal of Public Affairs Education
of this analysis reveal that local government
professionalism may be affected by the acces­si­
bility, composition, and dispersion of universitybased MPA programs within a state or region,
all of which symbolize mani­fest­ations of sec­tion­
­alized culture. Previous research has like­wise
identified several socio­
cultural characteristics
that may influence the nature and occurrence
of professional local gov­ernment management.
Thus, there is evi­dence supporting the rela­
tionship between public administration and
political culture and, referring to this analysis,
the impact of politi­
cal culture on public
admin­istration institutions such as education
and professionalism. As these connections may
portend a further understanding of regionalism in professional public administration and
public service education, the implications and
contingencies of this potential association re­
quire additional investigation.
Although there were commonalities among the
19 university-based MPA programs analyzed,
the overall finding was that the programs
possessed several differing features and scopes
pertaining to institutional composition and
local government specificity. This may imply
that municipal proximity to MPA programs
that have more focus on local government may
translate to a higher propensity for professional
management. However, the state-level variable
representing the nature of MPA programs—
which included gradations for the MPA degree,
local government concentration, and NASPAA
accreditation—was not statistically significant
in either the state or regional analysis.
Thus, aside from content, the mere provision
of professional graduate education programs
and degrees by proximate universities may
contribute to occupational professionalism in
local government (Renner, 2001). For instance,
all the universities in this analysis likewise
offer a Master of Business Administration
(MBA) de­gree. While this may suggest a simi­lar relationship between municipal proximity
to MBA programs and professional local
government management, a much smaller pro­
portion of local government managers possess
MPA Programs and Local Government Management
other graduate degrees compared to the MPA
(ICMA, 2012).
Furthermore, the findings of this analysis may
indicate a reciprocal or complementary effect.
As most all the universities in this study were in
a metropolitan location, the predominance of
professional management exhibited among
metropolitan local governments (Frederickson
et al., 2004) may denote the offering of an
MPA program subsequent to the establishment
of local government professionalism; in other
words, proximity to the nature and occurrence
of professional local government management
may have created a demand or justification for
MPA programs. While the mean age of sample
municipalities in this analysis is 122 years, the
average length of operation for the regional
MPA programs is only approximately 45 years.
Certainly, the five elements of the indexical
composite score representing local govern­
ment professionalism may change and evolve
over time; membership and recognition by
professional associations varies, and cities may
adapt or alter their structure of government
(Svara & Watson, 2010). Hence, the nature
and occurrence of professional local government
management may have transformed since a
city’s official incorporation, as has the stature
and role of MPA programs intensified within
the local government management field over
the last several decades. Nevertheless, this
potential effect could signal additional evidence
of the impact of regionalism, as the cultural
environment may be more conducive to such
professional institutions.
In the public administration literature, the role
of MPA programs in preparatory education
and professionalization has been researched from
many perspectives, including char­act­er­istics of
degrees and universities, the extent of out­­reach
and engagement, and related outcomes and ef­
fects. Pertaining to professional local govern­ment
management, the MPA maintains a prominent
status as a developmental educational attain­
ment and a critical tool in the continued growth
and advancement of the profession (Hansell,
2002; Svara, 2010). The results of this analysis
provide support for the geographic influence of
MPA-granting institutions on professional
pub­lic administration. However, there is cause
for further attention to how and why MPA
programs may be affecting professionalization—such as through education, research, and
community engagement—and what actions
could be undertaken to enhance their spheres
of influence.
A comparative analysis of the 19 universitybased MPA programs showed that individual
in­stitutions implement MPA education differ­
ently. Despite these dissimilarities, the standards
and processes of the MPA programs included
in this study could indicate institutional factors
that contribute to a geographic influence on
professional public administration, such as the
range of outreach/extension research, accredi­ta­
tion, and curriculum. For example, university
coordination through internships and scholar­
ships with state-level practitioner associations,
such as the city/county management association
or municipal league, could prompt interest
among MPA students and faculty and lead to
future affiliation with these organizations. The
NASPAA accreditation and membership of
MPA programs could likewise be influen­tial, as
these distinctions may promote more awareness
and appeal. Program features such as certi­fica­
tions, online availability, faculty outreach, and
capstone research may represent differing modes
for the expanded delivery and reach of MPA
programs. Future study should focus on the attri­
butes of these connections, exploring fur­ther
the impact of program characteristics, the extent
and nature of partnerships and associations,
and the channels of geographic influence.
This study demonstrated the effect of proximity
to university-based MPA programs on pro­fes­
sionalism in local government management,
which may be accentuated by the local govern­
ment specificities of the MPA-granting insti­tu­
tions. Certain states, such as Kansas and
Nebraska, possess MPA programs with a more
developed attention to local government,
Journal of Public Affairs Education605
C. L. Janousek
which is corroborated by the 2012 U.S. News
and World Report graduate school rankings of
in-state programs (University of Kansas and
University of Nebraska–Omaha) in the areas of
city management and urban policy. In this
regard, municipalities located farther from
MPA programs that have a local government
orientation may face special challenges in the
nature and occurrence of professionalism,
strength­ening the importance of professional
associations such as ICMA. For instance, the
Great Open Spaces City Management Asso­
ciation is the ICMA state affiliate for Idaho,
Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and
Wyoming, a region with relatively limited access
to university-based services. This may also re­
late to the expanded delivery and reach of MPA
programs, including ways to extend their geo­
graphic influence to municipalities in remote
or underserved locations.
While this study displayed a negative asso­cia­tion
between municipal proximity/distance to MPA
programs and local government profes­sion­al­ism,
this finding raises additional prospects by which
to examine this relationship. For this analysis,
distance (in miles) of a municipality from a
university-based MPA program was a proxy for
accessibility, yet there may be other mea­sures to
assess the geographic influence on professional
local government management. Potential alter­
natives may include the regional demand for
MPA degrees with a local gov­ern­ment concen­
tration, the state retention rates of MPA pro­
gram graduates in local government pro­fessions,
and/or municipal affiliations with MPA pro­grams
through internships and civic groups. This may
also apply to further study of other MPA pro­
gram characteristics, includ­ing speci­fic research
contributions and related grants of fac­ulty and
students, career outcomes of gradu­­
ates, and
recruitment procedures used by MPA programs
and universities. In addition, other types of
MPA educational programs may be included in
future research. The proliferation of exclusively
online degree programs should be considered
as well as other non-NASPAA member schools
and alternative master’s pro­
grams related to
local government and public administration,
such as urban studies, nonprofit management,
606
Journal of Public Affairs Education
and business administration. Most importantly,
the continued study of connections between
MPA programs and professionalization will
benefit both the local government management
profession and the field of public administration.
CONCLUSION
This study aimed to address the relationship
between university-based MPA programs and
local government professionalism within a
regional context. The findings suggest three
main conclusions. First, the results indicate that
the nature and occurrence of professional local
government management decreases as the dis­
tance (in miles) from a university-based MPA
program increases. Second, a comparative analy­sis of the 19 university-based MPA pro­grams
within the studied region reveals several notable
contrasts in institutional com­position and local
government specificity. These findings support
an association between the accessibility, com­pos­
­ition, and dispersion of MPA programs within
the state and region and the local government
professionalism exhibited among municipalities.
Third, study results may provide evidence of a
geographic sphere of influence of universitybased MPA programs on professional public
administration. Within the West North Central
Midwest region, the physical distance of a muni­
cipality from an MPA-granting institution may
affect the nature and occurrence of pro­fessional
local government management. A comparison
of MPA program characteristics likewise sup­
ports this association. These findings lend
credence to the proposition that universitybased MPA programs may offer substantive
educational and assistive contri­butions to the
development, enhancement, and utilization of
professional public administration within their
geographic regions.
As this study has shown, the effects of regional
settings and educational institutions can in­
fluence local governmental and administrative
systems. However, the increasing complexity of
management in the public sector and the
growing need for professional acumen in public
administration provide cause for additional
research in this area. Moving forward, the
MPA Programs and Local Government Management
importance placed on the MPA degree in the
fields of local government management and
public administration supplies an impetus for
continued examination of the role of MPA edu­
cation, programs, and applications in expand­ing
the proximity to professionalism.
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CO: Westview Press.
Fox, C. J. (1992). What do we mean when we say
“professionalism?”: A language usage analysis for
public administration. American Review of Public
Administration, 22, 1–17.
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Christian L. Janousek
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C. L. Janousek
APPENDIX
Summary Statistics of Variables of the Operational Model
610
Variable
Obs.
Mean
Std. Dev.
Min.
Max.
proxmpast
774
78.32687
82.13114
0
471.7
proxmpareg
774
70.39199
75.58494
0
454.3
pop
774
17205.66
39115.87
2501
454876
growth
774
1280.16
3560.003
–29380
29441
agecity
774
122.1615
38.92526
4
226
class
774
2.308786
.8505384
1
3
educ
774
25.59186
13.79046
3.4
88.2
faminc
774
63815.23
22458.43
24825
250000
homeown
774
70.06047
11.63767
28.2
100
housval
774
147641.3
94142.11
39600
864100
nonwhit
774
13.50594
14.27227
.2
98.4
medage
774
37.1376
5.460987
22.2
55.6
political
774
.7118863
.4531771
0
1
mayor
774
.1098191
.3128663
0
1
council
774
.4392765
.4966199
0
1
counsize
774
5.70155
1.945592
2
28
mpa
774
9.939276
5.813192
3
19
stcult
774
3.260982
2.1319
1
7
govt
774
1.44832
1.314381
0
3
cao
774
1.042636
.6266949
0
3
icma
774
.5994832
.7174049
0
4
state
774
.873385
.930712
0
9
credent
774
.1485788
.383882
0
2
profmgmt
774
8.28E-10
1
–1.350204
5.321032
Journal of Public Affairs Education
Core Competencies in Master of
Public Administration Programs:
Perspectives from Local
Government Managers
Brittany Haupt
University of Central Florida
Naim Kapucu
University of Central Florida
Qian Hu
University of Central Florida
ABSTRACT
The Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration (NASPAA) recommends that
Master of Public Administration (MPA) programs adopt five core competencies as part of the
accreditation process. Implementation of a competency-based curriculum may help ensure student
learning and career preparedness for public service. This exploratory study examines local govern­
ment managers’ perception of NASPAA’s competencies in regard to management practices. Survey
results suggest that MPA programs need to emphasize leadership development skills along with a
more thorough integration of policy and administration into curricula. Moreover, findings indicate
that MPA programs should specifically emphasize application of NASPAA’s core competencies in
terms of applying critical thinking and analytical skills to the decision-making process.
KEYWORDS
NASPAA core competencies, competency-based curriculum, public managers, MPA
An essential mission of Master of Public Ad­
min­istration (MPA) programs is to prepare stu­
dents for public service roles (Lazenby, 2010;
Raffel, Maser, & Calarusse, 2011). MPA pro­
grams require students to acquire knowledge,
skills, and abilities—or competencies—needed
for the specialized professional field of public
administration (Lazenby, 2010). These compe­
tencies are critical in articulating specific skill
sets needed by public administrators and in
JPAE 23 (1), 611–624
creating quality standards for institutions and
educators (Aristigueta & Gomes, 2006; El­more,
2002; Piskulich & Peat, 2014). According to the
Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs,
and Administration (NASPAA) accreditation
standards, MPA programs must demonstrate
adherence to the following five core compe­
tencies to ensure student learning and career
preparedness in public service: “leading and
managing in public governance; participating
Journal of Public Affairs Education611
B. Haupt, N. Kapucu, & Q. Hu
in and contributing to the policy process; analy­
zing, synthesizing, thinking critically, solving
problems and making decisions; articulating
and applying a public service perspective; and
communicating and interacting productively
with a diverse and changing workforce and cit­
i­zenry” (NASPAA, Commission on Peer Review
and Accreditation, 2014, p. 7).
A critical issue public administration educators
must contend with is the relevancy of these core
competencies to public management practice.
Educators need to bridge the theory-practice gap
and prepare students for translating com­pe­tencies
into practice (Battaglio & Scicchitano, 2013;
Hatcher, 2015; Radin, 2013; Wang, Bunch, &
Stream, 2013). Many scholars have examined
the theory-practice chasm and challenged acad­
e­micians and practitioners to interact in mean­
ingful dialogues. Stated goals of such efforts are
to define the necessary competencies for local
government managers as well as build curricula
and content in support of such development
(Battaglio & Scicchitano, 2013; Lazenby, 2010;
Wang et al., 2013).
The authors of this article took steps to
strengthen relationships between, on one side,
faculty at a NASPAA-accredited MPA program
at a southeastern state university and, on the
other, local government managers in Florida
municipalities and counties. We designed a
survey to examine local government managers’
perception of NASPAA’s core competencies and
conducted the research during the 2013–2014
school year. Our purpose was to under­stand
how local government managers perceive
NASPAA core competencies and subcom­pe­
ten­cies developed by our university’s MPA pro­
gram in regard to career and management
practice. The findings suggest that most local
government managers recognize the importance
of NASPAA’s competencies to public service. In
addition, practitioners highlighted the need to
strengthen development of leadership skills, to
apply critical thinking to decision making, and
to more thoroughly integrate policy into public
administration curricula.
612
Journal of Public Affairs Education
COMPETENCY-BASED CURRICULA:
LINKING THEORY TO PRACTICE
Higher-education programs fill a unique role
in preparing students for public service and
meet­ing the needs of a diverse society (Durant,
2002; Raffel et al., 2011). With pressure from
accreditors, legislators, and other funding agen­
cies, MPA programs must build on their values
and unique contributions to distinguish them
from other disciplines (Kapucu, 2011; Piskulich
& Peat, 2014). Given educators’ important role
in ensuring student learning outcomes, it be­­
comes critical for programs to generate guide­
lines and assess whether their students are truly
prepared, which is an essential goal of the
NASPAA accreditation process (Durant, 2002).
MPA programs are expected to instill compe­
tencies in their students, such that students
develop the tool kit needed for success (Aristi­
gueta & Gomes, 2006; McFarland, 2009;
Peddle & Thurmaier, 2011). In the history of
com­petency-based program develop­ment,
NASPAA is a pivotal resource in terms of
identifying the knowledge, skills, and abilities
students should learn. Specifically, NASPAA
(2014) recommends that degree programs adopt
five core competencies to align with programs’
mission and curriculum development as part of
the accreditation process.
NASPAA’s five core competencies begin with
students’ ability to lead and manage in public
governance. Students are expected to develop
leadership and management skills as they learn
about government operations and how to
interact with a diverse network of stakeholders.
The second core competency refers to parti­ci­
pation in and contribution to the policy-making
process, followed by the third com­petency of
critical and analytical thinking and problem
solving. Through building public service per­
spectives, a student is better able to articulate
and apply his or her knowledge through ethical
reasoning and democratic participation. Lastly,
the fifth competency of effective communica­
tion hinges on a student’s ability to interact
with a diverse and changing workforce and citi­
zenry (Lazenby, 2010; NASPAA, 2014; Raffel et
al., 2011).
Core Competencies in MPA Programs
Leading and Managing
in Public Governance
Leading and managing within multiple net­
works of stakeholders are intrinsic elements in
govern­ment management practice (Archer &
Cameron, 2008; Kerrigan, 2013; Raffel et al.,
2011). To advance this core competency,
stu­dents in MPA programs not only learn how
to apply leadership skills and principles of
public management, but also develop expertise
about local government and learn how to
resolve conflicts and build consensus among
diverse stakeholders.
