Classification and Naming
Classification and Naming
of
Plants and Especially Fungi
Classification and Naming
Knowledge is Iron
important in
our daily lives:
Golf clubs
Taxonomy: Classification and
naming of organisms.
A very necessary
discipline in biology.
“Those who spend their time
putting living things into
pigeonholes, a low but
necessary form of scientific
endeavor"
Christensen (1961)
Classification and Naming
Knowledge is important in
our daily lives:
Nails
Driver
Putter
Classification and Naming
Knowledge is important in
our daily lives:
Tires
Mud & Snow
High Performance
All Season
Classification and Naming
Knowledge is important in
our daily lives:
Eating utensils
Dessert
Relish
Salad
Dinner
Cold Cuts
Serving
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Classification and Naming
Thus, concept of taxonomy
important.
Scientific name of organism:
Consist of two parts, genus
and specific epithet, e.g.
homo sapien.
Binomial
Each species has only one
valid scientific name.
Classification and Naming
Common names are not
used in biological research.
Plantago major
45 common names in English
11 common names in French
75 common names in Dutch
106 common names in
German
Ramalina
menziesii, is a
lichen
Classification and Naming
Common names are not
used in biological research.
Why?
Plantago
major
Classification and Naming
Common names are not
used in biological research.
Misleading
“Spanish Moss” common
name for Ramalina
menziesii and Tillandsia
usneoides.
Tillandsia
usneioides is a
flowering plant
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Classification and Naming
Common names are not used
in biological research.
Misleading
Neither species is
“Spanish” nor a “moss”.
Classification and Naming
With the beginning of
agriculture, civilization began.
Common names used locally.
Differed from community to
community.
Reason for large number of
common names.
Classification and Naming
Dioscorides (1st Century
A.D.): Greek physicians.
Wrote De Materia Medica.
Described and illustrated
600 species of plants.
Between 200-1200
became sole source of
medicinal information.
Repeatedly copied and
translated - herbals
Classification and Naming
Common name utilized by
laypeople.
First names used to identify
plants.
Taxonomy began as a
necessity during Paleolithic
(Stone) Age:
Poison vs edible plants
Psychoactive plants?
Classification and Naming
Theophrastus (3rd Century
B.C.): Earliest known attempt
at classifying plants,
scientifically. Classified 500
species of plants.
Classified according to trees,
shrubs and herbs, and flower
and leaf characteristics.
Classification and Naming
Dark (Middle) Ages
Authority and Revelation
prevailed in Western
cultures.
Little original science or
observations occurred during
this period.
Ancient works were
repeatedly copied.
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Classification and Naming
Classification and Naming
During 15th-17th Century
proliferation of knowledge
began.
Printing press.
Invention of Microscope
and telescope.
Old knowledge questioned.
Age of herbalist.
During 15th-17th Century
proliferation of knowledge
began.
Phrase names for plants.
Binomial name began with
Gaspar Bauhin, 1623, in
Pinax theatri botanici.
Concept of genus by
Tournefort in 1700.
Classification and Naming
Classification and Naming
During 15th-17th Century
proliferation of knowledge
began.
Modification of phrase
names.
Genus followed by short
Latin description (12 words
or less).
During 15th-17th Century
proliferation of knowledge
began.
Example of genus-phrase
name:
Spearmint Plant was
referred to as: Mentha
floribus spicatis, foliis
oblongis serratis. Not
practical!
Classification and Naming
Classification and Naming
During 15th-17th Century
proliferation of knowledge
began.
Example of genus-phrase
name:
Before entire name was
Latin phrase name.
During 15th-17th Century
proliferation of knowledge
began.
Linnean period
Such advancements in
botany set stage for
Linnaeus.
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Classification and Naming
Linnaeus’ contributions
1753 published Species
Plantarum.
Actually used genusphrase name.
In margin, next to
corner = “short cut”.
Classification and Naming
Linnaeus’ contributions
1753 published Species
Plantarum.