As current and future public service leaders,
students will not only help shape their com­
munities but engage in developing and imple­
menting policies that uphold democratic values
(Ansell & Gash, 2007; Morse, 2010; Thach &
Thompson, 2007; Van Wart, 2013; Zhang,
Lee, & Yang, 2012). It is important that stu­
dents reflect and learn about their roles as lead­
ers within government management to ensure
the quality and equal distribution of services
and programs as well as full inclusion of the
community (Brintnall, 2008).
Contributing to Public Policy-Making
In terms of participation in and contribution to
the public policy-making process, MPA stu­dents
are expected to develop the ability to analyze
policy issues, understand policy develop­ment
and implementation, and engage in policymaking and implementation pro­cesses. Public
policy-making and the administration of those
policies have a complex relationship and cannot
be separated from each other. However, public
administration scholarship tends to treat policy
as a given and often does not pay sufficient
at­tention to the interplay between policy and
administration (Moynihan, 2014). In fact,
poli­cies affect the organizational environment,
culture, and employee motivation, all of which
are fundamental to daily management practices.
By demonstrating knowledge of governmental
institutions, powers, and relationships, a public
administrator can thoroughly understand cul­
tur­al and social mores and patterns on local,
state, national, and global levels (Holzer & Lin,
2007; Perry 2005).
Furthermore, understanding the policy process
adds to an administrator’s practical knowledge
of various aspects of management and streng­
thens the ability to act as a community leader
and facilitate dialogues related to community
needs (Cunningham, 2010; Lazenby, 2010;
Zhang & Feiock, 2010). On a practical level,
public administration influences development
and implementation of public policy through
involvement in the design process and execu­
tion of management discretion. It is paramount for MPA programs to emphasize the
role stu­dents will have in the policy-making
and implementation process.
Problem Solving and Decision Making
The most basic nature of a public administrator
is as a professional practitioner engaged in
solving complex issues and making decisions
accordingly; thus it is critical that students
develop competency in analyzing, synthesiz­
ing, thinking critically, solving problems, and
making decisions. Complexity captures the
nature of most public management and policy
issues, which requires public administrators to
navigate and connect to a foundational know­
ledge base (Kasdan, 2015). MPA programs need
to challenge students to become independent
thinkers to address such complexity.
Connecting the competency of problem solving
and decision making to the tool of statistics,
MPA students are required to apply analytical
skills to examine their environment and con­
textualize potential applications. By applying
theoretical frameworks to social problems,
stu­dents can develop comprehensive points of
view and translate them into practical applica­
tions. This translation into implementation is a
crucial component of both public management
practice and the administrator’s role (Denhardt
& Denhardt, 2000).
Applying a Public Service Perspective
The competency of applying a public service
perspective is an attribute that differentiates the
public administration profession from others
(Raffel, 2010). Through a holistic, service-based
approach, public administrators enhance com­
munity relationships, build trust, and develop
Journal of Public Affairs Education613
B. Haupt, N. Kapucu, & Q. Hu
their ability to provide service (Wang & Van
Wart, 2007). Public administrators integrate
their public service perspectives into decisionmaking processes to serve the interests of citi­
zens and communities (Denhardt, 2001; Moy­
ni­han, 2014; Zhang et al., 2012).
Community conflicts often arise due to in­
effective communication. By emphasizing the
competency of communicating public in­ter­ests
based on ethical reasoning and democratic part­
icipation, MPA programs can prepare students
to transform negative conflicts into positive
changes (Carrizales, 2010; Johnson & Rivera,
2007). This is visibly seen in the actions of
pub­lic service practitioners who seek to build
their communities through determining needs,
providing services, and embarking on contin­
uous relationship building (Denhardt & Den­
hardt, 2000). It is imperative for educators to
encourage MPA students to develop a public
service perspective: “In a world of active
citizenship, public officials will increasingly
play more than a service delivery role—they
will play a conciliating, a mediating, or even an
adjudicating role” (Denhardt & Denhardt,
2000, p. 554). Moreover, public administration
practitioners are expected to pursue fairness
and to incorporate and value principles of
democracy and public transparency within
their decision-making process.
Interacting Productively with a
Diverse Citizenry and Workforce
A critical learning outcome for MPA students is
to understand government structures and their
influence on citizens’ active participation in
governance, which connects to the competency
of interacting productively with a diverse citi­
zen­ry and within the workplace. As Perry (2005)
suggests, administrators must think globally
and act locally. These global perspec­tives chal­
lenge administrators to acknowledge “the parti­
cular realities of the cultures and communities
in which we work, without the imposition of
preconceived frameworks” (Brinkerhoff &
Brinkerhoff, 2005, p. 74). Moreover, educators
need to enhance students’ ability to com­muni­
cate with various individuals from government,
nonprofit and for-profit organizations, and the
614
Journal of Public Affairs Education
community (Archer & Cameron, 2008; Sun &
Anderson, 2012). Understanding diverse cul­
tures begins with basic interactions between
groups of individuals within the current soci­
etal context (Carrizales, 2010; Primo, 2013).
Although seemingly basic, this critical element
is a major daily challenge facing public man­
agement practice, which requires clear, coherent
articulation of public needs along with recom­
mendations and decision-making strategies for
action (Berman, 1997; Stout & Holmes, 2013).
The inclusion of diversity in MPA education is
challenging because of this principle’s connec­
tion to all aspects of an MPA program, such as
recruitment and retention of faculty and
students, development of curricula content,
and implementation within courses (Johnson
& Rivera, 2007). Some programs acknowledge
diversity only in terms of equity and access
within a human resources management course.
In its diversity standards, NASPAA is leading
the effort to increase awareness and action
concerning diversity within accredited pro­
grams, while acknowledging areas of disparity
(Primo, 2013). This call for action is just the
beginning of developing more culturally com­
petent practitioners who can navigate the
changing demographics of their communities
and produce positive growth (Carrizales, 2010).
Competency-Based MPA Curricula
and Reflective Practitioners
Educational competencies consist of the essen­
tial knowledge, skills, and abilities need­ed for
students to provide guidance to their com­
munities (Aristigueta & Gomes, 2006). Ideally,
students engage with a competency-based cur­
ri­culum that supports their development and
offers opportunities to enhance reflective,
critical, and reflexive capacities as well as tech­
nical and administrative proficiency (Lazenby,
2010; Raffel, 2009). As a result, students are
better able to meet the demands of their roles
and responsibilities while also promoting com­
munity growth and development.
When comparing competency-based education
of MPA programs to other disciplines, one
finds similar mind-sets. Disciplines such as
Core Competencies in MPA Programs
psychology, public health, student affairs, edu­
cation, and medicine use competency-based
education to identify and describe the necessary
skills each graduate will attain as well as assess­
ment measures to determine the quality of this
skill development (Carrizales, 2010; Curran et
al., 2012; Hatcher et al., 2013). The first ques­
tion, then, is whether practitioners and aca­
demicians similarly value these compe­ten­cies.
Debatably, the divide between practitioners
and academicians revolves around differences
in audiences, interests, methods, discourses,
and viewpoints (Battaglio & Scicchitano, 2013).
For some, it simply is a difference between
knowing and doing (Brintnall, 2008). This dif­
ference highlights the importance of com­
petencies because they bridge the gap between
the theoretical or academic world and the
practicing world. The next question concerns
the effectiveness of competencies in assessing
goals, training exercises, tasks, roles, objectives,
skills, and performance statements (Bawane
& Spector, 2009; Kuk & Banning, 2009). In
sum, does the accreditation process and core
com­petencies diminish the gap between theory
and practice?
Raffel, Maser, and Calarusse (2011) answer this
summary question in the affirmative, because
the accreditation process establishes expecta­tions
for MPA programs and adapts curricula to the
societal climate. These adaptations maintain
the relevancy and legitimacy of MPA programs.
This does not mean the process of accreditation
is easy. In fact, accreditation in public service
education is “a work in progress with many
substantive challenges and opportunities [that]
invigorate the profession” (Raffel et al., 2011,
p. 85).
Lazenby (2010) surveyed MPA programs
regard­ing the content of their curricula com­
pared to 118 competencies deemed important
for local government. The results suggested
that the MPA programs, which concentrated
specifically on local government, were not
adequately covering the following areas: leader­
ship, interpersonal communication, human
relations, and community building (Lazenby,
2010). In another study, Zhang, Lee, and Yang
(2012) interviewed local managers in Florida
and found that managers rely more on their
work experience than on formal education to
build the knowledge and skills needed for
policy-making. Zhang et al. (2012) further sug­
gested the need to enhance practical com­ponents
in formal MPA curricula and education.
To meet future needs for qualified practitioners
in local government, MPA programs need to
nurture strong relationships with local govern­
ments (Gabris, Davis, & Nelson, 2010). To
bridge the theory-practice gap, MPA programs
can invite practitioner speakers from govern­
ment and work with government to design and
implement internship programs. MPA pro­grams
can engage practitioners in the accreditation
process and ask them to review and evaluate
their curricula. Feedback and input from
practitioners can help MPA programs identify
strengths and service gaps, which would be
valuable in producing administrators who “are
readily employable and are effective public
man­agers” (Peddle & Thurmaier, 2011, p. 536).
Lazenby (2010) also suggested that the prac­tice of reflection is critical when integrating
leadership, interpersonal communication, and
motivations within professional competencies.
As Raffel (2009) stated, MPA programs “must
offer students opportunities to enhance their
reflective, critical, and reflexive capacities, and
to share and debate views with one another and
their faculty” (p. 137). In that vein, the study
described here used a survey to elicit professional
reflection, the aim being to bridge the gap
between the academic and professional arenas
of public administration.
METHODS
To understand local government managers’
per­
ception of NASPAA’s core competencies
and their integration within public service
positions, we created a survey to address the
five core competencies as well as related sub­
categories. For each competency, faculty in the
School of Public Administration at a south­
eastern state university developed subcate­gories
of competencies for implementation purposes.
The process included multiple iterations and
Journal of Public Affairs Education615
B. Haupt, N. Kapucu, & Q. Hu
collaborative efforts with a diverse group of
stake­holders, including advisory board mem­
bers and student representatives. The MPA
program incorporates a capstone course that
requires students to build on previously learned
competencies while focusing on the connection
between theory and practice. As part of the
2013–2014 course, students helped distribute
survey questionnaires to 81 local city and county
managers from Florida’s 411 municipalities and
76 counties. Of the 81, 62 (77%) responded,
including 39 city managers and 23 county
managers. The population size of the cities and
counties was as small as 252 and as large as
1,397,710 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2014). The
average population size was 133,544. In addi­
tion, 86% of respondents identified as male,
and 83% were 45 years or older.
The survey instrument included closed- and
open-ended questions. In the closed-ended
ques­tions, managers rated familiarity with and
perceived importance of the NASPAA core
com­petencies and related subcategories using
a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree,
5 = strongly agree). The closed-ended questions
also asked about managers’ educational back­­
grounds, to connect curricula and career pre­
paration. The open-ended questions sought to
obtain respondents’ perceptions of NASPAA’S
TABLE 1.
Local Government Managers’ Assessments of NASPAA Core Competencies and Subcompetencies
Std.
Mean Dev.
SD
D
NAD
A
SA
Lead and manage in public governance
0
4
8
29
8
3.86
.82
Develop expertise on local government
0
6
11
30
3
3.60
.78
Develop an ability to lead and manage within multiple
networks of stakeholders
0
6
8
30
6
3.71
.83
Reinforce democratic principles and practices
0
3
12
26
9
3.82
.80
Produce consensus or consent among diverse stakeholders
0
5
10
29
6
3.72
.81
Model the skills and power of leadership and utilize
principles of public management
0
5
17
20
7
3.60
.86
0
2
6
28
11
4.02
.74
0
4
6
26
13
3.98
.85
Participate in and contribute to the policy process
Develop capacity to analyze political theory, policy process,
and implementation
Analyze policy issues/problems using different methodologies
0
3
7
28
11
3.96
.79
Identify, evaluate, and communicate evidence-based policy
0
6
8
22
12
3.85
.97
Design policy-implementation methodology and actively engage
0
3
7
33
5
3.83
.69
0
1
4
24
16
4.22
.70
Develop expertise in techniques used in managing
government operations
0
4
8
25
12
3.94
.85
Appraise the concepts of social science research methods,
statistical analysis/techniques; apply the skills
0
4
11
25
9
3.76
.84
Analyze, synthesize, think critically, solve problems,
and make decisions
Create networked/collaboration solution to complex problems
0
5
11
25
7
3.75
.89
Identify, evaluate, and model best practices
0
2
10
27
9
3.92
.77
Develop professional capacity in basic skills
0
1
7
21
19
4.17
.75
616
Journal of Public Affairs Education
Core Competencies in MPA Programs
core competencies and managers’ assessments of
their own career preparedness. More spec­ifically,
the open-ended questions focused on critical
com­petencies for success, integration of these
competencies into educational programs, and
re­commendations for program development.
Once we gathered the information, we cleaned
the data using an Excel spreadsheet before per­
forming analysis using SPSS (Statistical Package
for the Social Sciences) software. We calculated
descriptive statistics such as frequency, mean,
and standard deviation to measure how local
government mangers perceive NASPAA’s core
competencies and subcategories. We reviewed
and analyzed the qualitative data using openended coding strategy to identify themes and
patterns (Babbie, 2013; Creswell, 2014).
RESULTS
Table 1 displays the results of our survey.
Approximately 60% of respondents said they
were familiar or very familiar with NASPAA’s
core competencies and other competencies
related to the field of public administration.
Approximately 30% of respondents stated they
were unfamiliar with the core competencies,
and 10% selected “neither agree or disagree.”
This was not unexpected, as the respondents
vari­
ed in their educational degrees, which
TABLE 1. (continued)
Local Government Managers’ Assessments of NASPAA Core Competencies and Subcompetencies
Std.
Mean Dev.
SD
D
NAD
A
SA
Articulate and apply a public service perspective
0
4
9
26
9
3.83
.84
Develop respect and demonstrate methods for
authentic interaction
0
3
13
20
13
3.88
.88
Value and demonstrate commitment to professionalism
and integrity in serving the public
0
3
7
20
19
4.12
.88
Communicate public interest based on ethical reasoning
and democratic participation
0
3
9
22
15
4.00
.87
Critique instrumental reasoning in order to promote social
and economic equity and justice
1
5
9
27
7
3.69
.92
Incorporate and value principles of democracy,
public transparency, and consensus building
0
6
10
28
5
3.65
.83
Communicate and interact productively with a diverse and
changing workforce and citizenry
0
3
10
25
9
3.85
.81
Incorporate various communication tools and strategies
in the management of public organizations
0
3
12
24
10
3.86
.82
Incorporate major concepts, skills, processes, and policies
in public service management
0
4
8
28
9
3.88
81
Develop cultural competency and appreciation of diversity
for collaborating
0
4
9
26
10
3.86
.84
Negotiate interest-based resolutions with stakeholders
experiencing conflict
0
4
11
26
8
3.78
.82
Critique existing partnerships and promote engagement
and interaction with citizens, nonprofit organizations, and
other entities
1
6
12
22
8
3.61
.98
Note. Respondents ranked familiarity with public administration’s core competencies and subcompetencies (questions were shortened for
presentation in this table). SD = strongly disagree, D = disagree, NAD = neither agree nor disagree, A = agree, SA = strongly agree.
Journal of Public Affairs Education617
B. Haupt, N. Kapucu, & Q. Hu
ranged from public administration (28%),
bus­­iness administration (22%), political science
(17%), accounting/finance (12%), to urban
studies or planning (8%).
Although there was some divergence, there was
strong agreement as to the overall importance
of NASPAA’s core competencies. For the man­
agers who agreed and strongly agreed with the
importance of each competency, the aspect of
analyzing, synthesizing, thinking critically, solv­­ing problems, and making decisions re­ceived the
highest value (89%). Second was partici­pa­ting
in and contributing to the policy process (83%),
followed by the ability to lead and manage in
public governance (76%). Arti­
culat­
ing and
applying a public service perspective received
73%; and communicating and inter­acting pro­
ductively with a diverse and changing workforce
and citizenry received 72%.
Leading and Managing
in Public Governance
Concerning the competency of leading and
managing in public governance, local govern­
ment managers agreed (76%) on the importance
of developing expertise in local government and
the ability to navigate the “people side” of pub­
lic administration. Among the subcategories of
this core competency, “Reinforce democratic
principles and practices” scored the highest
(mean = 3.82). For some managers, leadership
is not a technical skill to be taught but a value
that enhances other important qualities. As one
respondent stated, “Programs need more lead­
ership training. As society changes, leadership
is more important than process. Spend the
most time on dealing with stakeholders [rather]
than process or how and why. You can hire
technical skills but not leadership skills.”
Some managers highlighted that public ad­
ministration coursework needs to emphasize
leadership, because this skill relates to effective
communication. Moreover, the important prin­
ciples of transparency and accountability in
leadership enable managers, as one respondent
stated, to “use [their] power for good. As a good
leader, you represent more than yourself. What
the people see should transform them.” An­
618
Journal of Public Affairs Education
other manager reported that their edu­ca­tional
experience did not emphasize the people side
of things:
Most of what I took [in school] was
advanced mathematics, accounting,
quan­ti­tative methods, and these were
used very little [in my work]. Other
people can do that and give you the
results. It is good to understand how to
ask the questions and apply it [the
result], but seldom have I done this
myself. Sometimes the link between
the education skill set and the practical
skill set is not there, but leadership is.
These responses confirm previous studies that
deem communication, critical thinking, and
collaboration to be critical skills for entry-level
public service employees (Kerrigan, 2013; Laz­
en­by, 2010; Raffel et al., 2011). Overemphasis
on technical competencies negatively affects
students’ ability to integrate fully into a prac­
titioner role and effectively lead and manage
within the various aspects of local government
positions. The people-oriented competency,
how­ever, is somewhat intangible and the chal­
lenge is to translate it into an assessable format
(Lazenby, 2010).
To better incorporate competency in leadership
and management, MPA programs can be more
proactive. For instance, programs might design
and offer dedicated courses on leadership and
management that include ample opportunities
for students to reflect on work and life ex­per­
ience. Programs might develop scholarships for
students to attend leadership workshops and
institutes and to promote leadership roles with­
in student, professional, and community organ­­
izations (e.g., the International City/County
Management Association and associated local
versions, such as the Florida County and City
Management Association). Programs might
pro­
vide mentorship opportunities between
students, faculty, and practitioners.
Contributing to Public Policy-Making
In terms of contributing to the policy-making
process, 83% (mean = 4.02) of local govern­
Core Competencies in MPA Programs
ment managers agreed developing the capacity
to analyze political theory, participate in the
policy process, and implement policies on a
community level. Past researchers note a dis­
connect in MPA programs related to teaching
the policy-making process (Lazenby, 2010;
Moynihan, 2014). Some debate whether MPA
programs should even incorporate policy
analysis along with the contrasting idea of
whether policy analysts should be studying
public management (Raffel et al., 2011).
However, public administration is inseparable
from policy-making, so MPA programs cannot
ignore this competency. As one manager noted
in the open-ended comments, students must
have “a good understanding of [the public]
policy process overall, because that [the public]
is whom public managers and administrators
work for.”
Such perspectives only strengthen the con­nec­
tion between policy analysis and public ad­min­
istration (Raffel et al., 2011). For instance, a
local manager reported changes that had been
made in the aftermath of Hurricane Charlie
and economic fluctuations:
We’ve been making a lot of policy
decisions in this county and are trying to
move forward. Now, we are moving
forward as far as workforce and public
service. We are looking forward to
growth. Participating in and contributing
to the policy process is a major focus.
However, if this were one year ago, it
would be the last competency on our list.
These practitioners’ insights are critical to main­
taining the legitimacy and relevancy of the MPA
degree. Inclusion of a topic-specific seminar for
MPA students could encourage dialogue and
applications focusing on current issues through
service-learning projects with local practitioners.
MPA programs might also consider the
following measures to highlight the relevancy
of policy-making to public administration
students: including a course on policy analysis
and public management; including manage­
ment course topics related to the institutional
contexts in which public organizations operate;
connecting with local practitioners to discuss
policies that affect their communities; and
developing class projects or focused internships
about policy research and implementation.
Problem Solving and Decision Making
As previously stated, the aspect of analyzing,
synthesizing, thinking critically, solving prob­
lems, and making decisions received the high­
est value (89%). More specifically, there was a
spike (mean = 4.17) for the subcompetency of
develop­ing professional capacity in basic skills.
This supports the connection between con­
tributing to the policy process through diverse
methodologies (mean = 3.94) and the ability to
solve problems and make decisions while mod­
el­ing best practices (mean = 3.92). According
to one respondent:
For any management position, the first
component to being paid for your ser­
vices is the ability to make a decision. To
maintain your management position you
next have to be able to consistently make
good decisions. Therefore the ability to
analyze, synthesize, think critically, solve
problems, and make decisions is the
most critical for success in my position.
The variable will not always be solved in
the equation for the period of time
allotted to make your decision; however,
based on the MPA core curriculum you
stand a better chance of making the
right decision under time and multiple
priority constraints.
One manager believes there should be “more
focus on critical thinking—anticipate the ‘train
wreck’ and avoid it versus respond[ing] to it
[along with] understanding the leader’s role,
leadership styles, and how to build a highly
func­
tioning team.” In addition to being
responsible for making informed decisions,
administrators must develop the ability to an­
alyze the influx of information and determine
relevancy. This study speaks to critical think­ing
and analytical skills as important for public
administrations’ ability to engage in policymaking and public service provision and sup­
ports a previous study by Zhang et al. (2012).
Journal of Public Affairs Education619
B. Haupt, N. Kapucu, & Q. Hu
Critical thinking, problem solving, and de­ci­sion
making should continue as central ob­jec­tives
for many MPA core courses, such as analytical
methods, budget and financial management,
and policy analysis. Furthermore, emphasis
should be placed not only on the application
side but the technical side, teaching students
how to apply critical thinking and analytical
skills to the decision-making process through
creative hands-on class projects.
Applying a Public Service Perspective
Articulating and applying a public service per­
spective received 73% agreement from respond­
ents, and managers rated the following aspects
higher: value and demonstrate commitment to
professionalism and integrity in serving the
pub­lic (mean = 4.12) and communicate public
in­ter­est based on ethical reasoning and demo­
cratic par­t­icipation (mean = 4.00). Through
arti­cu­lat­ing a public service perspective, local
govern­ment managers increase positive colla­bor­
ations and are better able “to take those skills
and apply leadership to set the culture and deal
with external stakeholders and provide the
bridge between politicians and stakeholders,”
accord­ing to one manager.
One way to develop related skills is to focus on
topical issues, as one manager suggested: “Di­
verse course offerings provide a broad spectrum
of topics to prepare students for a career in
pub­lic sector management.” Another respond­
ent supported this opinion, detail­ing important
areas for public administration education:
Specific topical issues on which there is
a need to come up to a quick under­­
standing—not to subject matter expert
level but at least to become conversant
on community issues. Tools for quick
distillation of infor­mation and priori­
tizing knowledge bases. Organizational design—not the management but
ensuring as Jim Collins [an American
business consul­
tant] opines that the
right people are in the right seat and be­ing agile enough to design around that.
620
Journal of Public Affairs Education
The next step is to apply this knowledge within the community through opportunities such
as fieldwork and service-learning projects
(Hatcher, 2015). It is imperative to move
students out of the classroom and into the
community settings in which they will practice.
Moreover, strategic community partnerships
can benefit students as well as the university
and community in regard to enhancing student
learning and having meaningful impacts on
local communities.
Interacting Productively with a
Diverse Citizenry and Workforce
Next, there was 72% agreement as to the im­
portance of productive interaction with a div­
erse citizenry, there is an emphasis on the sub­
competency of incorporating major con­cepts,
skills, process, and policies in public ser­vice
management (mean = 3.88), followed closely
by communication strategies and appre­ciation
of diversity for collaboration (mean = 3.86).
Viewing overall educational experience from a
different perspective, one manager discussed
wishing their MPA program had offered a class
in applied psychology. “In the end,” this
manager said, “public administration is a
‘people business’ and it is critically important
to understand human behavior and motivation
as it occurs within a political environment.”
If administrators are unable to interact
pro­ductively with the diverse citizens of their
communities, then they are at a disadvantage
when attempting to bring about positive change.
Holzer and Lin (2007) investigated a similar gap
when they examined NASPAA’s com­pe­tency
matrix in conjunction with MPA programs.
They discovered that only 26% of MPA
programs incorporated courses on cultural and
social mores. One way to address this gap is to
increase the teaching and inclusion of know­
ledge, skills, and abilities connected to cultural
competency (Carrizales, 2010). Although this
requires another layer in the MPA educational
process, cultural competency helps practitioners
and academicians to understand the relationship
between their own identities and those of
others as well as to acknowledge the differences
between cultural groups. Some additional re­
Core Competencies in MPA Programs
com­mendations include establishing a required
diversity-focused course; actively recruiting and
retaining minorities among the student body
and faculty; convening workshops with local
practitioners who identify as minorities within
their communities; and using table-top,
simulation, or case-study exercises to integrate
all core competencies while relating specifically
to a diversity issue in the United States
(Carrizales, 2010; Hatcher, 2015; Johnson &
Rivera, 2007; NASPAA, 2014).
The Theory-Practice Gap
Although some managers felt their educational
degree programs adequately prepared them for
their future leadership roles, there were some
noted deficiencies. These included lack of
coverage of political science and budgeting or
finance, focused on technical skill sets that
could transfer to local government positions.
For example, in speaking about their overall
degree program, one manager noted, “You
touched on analytical, but you have to have a
strong background in finance. You’re constantly
in the marketplace to borrow money. Everything
gets down to numbers and probability.”
In addition, one respondent spoke to the multi­
dimensionality of public administration, saying
that NASPAA’s core competencies provide a
foundation for students to gain the knowledge,
skills, and abilities to understand and navigate
these dimensions and lessen the gap between
theory and practice. If an MPA program does
not discuss the issues involved in translating from
theory to practice, then the gap persists and
grows wider. As one respondent said, “Some­
times there is disconnect between aca­­­demia and
actual practice; [there] should be a class about
elected officials and governance, as experience
is different than what you read about.”
One of the most critical dialogues for an MPA
program is whether its curriculum covers core
competencies and whether changes are needed.
Dialogue between academics and practitioners
might result in changes in seminar topics,
course instruction, curricula, and content,
perhaps even assessment of incoming students
to determine benchmarks for knowledge, skills,
and abilities. One practitioner reported, “My
program places a strong emphasis on critical
thinking and public policy through statistics
and other research methodologies. Likewise,
we had [a] practitioner in residence that pro­
vided actual on-the-job knowledge of public
professional managers.”
This leads to a recommendation that academ­
icians and practitioners continue to attend
professional conferences and organize dialogues
with their community stakeholders (Battaglio
& Scicchitano, 2013). In addition, both sides
should exchange perspectives and collaborate
on research projects to build theoretical and
practical knowledge bases. Even more, such
engagements allow MPA students to interact
with both theory and practice and to learn
from role models who practice what they speak.
CONCLUSION
This study contributes to previous research on
competency-based educational programs by
examining how local government managers
perceive NASPAA’s competencies based on their
public management practice. This study high­
lights the importance of integrating NASPAA’s
five core competencies into MPA programs to
prepare students for future careers. Results from
our survey of local government managers stress
that MPA programs need to emphasize the
development of leadership skills. This study
suggests that building leadership and manage­
ment competencies continues to be crucial and
challenging for MPA programs. These programs
might take more proactive steps to design
leadership and management courses and in­
corporate more interactive learn­ing projects to
build students’ leadership skills.
This study also highlights the importance of
integrating policy and administration into cur­
ricula. It is important for MPA programs to
cover the interdependent relationship between
public policy and administration. Students
need to understand the institutional contexts
in which organizations operate and public
administrators’ role in policy-making and
implementation. Furthermore, critical thinking
and analytical skills are crucial for public
Journal of Public Affairs Education621
B. Haupt, N. Kapucu, & Q. Hu
administration positions. Critical thinking,
prob­lem solving, and decision making should
continue to be central objections of MPA core
courses. It is crucial for MPA programs to teach
students how to apply critical thinking and
analytical skills to the decision-making process.
Another overarching recommendation from this
study is to incorporate continuous, inten­tional
dialogues between faculty and local government
managers in order to identify needed com­
petencies, evaluate competency development,
and strengthen relationships between aca­dem­i­
cians and practitioners. Venues for continuous
reflection on public administration issues enable
academicians and practitioners to stay abreast
of what competencies need development, gen­
eration, and assessment. Public administration
educators need to routinely update the curricula
and content of their programs. One way to
achieve this is through NASPAA accreditation
renewal, as that process involves peer review
and reflection in defining content and main­
taining the quality, relevancy, and legitimacy of
public administration programs. During the
accreditation process, schools or departments
should invite local managers and community
leaders to participate, to provide practical in­
sights about building or enhancing competencybased curricula and to generate innovative
methods for instruction, such as service-learning
and internship opportunities or adjunct pro­fes­
sor­ships specifically for local practitioners (Den­
hardt & Denhardt, 2000; NASPAA, 2014).
Finally, this study provides a snapshot of the
interesting dialogues taking place between
academicians and practitioners in Florida. At
the same time, this study is exploratory and has
some limitations. The sample in this study is
relatively small and not randomly selected,
though the included cities and counties are
diverse. Future studies might expand to
conduct comparative research and examine the
perception of local government managers on a
national and international scale. In addition,
with the growing presence of online MPA pro­
grams, future research is needed on integrating
the practitioner into the virtual arena.
622
Journal of Public Affairs Education
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
is a doctoral student and
graduate research associate at the University of
Central Florida. Her research interests include
competency-based education, cultural compet­
ency, emergency management communication,
and community resilience. She has published
articles in Public Administration Review, Journal
of Emergency Management, and Disaster Preven­
tion and Management. She has also presented
her research at meetings of the American
Society for Public Administration and the
Association for Public Policy and Management,
among others.
Brittany “Brie” Haupt
Naim Kapucu is professor of public policy and
administration and director of the School of
Public Administration at the University of
Cen­­­
tral Florida. His research interests are
collaborative governance, emergency and crisis
management, decision making in complex
environments, social inquiry and public policy,
and scholarship of teaching and learning. He
teaches network governance, collaborative public
management, emergency and crisis management,
methodology, and leadership courses.
is assistant professor in the School of
Public Administration at the University of
Central Florida. Her research interests include
collaborative governance, organizational net­work
studies, policy informatics, and scholarship
of teaching and learning. She teaches public
organization management, research methods,
statistics, and strategic planning and manage­
ment courses.
Qian Hu
On-Campus versus
Hybrid Courses in a
Master of Public
Administration Program
Karl Nollenberger
University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh
ABSTRACT
Online and hybrid (online plus on-campus) learning has increased significantly in the twenty-first
century. One Midwestern university started offering more hybrid courses in 2005 in its Master in
Public Administration program. The author conducted student surveys to assess the preferences of
adult learners for the different modes of instruction, their perceptions of each process, and their
perceptions of each mode’s learning outcomes. Analysis of survey responses indicates that the
majority of adult learners value the flexibility of online learning while still desiring on-campus
sessions for interaction with other students and the professor, which students believe improves
learning outcomes. Significantly, students believe that the combination of on-campus and online
classes adds overall value to aspects of their learning experience.
KEYWORDS
Online learning, hybrid learning, student perceptions
“A ‘tipping point’ has been reached for the dom­
inance of blended learning in higher education
and the roots of this moment are technological,
financial and pedagogical” (Rudestam & Schoen­
holtz-Read, 2010, p. 4). The increase in online
and hybrid (online plus on-campus) courses in
Master of Public Administration (MPA) programs
has been significant in the 21st century, and vari­
ous assessments report a variety of positive and
negative outcomes (Allen, Bourhis, Burrell, &
Mabry, 2002; Barth, 2004; Bernard et al.,
2004; Hannay & Newvine, 2006; Means, Toy­
ama, Murphy, & Baki, 2013). There is limit­ed
research, however, comparing student prefer­­
ences and perceptions concerning learning out­
JPAE 23 (1), 625–636
c­omes for adult learners in such online and
hybrid settings.
This study explores adult learners’ preferences
and perceptions about both learning outcomes
and the processes used in online and hybrid
approaches in one course provided by a
Midwestern university. This university’s MPA
program had been fully on-campus, and stu­
dents entered the program with that under­
standing. The MPA program began offering
online and hybrid options just prior to this
research. Students were surveyed over a twoyear period to assess their preferences and
perceptions concerning on-campus, online,
and hybrid approaches to learning.
Journal of Public Affairs Education625
K. Nollenberger
The following questions guided this study:
1.Are the perceived educational out­comes
differ­ent between distance learn­ing
(i.e., online) and traditional learning
(i.e., on-campus)?
2.What are students’ perceptions of the
overall quality of learning in distance
learning versus traditional learning?
3.What conditions influence the
effective­ness of online teaching?
4.What learning modes do adult learners
prefer, and why do they favor that style
of learning?
This research, like other similar efforts, found
that adult learners like the flexibility of online
classes. It also found that many students believe
that the combined online and on-campus hy­brid
experience enhanced learning outcomes.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Distance Learning Advantages
and Disadvantages
Means et al. (2013) write that “online learning
is one of the fastest growing trends in edu­ca­
tional uses of technology” (p. 2). The authors
note that the popularity of online learning de­
rives from its flexibility in instruction, timing,
and location. They analyzed the effectiveness of
fully online versus hybrid (or blended) learning,
defining the latter as at least 25% but not 100%
online. The authors concluded that hybrid
learning is an enhancement of the traditional
face-to-face, on-campus learning format. They
found that online learning produced stronger
learning outcomes than fully on-campus modes
and that hybrid formats produced even stronger
learning outcomes.
In 2013, MIT president L. Rafael Reif stated,
“I am convinced that digital learning is the most
important innovation in education since the print­
­­ing press” (p. 54). He notes that digital (or online)
learning has opened possibilities for billions of
people who previously had no ac­cess to higher
learning, and he describes three advantages of
digital learning. First, digital technologies are
626
Journal of Public Affairs Education
good at teaching content. Reif refers to a 2011
study that tested students taught either online
or in traditional on-cam­pus lectures, in which
the online students did twice as well as their
peers in traditional settings. Second, digital
learn­­
ing allows for flexibility. Students can
engage anytime and anywhere. Third, digital
learning enables pro­viders to access and analyze
information being generated about how people
learn best. This could lead to improving teaching
methods and strategies.
Yet Reif (2013) also recognized that certain ele­
ments of education are transmitted best faceto-face, including
the judgment, confidence, humility and
skill in negotiation that come from hands-­
on problem solving and team­work; the
perseverance, analytical skill and initi­ative
that grow from conducting frontline lab
research; the skill in writing and public
speaking that comes from exploring ideas
with mentors and peers; the ethics and
values that emerge through being appren­
ticed to a master in your field and living
as a member of a campus community.
(p. 55)
Whether or not digital learning really opens the
possibilities for billions of people, as expressed
by Reif, is yet to be proven.
Wise (2010) describes education as being slow
to adapt to the new global economy but as hav­
ing reached “the tipping point,” in Glad­well’s
(2000) parlance. This point is where the mom­
en­tum for change becomes unstoppable and the
world changes. The power of technology is
moving education in the direction of online
learning and hybrid settings. Using the ana­logy
of steamships’ supplanting sailing vessels, Chris­
tensen and Horn (2013) believe that traditional
college programs are on their hybrid voyage
across the ocean, moving to a new form of
learning for students. Hybrid learn­
ing has
become a prevalent delivery method in higher
education and workplace settings (Bonk et
al., 2006).
On-Campus versus Hybrid Courses
Curricular design of online courses that in­
cludes academic as well as social-engagement
aspects enhances online learning (Chaves, 2009).
Some studies have found that hybrid courses are
as effective as traditional ones (Mangan, 2012;
Young, 2008). Mangan’s (2012) study consisted
of measuring learning outcomes among 605
students in public universities randomly sel­
ected to participate in hybrid or traditional
courses. Mangan found that the learning
outcomes were the same for both for­
mats.
Another study randomly assigned students in six
universities to hybrid and traditional course
formats and found that the learning outcomes
were essentially the same (Bowen, Chingos,
Lack, & Nygren, 2013). Students in the hybrid
formats performed slightly better in three areas
but not significantly better.
One advantage of the online mode for adult
learners is that it avoids the intensive threehour-per-week or all-day Saturday format that
can be difficult for students after a long day or
week at work (Ebdon, 1999). On the other
hand, student discussions happening over
several days in an online format (instead of in
one on-site session) can create a learning curve
for even experienced faculty in deciding when
and how to be involved in the discussions
(Ebdon, 1999). Patricia Bellanca, director of
the hybrid and online campus graduate
program in journalism at Harvard University’s
Division of Continuing Education, offers that
the best programs combine the advantages of
online and traditional instruction (McCann,
n.d.). Other articles question the value of
moving to hybrid courses from the traditional
classroom setting. Fox (2010) argues that faceto-face conversations in the classroom, between
instructor and student and between students
them­
selves, are fundamental to the learning
process; notably, Fox believes that such inter­
action facilitates communication skill that are
critical for one’s successful future.
Barth (2004) writes that that online learning
has a place in public administration programs
because mature and motivated students can
learn well in this format. But since good
students do well in both traditional and online
courses, integrating online components into
traditional classroom courses provides the best
format for receiving the benefits of both styles
of learning. Barth suggests that such hybrid
courses may provide the best methods for learn­
ing the theory, process, and art of public ad­min­
istration. The process and art com­pon­ents—in
which human interaction helps to transmit the
very meaning and significance of the subject—
can be learned from both the instructor and
fellow students in the classroom; while the
theory and science of public administration can
be conveyed in online modules.
Several studies address the road to success for
an online course compared to one offered in
the traditional classroom setting. Tomer (2015)
suggests that for students to excel in online
clas­ses, they get technical (have a reliable com­
puter and Internet connection), have the right
attitude (exercise self-disciple), think before
they speak—or type (craft thoughtful responses)
—and establish a home classroom (designate time
and eliminate distractions). “The Top 10 Rules
for Developing Your First Online Course” pro­
vides instructive aid in the development of an
online course (Orlando, 2014). And “7 Assess­
ment Challenges of Moving Your Course Online
(and a Dozen+ Solutions)” provides similar
constructive advice (Moore, 2013).
PREVIOUS RESEARCH
A 2015 study evaluated student perceptions of
online and on-campus courses in a Midwestern
university that offers three alternatives in a
Master of Public Policy and Administration
(MPPA) program: one fully on-campus, one fully
online, and one hybrid of eight courses oncampus and four online (Nollenberger, 2015).
The MPPA at this university consists mainly of
adult midcareer learners, similar to the Mid­
western university used in the current research
(described below). The data for this study were
collected using a 21-question survey, which was
developed through analysis of other surveys con­
cerning online, hybrid, and traditional course
Journal of Public Affairs Education627
K. Nollenberger
TABLE 1.
MPA Student Demographics
Male
44.1%
Female
55.9%
< 30 years old
34.0%
30–50 years old
56.3%
> 50 years old
9.7%
Employed full-time
77.9%
Employed part-time
9.7%
Unemployed
4.8%
Full-time student
5.5%
Retired
2.1%
models (Barth, 2004; Ebdon, 1999; Hannay &
Newvine, 2006). The 2015 study and the pre­
sent study used the same survey questions.
needs of students than the online courses did;
students also deemed the quality of learning to
be higher in the on-campus courses.
The 2015 study concluded that MPPA students
in the Midwestern university selected their
course mode of instruction based on their learn­
ing style, desire for a home atmosphere, traveltime considerations, and personal flexibility.
On-campus students expressed higher positive
responses to collaboration, interaction, and
com­munication with their fellow students and
the professor. Those who prefer to speak up
in class chose the on-campus courses if their
personal schedule allowed, while those more
comfortable posting on a discussion board
chose an online course. The study noted that
on-campus courses better met the learning
The 2015 study also noted a limitation: the
MPPA program examined did not include any
hybrid courses, and so the study lacked data
about this format. The current research de­scrib­ed below remedies this gap, providing in­sights
into learning outcomes of hybrid courses.
628
Journal of Public Affairs Education
THE CURRENT RESEARCH:
METHODS AND RESULTS
The current study surveyed students in a Mid­
western university MPA program who were
enrolled in one of the 12 courses that had at
least one online class session between Fall 2012
and Fall 2014. This MPA program consists
On-Campus versus Hybrid Courses
mainly of adult learners who have full-time em­
ploy­ment and are pursuing their master’s degree
for career enhancement. Each course tradi­tion­
ally has consisted of five all-day Saturday class
meetings during the semester. Of the 12 courses
included in this survey, 6 had one online class
session and four on-campus classes, 3 had two
online classes and three on-campus ones, 2 had
three online classes and two on-campus meet­ings,
and 1 course was fully online. This university
initiated hybrid courses in 2012. Students who
enrolled in the MPA program in Fall 2012 did
so with the understanding that courses would
be on campus. The addition of some online
classes was new to the course formats. This
study was undertaken to assess student response
to the new formats. The Institutional Review
Board of the university approved the survey.
(The Appendix describes the research design
and process in detail.)
Table 1 shows the demographics of the MPA
student survey respondents.
The largest percentage of respondents were age
30 to 50, which reflects the orientation of the
MPA program toward adult learners. Almost all
MPA students surveyed were employed fulltime or part-time, and a few were unemployed
or retired. Only 5.5% of those surveyed were
full-time students.
Tables 2 through 5 (which follow) present de­tail­
e­ d survey results.
Preferences for Online versus
On-Campus Classes
Table 2 shows respondents’ preferences for on­
line versus on-campus classes.
Most students (54%) preferred the classroom
setting. Less than half of students preferred the
home atmosphere and said that the online class
did not fit their style of learning. Student pre­
ferences were closer to equally split on whether
travel time was a significant factor for them, yet
a large majority (79%) also said that the flexible
schedule of online classes was a strong factor in
their favoring online classes. A regression analy­sis of survey responses according to student
employment status revealed a correlation of .003
significance on the question of flexibility; stu­
dents employed full-time preferred the flex­ible
schedule of online classes while full-time students
did not significantly value this as a factor.
Student responses about the flexible schedule of
online classes included the following comments:
TABLE 2.
MPA Student Preferences for Online versus On-Campus Classes
Agree
Neither
Disagree
I would prefer to be in a home atmosphere (ability to listen to music
and take breaks at my discretion) rather than a classroom.
31%
15%
54%
Travel time is a significant factor in my desire for online classes.
47%
15%
38%
The online type of class fits my style of learning.
38%
17%
45%
The flexible schedule for online classes is a factor that I value.
79%
7%
14%
Journal of Public Affairs Education629
K. Nollenberger
TABLE 3.
MPA Student Perceptions of the Process for Online versus On-Campus Classes
Agree
Neither
The online class was responsive to my learning needs.
68%
15%
17%
The questions posted to respond to in the online class were clear
and understandable.
94%
5%
1%
There was good communication with my fellow students on the materials
addressed in the material readings in the online class.
87%
7%
6%
The online class setting promoted group collaboration on the readings
and case studies assigned for the class.
72%
13%
15%
There was adequate interaction with the professor in the online discussions.
83%
8%
9%
I would prefer more interactive technology for the online class other than
just posting on the D2L website.
60%
24%
16%
The postings on the D2L website by students were done on a timely basis
over the seven days that the discussion was available.
79%
7%
14%
I feel more comfortable posting on the online discussion board
than speaking up in class.
32%
26%
42%
“The flexibility was great.” “I liked the online
class because I didn’t have to drive all the way to
campus. However, I like the person-to-person
interactions in on-campus classes and I feel like
I learn significantly more on campus.” “Online
classes are such a huge help since I have a com­
mute.” “I have a long commute so the on­line
portion was nice but I learn more and enjoy
class more when there is face-to-face inter­ac­tion.”
“I prefer the hybrid, because it worked well
with my family life and work schedule.” “I like
a mix of in class and online. The online class
offers me more time at home.” “I enjoy the
hybrid courses due to flexibility in time and
the commute.” “I believe a good mix is good
because it breaks up the class nicely.”
Perceptions of the Process for
Online versus On-Campus Classes
Table 3 shows respondents’ perceptions of the
process for online versus on-campus classes.
630
Journal of Public Affairs Education
Disagree
In response to the statement “The online class
was responsive to my learning needs,” 68% of
respondents agreed and 17% disagreed. There
were similarly high levels of agreement that on­
line discussion board questions were clear and
understandable (94%), there was good com­
mun­ication with fellow students (87%), the
online format promoted group collaboration
(72%), and there was adequate interaction with
the professor in the discussions (83%). While
79% of students said that the postings on the
discussion board website were done on a timely
basis, 60% said they would prefer a more
interactive technology. Regarding interaction
with others, 32% of students felt more com­
fort­able posting on the discussion board than
speaking up in class while 42% did not. A re­
gression analysis of survey responses according
to age of the student revealed a correlation of
.023 significance on the question of whether
the online format promoted group colla­bor­
On-Campus versus Hybrid Courses
ation; students aged 30 to 50 felt there was
more group collaboration than the other age
groups did.
Comments made by survey respondents sup­
ported the survey results: “While I enjoy the
convenience of online class, I really enjoy inclass discussion.” “Online class discussion allows
for a deeper level of discussion since people can
take time to think about, research and edit
their contributions. In class, the only option is
to speak off the cuff. However, the direct
interaction between professor and classmates
has benefits as well, which is why I think a mix
of online and in class is both a convenient and
effective instruction model.” “I prefer a hybrid
course. I think the networking and face-to-face
conversations are of greater value than the
online [format] alone.” “I prefer a hybrid
because I value the professor’s expertise and
lectures and we get less of that online—unless
technology improved to have a virtual lecture.”
“The on-campus/online version pro­vides the
best of both worlds. Having a complete online
format takes out the human interactions that
would harm student learning in the classroom.”
“I really like the option to have 1 or 2 online
classes. I would rather feel comfortable posting
online than having to get up in class to present.
That is just me. I would rather come to class to
learn. I learn better that way.” “I like being able
to get to know other students, network and
build relationships.”
Perceptions of Outcomes of Online
versus On-Campus Classes
Table 4 shows respondents’ perceptions of the
outcomes of online versus on-campus classes,
in addition to thoughts on other elements.
TABLE 4.
MPA Student Perceptions of Outcomes of Online versus On-Campus Classes
More
Same
Less
How would you compare the quality of learning in the online class
compared to the traditional in-class setting?
11%
53%
36%
Did you spend more or less time in total (readings, commute,
responses online) for the online class than an on-campus alternative?
15%
49%
36%
Yes
No
Unsure
49%
19%
32%
Clear
Not clear
Clear
Not clear
93%
7%
Increase
Decrease
Neither
34%
15%
51%
Should the professor provide a lecture that is captured and posted
on the D2L website for student observation?
Is the communication about the expectations of the online
class clear?
Does the online class increase, decrease, or neither increase or
decrease the motivation to read and analyze the materials assigned?
Journal of Public Affairs Education631
K. Nollenberger
TABLE 5.
MPA Student Preferences for Type of Course
Which of the following do you favor?
Regarding the quality of learning in online
classes, 53% of respondents thought it was the
same as on-campus classes, 36% said it was less,
and only 11% said it was more. Concerning
the amount of time needed to do the work in
online classes, 49% students said they spent the
same amount of time as in on-campus classes,
36% said they spent less time, and only 15%
said they spent more time. More students
(49%) thought there should be a lecture by the
professor posted on the website than those who
thought there should not be an online lecture
(19%). The online lecture would be a
presentation similar to a regular class-period
presentation. A regression analysis of survey
responses according to number of online
classes revealed a correlation of .000 signifi­
cance on the question of amount of time
spent; a larger percentage of students in the
one fully online course felt that they spent
more time than in an on-campus setting.
Since there was just one course of this type and
eight respondents, the results are neither com­
prehensive nor conclusive.
Concerning the question of whether there
should be an online lecture for the online
classes, a common theme emerged in student
comments: “I miss getting the perspective of
my professor when we have a hybrid course. I
found most of the professors to have interesting
lectures.” “The professor’s lectures are focused,
provide practical examples and baseline infor­mation for the course—which help with the
on­
line discussion/interactions.” “This allows
for some ‘interaction’ by way of ensuring the
stu­dents understand what the instructor con­
siders the most important issues to understand.”
632
Journal of Public Affairs Education
All online
Hybrid
All on-campus
1%
72%
27%
“It would be helpful to those who are unable
to attend class.” “It would add one of the key
ad­vantages of an on campus class to on line.”
Almost all students (93%) said that the expec­ta­
tion for the online class format was clearly com­
municated to the students. About half (51%)
felt the class neither increased nor decreased
their motivation to read and analyze the
assigned materials, while about one third (34%)
said the online class increased their moti­­vation.
One student commented on the use­fulness of
online versus on-campus components: “I think
that some courses need to be entirely in person
(example—Qualitative and Quan­tita­tive Analysis, Budgeting and Finance) but I really was
thank­ful that some of the courses were hybrid.”
Preferences for Type of Course
Table 5 shows respondents’ preferences for type
of course.
Concerning student preference for fully online,
hybrid, or fully on-campus courses, 72% of
respondents expressed a preference for the hy­
brid format, 27% would prefer all on-campus,
and only 1% preferred all-online courses.
Cross-tabulating type of course format with age
of student, employment status, and gender
showed no relationships of significance. The
desire for hybrid courses among these MPA
students was similar that found in other research,
as noted earlier in this article. “I like the mix of
online and in-class,” said one stu­dent. “It’s good
to see the professor and class­mates.” Another said,
“I have a long commute but I chose this uni­
versity as I did not want to attend an all-online
program. I believe there is great value in oncampus classes [for] at least some of the classes
in a course.”
On-Campus versus Hybrid Courses
A regression analysis was done of the survey
responses according to number of classes in the
course that were online. The three questions
relat­ing to time spent, motivation to read course
materials, and type of format preferred were
significantly related at .000 (time spent), .041
(motivation to read course materials), and .009
(type of format) to the number of online classes
in the course. As the number of online classes
in­creased from one to fully online, the per­cen­
tage of students who felt they spent more time on
the course increased. Similarly, the moti­va­tion to
read materials also increased as the number of
online classes increased. As the num­ber of on­
line sessions increased to three and five classes,
student preference for hybrid courses and allonline courses decreased. That is consistent
with the student comments, quot­ed above, that
express a preference for some online classes but
still highly value on-campus classes.
DISCUSSION
The flexible schedule for the online classes was
clearly a significant reason that students favored
that mode of learning. As shown in previous
research, the flexibility of online classes is an
important feature for adult learners in today’s
work and family life world (Hannay & New­
vine, 2006; Reif, 2013).
Students’ different learning styles affected the
desire for online or on-campus classes: 32% of
respondents felt more comfortable posting in
the online class while 42% felt more comfort­
able speaking up in class. There was a slightly
stronger feeling that an online lecture would
en­
hance the online class experience. Fewer
students (36%) reported that the quality of
learning in online classes was less than in faceto-face instruction; 53% said the quality of
learning was about the same. An online lecture
is one tool that may help to improve the quality
of online learning.
Students were divided on desiring a hybrid of
online and on-campus courses or fully oncampus courses: 72% preferred the hybrid
format, 27% preferred the on-campus format,
and only 1% preferred a fully online format.
Hybrid courses in MPA programs can satisfy
the needs of students to learn the theory,
process, and art of public administration using
a mix of face-to-face and online classes (Barth,
2004). But parts of MPA programs are best
transmitted face-to-face (Reif, 2013). Students’
comments reflected the need for some courses
to be taught on campus while others could be
hybrid courses or online courses. Interpersonal
skills are best learned in the on-campus classes
(Denhardt, 2004).
CONCLUSION
Students surveyed in this Midwestern uni­ver­
sity’s MPA program have a strong desire for oncampus courses, but the majority of them
desire the hybrid format. While flexibility of
the format is a factor, other elements of hybrid
courses prove significant: 42% felt more com­
fortable speaking up in class than posting on­­line,
but 32% felt more comfortable using the online
discussion board (26% had no prefer­ence). The
online format provides the oppor­tunity for typi­
cally quiet students to engage in conver­sa­tions,
to all participants’ benefit. Stu­dents comment­
ed that, in the on­line dis­cus­sions, they liked
hear­ing from their classmates who never speak
up in class, hearing their perspectives.
Student assessment of the quality of learning
in the different formats indicated that 53% felt
it was the same for online, on-campus, and
hybrid formats; 36% felt that online learning
was less; and 11% felt that online learning was
greater. Many expressed their desire for the
on-campus format, to gain from the professor’s
expertise and face-to-face conversations with
fellow students. Others thought that online
format allowed for a deeper level of discussion,
since students could take time to think and
research before commenting. Given student
desire for professor lectures that provide exam­
ples and baseline course information, posting
such lectures (even short ones) could enhance
the online format.
These are significant findings for on-campus
master’s programs that enroll nontraditional
students (i.e., adult learners, part-time students,
Journal of Public Affairs Education633
K. Nollenberger
etc.) and bears considering for future offerings.
The Midwestern university MPA program in
this research has already expanded its hybrid
course offerings as a result. Students in the
study expressed higher positive responses to
collaboration, interaction, and communication
with their fellow students and the professor.
Those who preferred to speak up in class chose
on-campus courses if their personal schedule
allowed, while those more comfortable posting
on a discussion board chose hybrid courses.
Online courses met student learning needs, but
other factors led students to prefer the hybrid
format. The hybrid mode combined the best
aspects of on-campus and online courses in
terms of student learning outcomes, which is
supported by literature reviewed earlier in this
article (Means et al., 2013; McCann 2015;
Reif 2013).
Other universities that offer courses to adult
learners in many fields, including public ad­
ministration, can learn from this study. If an
institution’s student population is mainly adult
learners who are employed full-time, then the
university or program should consider student
desire for flexibility in the online class schedule
as well as potential student preferences for
various learning modes. The institution should
also likely develop more interactive technology
in its online classes. In short, the hybrid format
is an increasingly popular mode of learning for
universities to consider.
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR
received his PhD in public
administration from the University of Illinois–
Chicago. He has worked in the Public
Admin­istration Department at the University
of Wiscon­sin–Oshkosh since 2008. Prior to
aca­
demia, he worked for 30 years in local
governments in five states in city and county
management positions.
Karl Nollenberger
Journal of Public Affairs Education635
K. Nollenberger
APPENDIX
Research Design
INSTRUMENT
DATA COLLECTION
Study data were collected using a 21-question
survey. The same survey was used as in previous
research at another Midwestern university.
The MPA program surveyed consists primarily
of adult learners. The program traditionally has
offered fully on-campus courses and in recent
years has adopted some hybrid-format courses
(online plus on-campus) as well as one fully
online course. The survey was administered in
the classroom on the final class of the course,
except for in the fully online course; in that
case, the survey was administered via an e-mail
to students, giving them a link to the survey on
Qualtrics. A total of 149 students responded to
the survey request, around an 85% response rate.
The first four survey questions addressed
respondents’ preferences for online versus oncampus classes: being in a home atmosphere,
travel time, style of learning, and flexibility of
schedule. The next eight questions addressed
respondents’ perceptions of the process of
online versus on-campus classes: responsiveness
to learning needs, clarity of questions,
communication with fellow students, group
collaboration, interaction with the professor,
desire for more interactive technology, postings
done on a timely basis, and comfort with
posting online or speaking up in class. The
next five questions addressed respondents’
perceptions of the outcomes of online versus
on-campus classes: quality of learning, total
time spent for the class, need for an online
professor lecture, communication about
expectations, and student motivation to read
and analyze materials. The type of course
format preferred—all online, all on-campus, or
hybrid—was another question asked of respon­
dents. The final three questions accumulated
demographic information on the respondents:
gender, year of birth, and employment status.
Respondents were given an opportunity to
provide additional comments about online and
on-campus alternatives.
In the analysis, for the first 12 questions in the
first two sections of the survey, responses
were narrowed down to three responses: Agree
(strongly agree and somewhat agree), Neither
(neither agree or disagree), and Disagree
(somewhat disagree and strongly disagree).
In the rest of the questions, responses were
narrow­ed down to two or three categories as
shown in Tables 4 and 5.
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Journal of Public Affairs Education
DATA ANALYSIS
The survey data were analyzed using SPSS
(Statistical Package for the Social Sciences)
software. Descriptive statistics for responses
were accumulated from a database of answers
to all questions from all respondent surveys.
Cross-tabulations were also undertaken for
some responses as described in the analysis of
responses, in the article. Regression analyses
were also performed to relate responses to
demographic data and number of classes oncampus and online.
Rubrics as a Foundation for
Assessing Student Competencies:
One Public Administration
Program’s Creative Exercise
Billie Sandberg
Portland State University
Kevin Kecskes
Portland State University
ABSTRACT
Since implementation of the Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration
(NASPAA) standards for accreditation in 2009, public administration programs have been
developing programmatic competencies that reflect NASPAA’s universal standards. Likewise,
myriad efforts have analyzed data related to student and program progress toward achievement of
these competencies. This article adds to that conversation by recounting the approach to assessing
competencies used in the Department of Public Administration at Portland State University. There,
newly developed rubrics reflect each of the department’s 10 competencies to examine whether
students are acquiring the desired knowledge and skills. This article discusses the development and
design of the rubrics as well as elements of gaining faculty and student input in the process.
KEYWORDS
Competencies, rubrics, assessment, accreditation
The 2009 accreditation standards of the Net­
work of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and
Administration (NASPAA) prompted public
administration programs worldwide to develop
programmatic competencies and realign peda­
gogical strategies to accord with NASPAA re­
quire­­
ments. Instituting such a competencybased education model in a public admin­i­stra­
tion program is not without its chal­
lenges
(Getha-Taylor, Hummert, Nal­ban­dian, & Silvia,
2013; Mayhew, Swartz, & Taylor, 2014). These
include ensuring effective engage­
ment with
stakeholders (Diaz, 2014), building and reach­
ing consensus among multiple stakeholders
JPAE 23 (1), 637–652
(Diaz, 2014; Rivenbark & Jacobson, 2014),
and aligning programmatic competencies with
both program mission and accreditation stand­
ards (Dunning, 2014). Paramount among these
challenges, however, is the structuring of evalu­
ation processes and instruments in accordance
with NASPAA’s new learning objectives. Com­
petency-based models of education require a
more holistic approach toward assessment of
learn­ing outcomes. By definition, such an ap­
proach pays primary attention to evaluating
student achievement of a set of uni­versal com­
petencies rather than on measuring individual
course learning objectives (Dunning, 2014;
Journal of Public Affairs Education637
B. Sandberg & K. Kecskes
Powell, Saint-Germain, & Sundstrom, 2014).
In light of already existing difficulties in develop­
ing simple yet com­prehensive instru­ments to
assess the often imprecise objectives set forth
by public administration programs (Williams,
2002), evaluation of competency attainment
can seem a daunting task.
U.S. public administration programs have risen
to the task, however, producing a veritable brico­
lage of evaluation approaches, processes, and
tools. Programs have utilized a combination of
student assessment surveys (Getha-Taylor et al.,
2013), capstone projects (Diaz, 2014; Dun­
ning, 2014; Powell et al., 2014), focus groups
(Diaz, 2014), and portfolios (Mayhew et al.,
2014) to evaluate student and program progress
toward achievement of NASPAA’s universal com­
petencies. This variety of assessment approaches
is nothing new. Indeed, scholars document that
focus groups (Sink, 1991), capstone projects
(Durant, 1997; Fitzpatrick & Miller-Stevens,
2009), portfolios (Powell, 2009; Williams, 2002),
exam grades (Dalehite, 2008), surveys of
alum­ni (Newcomer, Allen, & Baradei, 2010),
and more (see Aristigueta, M., Gomes, K., &
Wood, Byrd, & Associates Inc., 2006) have
long been utilized to assess student achievement.
While some argue that public administration
educa­tion should agree on evaluation methods
beyond individual schools (Diaz, 2014), it is
clear that there is currently no one-size-fits-all
assessment model.
With this in mind, this article aims to contribute to the field’s ongoing conversation regard­
ing assessment of competencies. Specifically, and
taking inspiration from Durant (1997), we
recount the “creative exercise” concerning student
assessment undertaken during the 2013–2014
academic year by the Department of Public
Administration at Portland State University
(PSU). This creative exercise resulted in rubrics
that reflect each of the department’s 10 com­
petencies and that serve two purposes. First,
they help students self-assess the extent to
which they are achieving the department’s
competencies. As will be discussed in more
detail, students’ subjective assessment of their
638
Journal of Public Affairs Education
academic progress can play a key role in
developing self-reflection and learning. Second,
these new rubrics provide a foundation for
decision making as the department moves
toward developing additional objective assess­
ments of student competencies.
The Department of Public Administration
at PSU has traditionally utilized subjective
assess­ment of student competencies—namely,
student self-assessment—along with objective
measurements of learning at the course level
(e.g., course grades). Only now is the de­part­
ment undertaking the task of developing more
objective approaches and instruments for
assessing competency. The rubrics described in
this article are a foundation for this effort, for
they fully articulate the department’s expec­
tations for student achievement as expressed in
each programmatic competency along a spec­
trum of professional development, as well as
the criteria for assessing each competency.
This article first gives an overview of the De­
partment of Public Administration at PSU, its
core graduate programs, and the department
competencies. Next, we discuss the function
and use of rubrics, drawing on relevant liter­
ature related to higher education. Then follow
the details of how the Department of Public
Administration developed its competency
rubrics, including theoretical underpinnings,
the planning and development process, and
obtaining faculty and student input. We con­
clude by discussing implications for practice,
including PSU plans for deployment of the
rubrics, how programs might use them to
inform other objective approaches to assessing
competency, and ideas for integrating objective
and subjective assessment methods.
OVERVIEW OF THE PSU DEPARTMENT
OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
The PSU Department of Public Administra­
tion is part of the Mark O. Hatfield School
of Government in the College of Urban and
Public Affairs, in the heart of Portland, Oregon.
The department’s current configuration reflects
the merger of public administration programs
Rubrics as a Foundation for Student Assessment
at Lewis and Clark College and PSU in 1996
and the development of the Hatfield School
in 1998. As of 2016, the Department of Public
Administration offers these core programs1:
an undergraduate minor in civic leadership;
graduate certificate programs in nonprofit and
public management, collaborative governance,
and sustainable food systems; a Master of Pub­lic Administration (MPA); an MPA in health
administration (MPA:HA); and an Executive
MPA (EMPA). Approximately 250 students were
enrolled in the graduate programs in the 2013–
2014 academic year. Curricula are delivered by
13 faculty members and more than a dozen
adjunct instructors. The Depart­ment of Public
Administration’s MPA, MPA:HA, and EMPA
degrees are all accredited by NASPAA.
As with all NASPAA-accredited programs, the
PSU Department of Public Administration had
to develop a competency model after 2009 to
maintain its accreditation. Development and
implementation of the department’s compet­
ency model took place between 2011 and 2012,
and our colleagues Jill Jamison Rissi and Sherril
Gelmon (2014) write about this process in
detail. As they discuss, development of the
competencies was complicated by two factors:
the multifaceted nature of PSU’s public admin­
istration programs and the university’s strong
focus on community engagement. The depart­
ment’s focus on both public admini­stra­tion and
health administration and policy led it to seek
accreditation from NASPAA, the Commission
on Accreditation of Healthcare Management
Education (CAHME), and the Council on
Education for Public Health (CEPH).2 While
multiple accreditations provide advantages,
they also come with multiple (and sometimes
dueling) standards, complicating the creation
of standardized competencies for all students
no matter the degree program. Concurrently,
PSU’s motto to “let knowledge serve the city”
led the Department of Public Administration
to emphasize learning associated with com­mun­
ity engagement—specifically the knowledge and
skills related to teamwork, collaboration, effec­
tive communication, and other inter­per­sonal
skills—making comparison with other U.S.
public administration programs proble­matic.
Nevertheless, the Department of Public Ad­min­­­istration developed the following robust
10 competencies that reflect both internal
prior­
ities and those of NASPAA, CAHME,
and CEPH3:
1. Articulate and exemplify the ethics,
values, responsibilities, obligations and
social roles of a member of the public
[health] service profession.
2. Identify and apply relevant theories
and frameworks to the practice of
public [health] service leadership,
management and policy.
3. Respond to and engage collaboratively
with diverse local and global cultures
and communities to address challenges
in the public interest [interest of popu­
lation health].
4. Identify and engage with key elements
of the public [health] policy process.
5. Employ appropriate qualitative and
quantitative techniques to investigate,
monitor, and manage resource use.
6. Create and manage systems and
processes to assess and improve
organizational performance.
7. Conceptualize, analyze, and develop
creative and collaborative solutions to
challenges in public [health] service
leadership, management and policy.
8. Assess challenges and explore solutions
to advance cross-sectoral and interjurisdictional cooperation in public
[health] programs and services.
9. Demonstrate verbal and written com­
munication skills as a public [health]
professional and through interpersonal
interactions in groups and in society.
10. Think critically and self-reflectively
about emerging issues concerning
public [health] service leadership,
management and policy.
Journal of Public Affairs Education639
B. Sandberg & K. Kecskes
Students in the Department of Public Admin­
istration’s MPA, MPA:HA, and EMPA pro­grams
are expected to achieve these 10 competencies
in some measure (see Rissi and Gelmon [2014]
for a discussion of expected basic, intermediate,
and advanced levels of skill attainment).
THE FUNCTION AND USE OF RUBRICS
Rubrics have become commonplace in higher
edu­cation (see Kecskes, 2013; Reddy & An­drade,
2010), and public administration programs are
certainly no stranger to them (e.g., Diaz, 2014;
Dunning, 2014; Fitzpatrick & Miller-Stevens,
2009; Getha-Taylor et al., 2014; Meek & God­
win, 2014; Powell et al., 2014). Rubrics arti­
culate the expectations for a learning outcome
(a specific assignment or program goal) by esta­
blishing clear criteria that can be measured on a
scale that delineates varying levels of quality or
attainment from beginner to advanced (Andrade,
2000; Arter & Chappuis, 2007). A rubric
has three essential elements: evaluation criteria,
qual­
ity definitions, and a scoring strategy
(Reddy & Andrade, 2010). Evaluation criteria
are indicators or a process and content factors
that the evaluators consider important to judge
(Parke, 2001). Quality definitions illuminate
what instructors and programs expect of the
learner in terms of skill or proficiency demon­
stration at varying levels of attainment.
Examples include “good, fair, poor” and
“expert, intermediary, novice” levels of pro­
ficiency. Scoring strategies involve a consistent
scale for interpreting quality judgments asso­
ciated with learning attainment and demon­
stration (Reddy & Andrade, 2010). While
“rubrics can be deceptively difficult to write”
(Piedra, Chicaiza, Lopez, Romero & Tovar,
2010, p. 1512), the general steps to creating
them are straightforward: (1) deciding on
criteria that count; (2) determining how best to
describe the rating of criteria attainment at
varying levels; and (3) weighting each criterion
(Peat, 2006).
The benefits of deploying rubrics at the course
and program levels are well established and
informed our decision to utilize the modality at
PSU. For instance, rubrics can facilitate
communication between instructors or between
640
Journal of Public Affairs Education
instructors and students (Isaacson & Stacy,
2009). Indeed, as will become clear below,
well-developed and -utilized rubrics can signi­
ficantly clarify expectations for students; and,
for instructors, they facilitate discussion that
helps cohorts of professionals clarify and col­
lectively determine values about what counts
for learning attainment. In addition, when
rubrics are integrated into an iterative process
of reflective teaching or program delivery,
courses and programs have the potential to
garner key information that can enhance the
course or program (Piedra et al., 2010). Finally,
while the evidence is inconclusive, several
studies at both the course and program level
strongly suggest that deploying rubrics beyond
limited, traditional evaluative ends holds great
promise (see Reddy & Andrade, 2010). Speci­
fically, these studies suggest that creatively util­
izing rubrics early in the course- or programinitiation phase, as a learning strategy with
students, can clarify high-end targets for stu­dents
and deepen, increase, and accelerate learning
outcome attainment. Using rubrics specifically
and deliberately as a learning strategy is one part
of the Department of Public Admini­stra­tion’s
next phase of competency assessment work,
which is still under develop­ment.
A CREATIVE EXERCISE IN STUDENT ASSESSMENT
Since the Department of Public Administration
implemented its competency model in 2012,
students have been asked to reflect and report
on their attainment of the 10 competencies.4
As part of each course evaluation, students report
the extent to which they feel the course helped
them meet some or all of the department’s
competencies. Though students report their
perceived level of competency throughout their
program of study, their responses to this ques­
tion have been particularly important in each
degree’s capstone course.
Capstone courses play a significant role in stu­
dent assessment in many public administration
programs. As Reid and Miller (1997) note,
they are an important tool for both program
leaders and students. On the one hand, cap­
stone courses allow students to critically examine
their work and integrate complex know­ledge
Rubrics as a Foundation for Student Assessment
TABLE 1.
Capstone Courses for MPA, MPA:HA, EMPA, and MPH:HMP Students
Degree program
MPA
MPA: HA
EMPA
MPH:HMP
and skills across multiple specializations while
such courses also serve as a rite of passage. On
the other hand, for program leaders, capstone
courses allow the program to assess itself by
evaluating student work across a broad range of
criteria. Because the PSU Department of Public
Administration actively promotes reflection as
a part of its mission, the capstone requirement
(see Table 1) is integral to its ongoing pro­gram­
matic assessment. Furthermore, a culminating
experience is an ideal point in a student’s
graduate career for deep reflection on and
assess­ment of competencies obtained over their
course of study. As such, we expect that cap­
stone courses will figure significantly in the
department’s ongoing efforts to more directly
and objectively assess student competencies.
Despite the value of student self-assessments
in their course evaluations, over time it has
become clear at PSU that additional assessment
tools are required, primarily because the selfreports do not assess student progress toward
the department’s 10 competencies. The object
of the self-report is not the student but rather
the course itself. To be sure, knowing the extent
to which individual courses help students attain
the competencies is integral to evaluating the
overall program. However, the emphasis should
be on student learning outcomes (Powell,
Piskulah, & Saint-Germain, 2011). Integrated
assessment of those outcomes should ultimately answer the question, To what extent are
students achieving the competencies? Infor­ma­
Capstone courses
PA 509: Organizational Experience
PA 512: Case Analysis
PAH 509: Organizational Experience
PA 510: Advanced Case Analysis
PA 512: Case Analysis
PAH 509: Organizational Experience
tion on student progress toward competency
attainment provides, not only measures of pro­
grammatic success, but also a path forward for
making informed decisions about the curri­
culum, its delivery, and the competency model
as a whole.
In 2013, the PSU Department of Public Ad­­ inistration begin implementing additional
m
assess­ment processes and instruments with these
aims in mind. The rubrics and their develop­
ment make up one step of a longer journey
toward programmatic comprehensive­ness and
efficaciousness; namely, competency assessment
of the Department of Public Ad­
min­
istra­
tion itself.
Important Notes about Process
At the start of the 2013–2014 academic year,
faculty of the Department of Public Admin­i­
stration designated the Student Assessment
Com­mittee (SAC) to lead the effort in develop­
ing additional, more robust processes and in­
stru­
ments for assessing student achieve­
ment
of the department’s 10 competencies. Three
faculty members volunteered, including Neal
Wallace and the two authors of this article.
Two more faculty members, Erna Gelles and
Douglas Morgan, joined later in the year. While
the committee had a formal chair, in practice
it operated in a participatory democratic mode
in which the members came “together in per­son
to discuss problems and forge solutions through
civilized debate” (Ovans, 2012, para. 5). In
Journal of Public Affairs Education641
B. Sandberg & K. Kecskes
addition, from the beginning, SAC mem­­bers
agreed that searching for one perfect assessment
process or instrument would only inhibit efforts
(Williams, 2002; see also Fitz­patrick & MillerStevens, 2009). As a result, the process was del­i­berately iterative, and mem­bers fully acknow­
ledged that any initial approach would be but
one piece of a much larger effort to assess the
department’s compe­tency model.
Rationale for the Approach Taken. The SAC
began by mining extant literature on assessment
and competency attainment and by gleaning
exam­ples of assessment plans from peer insti­­tutions and NASPAA’s online database of
­
resources. This resource review and subsequent
discussions led the SAC to choose the dev­elop­
ment of rubrics as the most appropriate course,
for four reasons. First, rubric develop­ment pro­
cesses can easily support the kind of iterative
approach that the SAC adopted. Second, rubric
use in higher-education institutions is a wellunderstood, respected, and familiar practice,
particularly in public administration programs.
Third, the use of rubrics affords users a con­
tinuum of self-assessment options over a range
of substantive areas, thus allowing for flexible
use and modification over time. That is, rubrics
provide students with a formal assessment
instrument that can help them become more
aware of and better ascertain their own learning
(or lack thereof ). Finally, one SAC member’s
scholarly agenda centers on rubric development
and deployment in higher-education academic
departments, in the United States and beyond
(see Kecskes, 2013).
Surprises, Confusion, and Clarity. Having de­
cided on rubrics, the SAC was faced with two
ques­
tions: What kind of rubrics should be
creat­ed? And how and when should they be
deployed? The first question sets the stage for a
brief discussion of the SAC’s creative, engag­ing,
and at times surprising development process.
First, the SAC adopted the so-called Dreyfus
mod­el of human learning that, at its core, con­
nects theory and practice and moves from an
initial rule-bound orientation to later-stage
intuition-and experience-based decision mak­ing
(see Flyvbjerg, 2001). This theoretical frame
642
Journal of Public Affairs Education
(discus­
sed in more detail below) guided
the SAC’s developmental approach through­out
the process.
Next, three members of the SAC who regularly
teach a course on administrative ethics and val­
ues each agreed to independently create a first
draft of a rubric scale for the department’s first
competency. This competency addresses expec­
tations for ethical behavior for public admini­
strators. All committee members then met to
con­sider the three rubric drafts; members clar­
ified the meaning of each component of each
draft, explored the underlying rationale, and in
real time recrafted an advanced and agreedupon draft. The SAC members agreed that this
iterative and collaborative process was valuable.
Thus, from this point on, each SAC member
selected a few of the competencies that mapped
to their areas of professional expertise and
drafted a rubric for the next scheduled meeting.
Collectively, the SAC took care to have no
fewer than two committee members working on
each competency, thus ensuring multiple views.
Over the next few months, highly engaging
and informative discussions ensued. Indeed,
one committee member commented that this
kind of scholarly exploration and intellectually
satisfying dialogue were well overdue. In essence,
the SAC discovered that—at times sur­pris­ing­
ly—members’ interpretations of particular com­
petencies sometimes deviated significantly with­in
the group. The robust discussions and eventual
creation of consensus language for each com­
petency led, not only to a deeper commitment
to the process itself and a high-quality final
product, but also to an increased spirit of
collegiality, clarification of values and biases,
and ultimately a more robust common under­
standing of the essential nature of each compe­
tency. In short, members’ collective knowledge
and understanding of the subject matter of each
competency became more sharply defined.
Ultimately, the SAC created working drafts of
10 rubrics, one for each competency. This proved
a significant accomplishment, especially given
that the five SAC members represented diverse
subareas of expertise. The SAC sent the working
Rubrics as a Foundation for Student Assessment
drafts to the full public admini­stra­­tion faculty
for review and commentary. Several members
of the SAC followed up individually with fac­
ulty members who had specific con­
cerns
regarding the content and form of the rubrics.
Concomitantly, one SAC member agreed to
pilot-test the draft rubrics with a group of
students in the MPA program, at the end of the
term, to garner initial feedback on both content
and form.
While the full faculty at this initial stage pro­
vided general and overall positive feedback,
con­firming for the SAC that it was proceed­ing in the right direction and ensuring validity
of the instruments, student feedback was con­
siderably more detailed, identifying areas of
perceived redundancy and confusion in terms
of both content and form (e.g., the use of the
instruments). Students’ guidance and insightful
suggestions led the SAC to hone and clarify the
content as well as simplify the format of the
rubrics. SAC members intentionally adopted a
co-production model of public administration
(see Ostrom, 1996), a view of the discipline
popular among PSU Department of Public
Administration faculty. Specifically, we view the
learning process as a cooperative enterprise, in
which both students and faculty produce and
apply knowledge in the pursuit of developing
lifelong learners as well as skilled professionals
(McCulloch, 2009).
Over the next several months, the SAC created
final drafts of each competency’s rubric and
pro­vided it to the full public administration
faculty. A follow-up presentation on the rubrics
included a general orientation, rationale for use
of the rubrics, and a facilitated discussion. The
faculty formally voted to approve the rubrics
and discussed pilot-testing them (discussed
briefly in the conclusion of this article).
Learning and Professional Development
Public administration programs have drawn
on several educational assessment models and
asso­ciated theoretical frameworks to develop
approaches for student assessment. These in­
clude, most prominently, Benjamin Bloom’s
taxo­nomy of educational objectives (e.g., Dale­
hite, 2008; Dunning, 2014; Rivenbark &
Jacob­
son, 2014) and Donald Kirkpatrick’s
four-tiered model for evaluating educational
programs (Mayhew et al., 2014; Newcomer &
Allen, 2010). Kirkpatrick’s model has proved
particularly popular and useful, as it provides a
holistic view of an educational program’s
success. It measures the following: (1) students’
reaction to and valuation of the program; (2)
their overall learning; (3) whether learning
resulted in changed (better) behavior in the
workplace; and (4) whether students and their
places of work were ultimately better off as a
result. Yet, as Newcomer and Allen (2010)
note, the Kirkpatrick model can be challenging
to implement due to lack of resources, and
most public administration programs halt their
assessment efforts at Tier 2. This challenge is
no less true for the Department of Public
Administration at PSU. While implementation
of the full model is the department’s goal, the
SAC’s initial efforts focused on the primary
concern of both NASPAA and the department:
student learning outcomes, the second tier of
Kirkpatrick’s model.
As there are myriad approaches for assessing
educational programs, so too are there a
multitude of methods for understanding and
evaluating student learning. The SAC’s approach
was to view student learning through a prism of
professional development. While it has been a
matter of debate whether public administration
can be viewed as a profession (see Green, Keller,
& Wamsley, 1993; Schott, 1976), it is clear
that many public administration programs seek
to develop professional public administrators
through competency-based programs (see Diaz,
2014; Rubaii & Calarusse, 2014; Williams,
2002). This includes the Department of Public
Administration at PSU, which views its offer­
ings as “professional graduate degree programs”
(Rissi & Gelmon, 2014, p. 335, emphasis add­
ed). It naturally follows to assess student learn­
ing in these programs as a matter of pro­fessional
development.
There exist a host of models to evaluate learning
in professional development programs (see
Dall’Alba & Sandberg, 2006), but one of the
Journal of Public Affairs Education643
B. Sandberg & K. Kecskes
more accepted ones is the so-called Dreyfus
model. Developed by philosophers Hubert and
Stuart Dreyfus and summarized by Flyvbjerg
(2001), it offers a phenomenology of human
learning that delineates the linkages between
knowledge acquisition and context. In the
fami­liar parlance of public administration, the
Dreyfus model explicates the relationship be­
tween theory and practice as it becomes mani­
fest in the human learning process. It incor­por­
ates both rational decision making and more
context-based decision making, allowing for an
interplay between rules, formal know­ledge, and
practical experience. Further­more, the Dreyfus
model implies that moving beyond rule-based
thinking is the most important element for
action for a professional. As we will discuss in
the next section, while rules are important at
every level of learning and development, at
each successive level context and intuition be­
come important elements for action.
At the same time, the model does not privilege
any one level of learning. This is important
with­
in the context of public administration
pro­grams. In the classroom we can have novices,
advanced beginners, competent per­form­ers, pro­
ficient performers, and perhaps even experts
(see Table 2). This would not be unusual in an
MPA program populated by students seeking
an advanced degree after years in the field;
students who have a few years of experience as
an entry-level manager and want a master’s de­
gree to advance; and students who matriculate
directly from undergraduate programs. Based
on this reasoning, the SAC chose the Dreyfus
model to guide its development of assessment
rubrics. It follows, then, that SAC members in­
ten­tionally incorporated into all 10 rubrics an
understanding of student learning that begins
with a rule-based framework and ends with a
specific focus on context and intuition.
The Rubrics
Figures 1 and 2 depict the rubrics developed for
Competencies 1 and 2. Space does not allow for
inclusion of the rubrics for all 10 competen­cies,
but as these two examples indicate, there is con­
tinuity in formatting and language between
them. Read from left to right, the rubric in each
644
Journal of Public Affairs Education
figure details the progression of student learn­
ing from novice to exemplary status. These cate­
gorizations of learning and progress in pro­fes­
sional development are based on the Dreyfus
model’s five levels of human learning (see Table
2). First, novices are defined by their inexper­ience
both in the classroom and in a public service
professional setting. As students, then, they may
have an interest in public service and public
organizations but at the same time be uncertain
about what it means to be a public servant and
a competent practicing public administrator.
Therefore, they must learn the facts and rules
and the knowledge and skills that define the
profession. Until they are able to master this
knowledge and these skills and apply appro­
priate contextual elements, their decision mak­
ing remains inherently rule-based. They are
judged by how well they follow the rules.
In the second level of human learning, advanc­ed beginners possess the characteristics of the
novice but have benefited from some practical
experience. Advanced beginners are thus able
to apply the rules, knowledge, and skills they
have learned in diverse situations because they
can recognize similarities between situations.
For example, drawing on Competency 1 (see
Figure 1), an advanced beginner has learned
what it means to be an ethical public servant
and is thus better able to recognize an ethical
dilemma despite the context. The advanced
beginner recognizes the dilemma as ethical
and not simply organizational or interpersonal,
whether it occurs in a government agency or
nonprofit organization, in a human resources
department or at the executive level. The suc­
cess of an advanced beginner depends on trial
and error through the application of ac­quired
knowledge within the varying contexts.
At the third level of learning, competent per­
formers have more real-life experience. They are
better able to prioritize between sometimes con­
flicting goals and values and then make plans,
and goals to achieve those plans, to mitigate, if
not resolve, most conflicts. At this level of
professional development, students have learn­
ed to deal with a smaller set of factors that they
have defined as meaningful and thus are better
Rubrics as a Foundation for Student Assessment
TABLE 2.
Dreyfus Model: The Five Levels in the Human Learning Process
Level of learning
Novice
Characteristics
Is learning what the rules are for action
Is unprepared to account for situational context in application of the rules
Evaluates oneself based on how well one follows the rules one has learned
Advanced beginner
Has learned the rules but also has some real-life experience
Is able to base action on both the rules and situational elements.
Knows when to bend or ignore the rules.
Evaluates oneself based on success through trial and error
Competent performer
Is able to prioritize decision making and develop goals and plans
for action. Goals and plans are based on both context-dependent
and context-independent information.
Feels the need to have plans on which to base action, but deciding on
a plan takes time and deliberation
Feels responsible for the consequences of choices made because they
have been deliberated on and selected based on options considered
Proficient performer
Readily identifies problems, goals, and plans intuitively based on one’s
own experientially based perspective
Makes choices confidently and simply
Checks intuitive choice by analytical evaluation prior to action
Expert
Behaves intuitively, holistically, and synchronically
Takes action in such a way that a given situation releases a picture of problemgoal-plan-decision-action in one instant and with no division into phases
Does not engage in protracted problem solving but rather in critical reflection
over one’s intuition and its application
Source. Flyvbjerg (2001).
able to evaluate a given situation. Involvement
in decision making becomes more personal,
then, because there is more responsibility for
action. This is so because decision making now
involves interpretation of key elements and
personal judgment.
For proficient performers, decision making is
continuous and based on a perspective informed
by prior learning, actions, and experiences in
varying contexts. Decision making of this var­
iety involves spontaneous interpretation, in­tui­
tive judgment, and memory. It also in­volves
per­iodic reflection for analysis of situations and
decisions made. At this level of development,
there is a marriage between intuition and analy­
tic decision making.
Finally, when one becomes an exemplary pub­
lic servant, or an expert public administrator,
decision making becomes an intimate, virtuo­
sic experience such that it is second nature.
This individual is one with his or her intuition
and experience, in that there is normalized
alignment between the individual’s intuition,
experience, and action. Furthermore, these
experts become models of public service or
examples to follow. They become leaders.
As explicated by Flyvbjerg (2001), each level of
learning builds on the previous one. In the
visual depiction of our rubrics (Figures 1 and
2), we show this progression in learning and
development by using arrows and plus signs to
describe not only students’ acquisition of know­
Journal of Public Affairs Education645
B. Sandberg & K. Kecskes
FIGURE 1.
Rubric for Competency 1
Competency 1
Able to articulate and exemplify the ethics, values, responsibilities, obligations
and social roles of a member of the public service profession
Novice
Awareness
Uncertain
about the
ethics, values,
responsibilities,
obligations
and social
roles of being
an ethical
public servant
Advanced
Beginner
Competent
Proficient
Exemplary
Aware of
these
standards
for being
an ethical
public
servant
+
Analysis
Limited or
no exper­­
ience or
ability to
apply these
standards
Understands
and can
apply these
standards
in familiar
contexts
+
Application
Recognizes
the contextual limits
in applying
these
standards
Able to transfer
knowledge
about these
standards
to unique
contexts
+
Leadership
Understands
and is able to
articulate
the contextual
limits in applying these
standards
646
Journal of Public Affairs Education
Able to
incorporate
contextual
elements
into ethical
decision-making
processes
effectively while
also carrying out
and consistently
modeling the
standards
of ethical
public service
Rubrics as a Foundation for Student Assessment
FIGURE 2.
Rubric for Competency 2
Competency 2
Identify and apply relevant theories and frameworks to the practice
of public service leadership, management, and policy
Awareness
Novice
Advanced
Beginner
Competent
Uncertain
about the
theories and
models that
provide a
foundation of
knowledge for
understanding
public service
Aware of the
theories and
models that
provide a
foundation of
knowledge
for understanding
public service
Understands
and can
arti­culate the
theories and
models that
provide a
foundation of
knowledge for
understanding
pub­lic service
Proficient
Exemplary
+
Analysis
Limited or no
experience
or ability to
apply these
theories
and models to more
effectively
practice in
public service
Able to apply
these theories
and models
to more
effectively
practice
in public
ser­vice, in
familiar
contexts
Able to
transfer
knowledge
about these
theories
and models
to unique
contexts
Application
+
+
Recognizes
the contextual
limits in
apply­ing
these theories
and models
Understands
and is able to
articulate the
contextual
limits in
applying
these theories
and models
Able to critically
reflect on the
contextual limits
of these theories
and models
while also drawing on them
to innovate to
create new best
practices for
public service
Leadership
Journal of Public Affairs Education647
B. Sandberg & K. Kecskes
ledge and skills but also their deployment of
the same. In addition, we characterize the over­
all progression of learning and development
along the vertical axis from awareness, to an­
alysis, to application, and finally to leadership.
As stu­
dents progress in their learning and
develop­
ment from novice to exemplar, they
first become aware of the knowledge and skills
that underpin the competency and that are
required for the profession. Then they become
better able to analyze given situations and
contexts through the prism of their knowledge
and skills. Building on this, students are then
better able to competently apply their
knowledge and skills in varying contexts. Finally,
they are able to lead because they have become
exemplars in their field. They are able to
incorporate their know­ledge, skills, and relevant
contextual ele­ments such that they exemplify
the very essence of the competency itself.
Deployment of the Rubrics
After completion of the rubrics, the question
became how best to deploy them. The SAC, in
consultation with the larger public admini­stra­
tion faculty, chose to initially deploy the rubrics
through existing modalities, namely student
self-assessments. The department already had in
place several subjective approaches to assess­
ment, and building on existing strategies seemed
a natural progression.
Additionally, the SAC wanted to engage stu­dents
themselves in the assessment process as a form of
self-reflection and learning. While, in a typical
educational setting, instructors use rubrics to
assess students performance based on pre­deter­
mined criteria (see Arter & McTighe, 2000),
rubrics themselves can also enhance and
accelerate learning. Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick
(2006) write that formative assessments of stu­
dent learning can be joined with self-regulated
learning such that students can, at least in part,
guide their own learning. Formative assess­
ments, which can be either formal (e.g., grading
assignments, assigning course grades) or infor­
mal (e.g., verbal feedback), provide students with
information about their performance in order
to contribute to their learning (Yorke, 2003).
Self-regulated learning involves students moni­
648
Journal of Public Affairs Education
toring their own learning processes. Specifically,
self-regulated learning is
manifested in the active monitoring and
regulation of a number of different
learn­­­ing processes: e.g. the setting of,
and orien­tation towards, learning goals;
the strategies used to achieve goals; the
man­
agement of resources; the effort
exert­ed; reactions to external feedback;
the products produced. (Nicol & Mac­
farlane-Dick, 2006, p. 200)
When formative assessment tools and approaches
are married with an emphasis on self-guided
reflection, students become better enabled to
regulate their own learning throughout the
course of their studies. In turn, this helps
prepare them for learning outside the program
and throughout their lives (Boud, 2000).
During the 2014–2015 academic year, we in­­vit­ed students in PSU’s MPA, MPA:HA, and
Master of Public Health (MPH) capstone
courses (see Table 1) to assess themselves in
relation to the Department of Public
Administration’s 10 competencies. The online
survey asked them to consider each rubric and
assess their own com­petence in relation to it.
For each com­
petency, did students view
themselves as a novice, ad­
vanced beginner,
competent performer, profi­cient performer, or
exemplar, now that they are completing their
graduate studies? We are in the process of
analyzing the data from these self-assessments,
but in general it appears that students tend to
rate their achievement level more highly than
their instructors might (see Ross, 2006).
There is a clear need to marry more-objective
assessments with existing sub­
jec­
tive ones.
None­theless, the very act of putting the ques­
tions to the students engages the students in
self-reflection, a core value of PSU’s public ad­
ministration programs.
Going forward, we will begin asking students
to engage with the rubric self-assessment tool at
the beginning of their studies. Over time, the
data gleaned should allow the Department of
Public Administration to assess students’ in­div­
id­ual and overall movement along a spec­trum
Rubrics as a Foundation for Student Assessment
of learning, in addition to other more ob­jective
measures that the department dev­e­lops over
time. By utilizing the competency rubrics as a
foundation for assessment—and connecting
them to and associating them with additional
subjective and objective assessment modalities
—we hope to both increase students’ self-re­
flection about their learning process and facil­
itate a common understanding among faculty
about what learning outcomes we are seeking.
tencies themselves. This naturally trans­form­ed an
erstwhile instrumental activity into a meaningladen and constitutive effort for all involved.
CONCLUSION AND EPILOGUE
Third, the SAC recognized that additional
valid­­a­tion of the instruments will be required.
For example, to increase the rubrics’ content
validity, we will solicit input from community
practitioners to ensure that the rubrics and the
competencies reflect the realities of public
service as a profession. Just as we solicited input
from community practitioners during develop­
ment of the competencies themselves (e.g.,
from preceptors who hosted students during
their capstone projects and from the Hatfield
School’s advisory council; see Rissi & Gelmon,
2014), so too will we solicit their input to
inform the rubrics. And as we develop moreobjective measures of competency attainment
and seek to gather data related to Tiers 3 and 4
of Kirkpatrick’s evaluation model, we will
analyze the data not only to measure
competency attainment and achievement of
programmatic goals but also to assess the
criterion validity of the instruments over time.
This article recounts initial ideas and develop­
ment at PSU’s Department of Public Admin­
istration concerning implementation of rubrics
for assessing student achievement of pro­gram­
matic competencies. We do not propose that
this particular approach to competency assess­
ment is the best or right one for all public
administration programs. Rather, we seek to
demon­strate the rigorous and surprisingly en­
gaging process that can develop when program
faculty fully immerse themselves in discussions
of student learning and competency achieve­
ment, as well as to share the fruits of our labors
(the rubrics themselves). Through this pro­
cess, we have learned the importance of these
two issues.
1. The Imperative to Infuse the Process with
a Spirit of Co-Production. Theorists discuss
co-production as a series of processes through
which inputs from individuals inside and out­
side an organization are transformed into goods
and services by that organization (Bovaird,
2007; Ostrom, 1996). Infusing our develop­
mental experience as a faculty engaged in this
intensive process with this spirit of collaboration
has produced three interconnected insights.
First, NASPAA’s requirement for assessment of
competency attainment initiated a largely in­
strumental, faculty-focused process to meet the
requirements. Throughout the process, how­­ever,
students were invited to test a proto­type of the
instruments and provide feedback. Student
feedback surfaced valuable content and process
insights, which required faculty architects to
discuss their own biases, intellectual histories,
and an emerging shared meaning of the com­pe­
Second, involving students in the process in­
form­ed the notion that faculty may wish to
integrate the rubrics as a formative learning
strategy (Isaacson & Stacy, 2009; Piedra, Chi­
caiza, Lopez, Romero, & Tovar, 2010; Reddy
& Andrade, 2010).
2. Allowing for Sufficient Time to Discuss and
Elucidate the (Shared) Meaning That Under­
pins a Program’s Competencies. Each pro­
gram competency is value-laden and as such
can be interpreted and made meaningful for
individuals in vastly different ways (see also
Diaz, 2014; Dunning, 2014; Rivenbark &
Jacobson, 2014). Time must be allowed for
faculty to find common ground concerning the
full meaning of each competency. Only then
can appropriate measures be developed that
accurately and robustly reflect the conception
of each competency’s meaning for the students
and the program overall.
The SAC’s work is ongoing. The committee is
considering several avenues by which to deploy
Journal of Public Affairs Education649
B. Sandberg & K. Kecskes
the rubrics as self-assessment tools at the begin­
ning of a student’s program of study. This in­
cludes asking students to either fill out an
assess­ment in their first course, or at an orien­
tation, or on their own when they receive their
admission letter. Each of these approaches has
advantages and drawbacks. The SAC is also
considering convening groups of students to
pose the question to them: when is it best to
assess your competency level at the start of your
program of study?
Based on feedback from students and com­­
mun­ity members, we will make any adjustments
need­ed to the form, content, and delivery of the
rubrics. We will also look to expand the process
of self-assessment to the EMPA program and to
two capstone courses (PA 510: Advanced Case
Analysis and PA 512: Case Study).
Finally, the SAC will begin to develop moreob­jective approaches and instruments for the
assess­ment of competency attainment as well as
do the challenging work of connecting current
subjective assessments with newly developed
objective ones. The SAC and the Department
of Public Administration as a whole understand
that assessment of student learning and achieve­
ment of program competencies are an ongoing
process and an undertaking filled with depth and
nuance. No one approach can fully capture all
the depths and details. Therefore, we specifically
seek to identify interconnected assessment ap­
proaches to better enable the Department of
Public Administration to synthesize objective
find­ings with student perceptions of learning and
competency attainment. We will carry on, us­ing
these rubrics as a guide and inviting our stu­dents
and our community to inform us along the way.
Science and the Department of Economics. In addi­
tion, a Master of Public Policy, offered jointly with
the Department of Political Science, enrolled its first
cohort of students in the 2015–2016 academic year.
2 Since the writing of this article, PSU and the Ore­
gon Health and Science University established a
joint School of Public Health. The Master of Pub­
lic Health in health management and policy
(MPH:HMP) that was formerly conferred through
PSU’s Department of Public Administration is now
conferred by the School of Public Health.
3 See Rissi and Gelmon (2014) for a full account of
the development of the department’s competencies,
including integration of both public administration
and health administration standards, integration of
the expectations and standards of multiple accredit­
ing bodies, and the involvement of multiple stake­­
holders in the process, including faculty, the Hat­field
School’s advisory board, current and former stu­dents,
and community practitioners.
4 While student self-assessments provide some ben­
e­fits, evidence of their validity as indicators of stu­
dent performance is, at best, mixed (see Ross, 2006).
The Student Assessment Committee at PSU’s De­­part­ment of Public Administration recognized the
limit­
a­
tions of self-assessments as a sole measure
of competency attainment, which fueled dev­elop­ment of the rubrics discussed in this article as well
as the committee’s plans for creating additional
objective measures.
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Aristigueta, M., Gomes, K. M. B., & Wood, Byrd
& Associates Inc. (2006). Assessing performance
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NOTES
Arter, J., & Chappuis, J. (2007). Creating and
recognizing quality rubrics. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Pearson/Merrill Prentice Hall.
1The Department of Public Administration also of­
fers a doctoral program in public affairs and policy,
managed through the Hatfield School and delivered
in cooperation with the Department of Political
Arter, J., & McTighe, J. (2000). Scoring rubrics in the
classroom: Using performance criteria for assessing and
improving student performance. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Corwin Press.
650
Journal of Public Affairs Education
Rubrics as a Foundation for Student Assessment
Bovaird, T. (2007). Beyond engagement and parti­
ci­
pation: User and community coproduction of
public services. Public Administration Review,
67(5), 846–860.
Boud, D. (2000). Sustainable assessment: Rethinking
assessment for the learning society. Studies in
Continuing Education, 22(2), 151–167.
Mayhew, F., Swartz, N., & Taylor, J. (2014). Imple­
menting a multi-method competency model:
Experiences of the MPA program at James Madison
University. Journal of Public Affairs Education,
20(3), 321–334.
Dalehite, E. (2008). Transforming grades into mean­
ingful MPA program outcomes: Lessons from
benchmarking learning objectives in the public
budgeting and finance course. Journal of Public
Affairs Education, 14(3), 413–426.
McCulloch, A. (2009). The student as co-producer:
Learning from public administration about the
student-university relationship. Studies in Higher
Education, 34(2), 171–183.
Dall’Alba, G., & Sandberg, J. (2006). Unveiling pro­
fessional development: A critical review of stage
models. Review of Educational Research, 76(3),
383–412.
Meek, J., & Godwin, M. (2014). Iterative learning:
Programmatic lessons from a course embedded
approach to program mission assessment. Journal of
Public Affairs Education, 20(3), 305–320.
Diaz, R. (2014). Assessing professional competencies:
The painstaking implementation phase. Journal of
Public Affairs Education, 20(3), 353–368.
Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and
Administration (NASPAA), Commission on Peer
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Dunning, P. (2014). Developing a competency-based
assessment approach for student learning. Teaching
Public Administration, 32(1), 55–67.
Durant, J. (1997). Seizing the moment: Outcomes
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tion. International Journal of Public Administration,
20(2), 397–429.
Fitzpatrick, J., & Miller-Stevens, K. (2009). A case
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Journal of Public Affairs Education, 15(1), 17–31.
Newcomer, K., & Allen, H. (2010). Public service edu­
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
is assistant professor of public
administration and director of the Nonprofit
Institute in the Mark O. Hatfield School of
Govern­ment at Portland State University (PSU).
She teaches several core courses in the PSU
Department of Public Administration’s MPA pro­
gram as well as in its nonprofit specialization.
Her current research centers on the application
of critical social theory to issues of public
governance, focusing in particular on phil­an­
thropy and the nonprofit sector. Her most recent
work has appeared in Administrative Theory and
Praxis, Administration and Society, and Voluntas.
Billie Sandberg
Kevin Kecskes is associate professor of public
administration in the Mark O. Hatfield School
of Government at Portland State University
(PSU). He teaches in the MPA program on
ethics, strategic planning, and global roles of
NGOs, as well as undergraduate courses focus­ed
on community change. He serves as faculty
advisor for PSU’s undergraduate program in
civil leadership. He is on the editorial board
of the Journal of Public Scholarship in Higher
Edu­cation and has advised numerous uni­ver­
sities globally. For over a decade, he provided
university-wide leadership at PSU, including
serving as associate vice provost for engagement.
Film Review
Review of What is Philanthropy?
by Salvatore Alaimo
ISBN: 978-0-253-02917-1
DVD or Blu-Ray: 86 minutes
University of Indiana Press (2016)
https://whatisphilanthropy.wordpress.com/
REVIEW AUTHOR
Ashley E. Nickels
Kent State University
KEYWORDS
Documentary, philanthropy, nonprofit sector, social justice
I have had the privilege of teaching courses on
nonprofit organizations at multiple institutions
over the last eight years. In my experience,
students often take my classes because they
want to “change the world” or “make a
difference.” Whether they are liberal, con­ser­
vative, or apolitical, they view the nonprofit
sector as the best place to be a change agent
(Nickels, Rowland, & Fadase, 2011). Many of
my students are already active in their respective
communities as volunteers, social activists, and
sometimes charitable donors. But when I ask
them at the beginning of the semester whether
they are philanthropists, there is typically a
resounding “no.” When asked to define phil­
anthropy, my students often conjure up the
image of a wealthy donor, maybe Rockefeller,
Carnegie, Buffett, or Zuckerberg, giving large
sums of money to a cause. Many of my stu­
dents have a hard time pronouncing the term,
let alone adequately defining it.
This is where the new documentary film What
Is Philanthropy? is helpful. The brainchild of
executive producer and associate professor of
public and nonprofit administration at Grand
Valley State University in Michigan, Salvatore
“Sal” Alaimo, the film “seeks to enhance our
JPAE 23 (1), 653–655
understanding of philanthropy and its role in
American culture and society” (Alaimo, 2014)
by offering a more complex definition of
philanthropy. Instead of a narrow focus on
donating money, the film argues that philan­
thropy is best conceptualized as private action
that promotes the betterment of society for
“love of mankind.” Yet, if philanthropy is the
giving of one’s time, talent, or treasure for the
betterment of society, Alaimo pushes the limits
of what that means.
In the 86-minute film, Alaimo addresses a ple­
thora of perspectives on the value and practice
of philanthropy, ranging from religious teach­
ings on charity and giving to the legacy and
impact of family foundations. The documen­tary addresses the broad spectrum of ways that
people give of their time and talent, from
corporate volunteer programs to women’s sew­
ing groups to social enterprises. But the film
pushes even further, including social action,
advocacy, and civil disobedience in the defin­
ition of philanthropy. In some ways, social
activism is the most significant form of giving;
as one of the interviewees notes in the film,
speaking out against injustice may mean risk­ing (giving) your life.
Journal of Public Affairs Education653
A. Nickels
This broader, more inclusive definition of
philanthropy encourages us to look beyond
theories of giving to explain philanthropy, to
political and sociological explanations for why
people form social networks, mobilize, and
organize. It also, in the words of one of my
students, makes philanthropy more accessible:
“I like thinking that I can be a philanthropist,
even if I am not wealthy.” On the flip side,
another of my students asked, “If philanthropy
is conflated with charity and volunteering,
doesn’t it render the concept meaningless?”
(echoing Sartori, 1970).
What Is Philanthropy? not only attempts to
redefine philanthropy for its audience, it also
interrogates the darker side of philanthropy by
examining the unequal allocation of charitable
donations, the nature of pathological altruism,
and the unethical use of nonprofit status or
charitable gifts. As such, the film invites
viewers into discussions about the ethics of
phil­an­thropy. For example, one might pair the
film with readings from Ivan Illich (1968) on
the potential negative impacts of volunteering
and the paternalism of being a “do-gooder,” or
Andrea Smith’s (2009) critique of foundations
funding grassroots social activism, or Erica
Kohl-Arenas’s (2015) provocative book on how
philanthro-capitalism perpetuates systemic
inequality. In my class, we used the film as a
jumping-off point for in-class debate on the
value of philanthropy: examining the good, the
bad, and the ugly.
Potential adopters of the film should be aware,
however, of some of its shortcomings. First, the
film is too long for use in the traditional
university classroom. My classes, for example,
typically run 55–80 minutes. To use the 86minute film as a teaching tool means cutting it
up into parts. Fortunately, the film is organized
into 15 “chapters” for ease of navigation. My
students offered the harshest critique: they
could do without the long musical montages,
which would effectively cut at least 5 minutes
from the film. The film is professional but not
polished. For students and faculty alike who are
accustomed to classroom use of documentaries
654
Journal of Public Affairs Education
from PBS’s Frontline, for example, they will be
underwhelmed by the film.
It is evident from the documentary’s associated
website that Alaimo has taken great pride in
com­piling a comprehensive, academically in­
formed yet accessible film. What Is Philanthropy?
has been shown around the country at film
fest­
i­
vals, including the Asheville Cinema
Festival, Bare Bones International Film and
Music Festival, and Kingston Film Festival.
Alaimo has also screened the film at universi­ties and in high school classrooms across the
country. The documentary is available in Bluray and DVD formats for individual purchase
through Indiana University Press.
What Is Philanthropy? would be a great addi­tion to courses on or related to nonprofits, civic
engagement, or service learning. It is best suit­ed for introductory courses for undergraduate
students. For students in nonprofit classes,
the film provides an opportunity to redefine
philanthropy, making it more accessible. For
me as the instructor, the film is a useful and
entertaining means of addressing the value and
ethics of philanthropy and how nonprofits, as
vehicles for philanthropic action, must work to
promote what is good about philanthropy and
mediate and correct what is bad and ugly.
REFERENCES
Alaimo, S. (2014). What is philanthropy? Retrieved
from https://whatisphilanthropy.wordpress.com.
Alaimo, S. (Producer). (2013). What is philanthropy?
[Documentary film]. United States: Thought
Provoking Films.
Illich, I. (1968). To hell with good intentions. Speech
at Conference on InterAmerican Student Projects
(CIASP), Cuernavaca, Mexico, April 20, 1968.
Retrieved from the Swaraj Foundation website:
http://www.swaraj.org/illich_hell.htm.
Review of What is Philanthropy?
Kohl-Arenas, E. (2015). The self-help myth: How
philanthropy fails to alleviate poverty. Oakland, CA:
University of California Press.
Nickels, A. E., Rowland, T., & Fadase, O. (2011).
Engaging undergraduates to be agents of social
change: Lessons from student affairs professionals.
Journal of Public Affairs Education, 17(1), 45–59.
Sartori, G. (1970). Concept misinformation in com­
parative politics. American Political Science Review,
64(4), 1033–1053.
Smith, A. (2009). Introduction: The revolution will not
be funded. In INCITE! Women of color against
Violence (Eds.), The revolution will not be funded:
Beyond the non-profit industrial complex (pp. 1–18).
Cambridge, MA: South End Press.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
is assistant professor of public
administration at Kent State University, De­part­
­ment of Political Science. Her research focuses
on urban politics and policy, nonprofit manage­
ment, and community-based organizations.
Ashley E. Nickels
Journal of Public Affairs Education655
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656
Journal of Public Affairs Education
NASPAA
The Global Standard in Public Service Education
C. Michelle Piskulich, President
David Birdsell, Vice President
J. Edward Kellough, Immediate Past President
Laurel McFarland, Executive Director
JPAE Oversight Committee
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COPY EDITOR Julie Van Pelt
PUBLICATION LAYOUT AND DESIGN Val Escher, Freestyle Communications
EDITORS’ COUNCIL
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CORRESPONDENTS
Edgar Ramirez Delacruz Center for Research and
Teaching in Economics (CIDE), Mexico
Charlene M. L. Roach University of the West Indies
St. Augustine Campus
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