Contemporaries followed
Linnaeus! Why?
Well known botanist.
Popularized botany with
SEX!
Classification and Naming
Linnaeus’ contributions
Wrote in metaphorical terms:
“Five husbands in the
same marriage".
"husbands live with wives
and concubines“
“Equal polygamy consists
of many marriages with
promiscuous intercourse”
MENTHA.
spicata.
piperata.
2. MENTHA floribus spicatis, foliis oblongis serratis.
Hort. ups. 168.
Mentha sylvestris, longioribus nigrioribus & minus incanis foliis. Baub. Pin. 227.
4. MENTHA floribus capitatis, foliis lanceolatis serratis
subpetiolatis.
Mentha spicis brevioribus & habitoribus, foliis menthae
suscae, sapore servido piperis. Raj. angl. 3. p. 234
t. 10. f. 2.
Habitat in Anglia.
Linnaeus wrote on sexuality of plants:
"The actual petals of a flower
contribute nothing to generation,
serving only as the bridal bed which
the great Creator has so gloriously
prepared, adorned with such precious
bedcurtains, and perfumed with so
many sweet scents in order that the
bridegroom and bride may therein
celebrate their nuptuals with the
greater solemnity."
Classification and Naming
Linnaeus’ contributions
Critics of Linnaeus’ writings:
“Loathsome harlotry as
several males with one
female would not be
permitted in the
vegetable kingdom by the
Creator!"
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Classification and Naming
Linnaeus’ contributions
Critics of Linnaeus’ writings:
"Who would have thought
that bluebells and lilies
and onions could be up to
such immorality? How
could so licentious a
method be taught to the
young without offense?"
Classification and Naming
Today, all species names
follow Linnaeus’ binomial
system.
Some examples of proper
species citation:
Name of author placed after
species, Mentha spicatis L.
Change in genus, Agaricus
bisporus (Lange) Imbach.
Classification and Naming
Linnaeus’ contributions
Critics of Linnaeus’ writings:
"A literal translation of
the first principles of
Linnaean botany is
enough to shock female
modesty.”
Classification and Naming
International Code of Botanical
Nomenclature (ICBN). First
meeting in 1867.
Meets every seven years,
during Botanical Congress.
Naming and changing of
names of plants.
What names valid.
Classification and Naming
Classification and Naming
Example of rules: Priority of
names, i.e., If more than one
scientific name for species,
which is valid?
If in Species Plantarum, will
be earliest name valid.
Elias Fries, 1821, Systema
Mycologicum for most fungi,
especially fleshy fungi.
Example of rules: Priority of
names, i.e., If more than one
scientific name for species,
which is valid?
Christian Hendrick Persoon,
1801, Synopsis Methodica
Fungorum, for rusts and
smuts.
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Classification and Naming
Use of Latin!
Used extensively in
taxonomy, e.g. new species
described in Latin, names
are in Latin or latinized.
Why?
Originally for ease of
communication.
Dead language.
Classification and Naming
Linnaeus’ contributions
Made possible the
identification of unknown
plants:
Criticism against system
was not “natural”, i.e. did
not classify related
plants, in same group.
Lead to hierarchy of
classification.
Classification Hierarchy
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Most
Most inclusive
inclusive
species
species name
name ==
scientific
scientific name
name
Genus
Species
“King
“King Philip
Philip came
came out
out from
from
Greece,
Greece, singing.”
singing.”
Classification and Naming
Linnaeus’ contributions
Made possible the
identification of unknown
plants:
Divided plants into 24
classes, based on floral
parts.
How Does Hierarchy Work?
Chlorophyllum molybdites Massee
Classification Hierarchy
Kingdom: Fungi
Phylum: Basidiomycota
Class: Hymenomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Lepiotaceae
Genus: Chlorophyllum
 Species: Chlorophyllum molybdites
• Chlorophyllum molybdites Massee.
Massee is author of species
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Classification Hierarchy
Analogous to your address:
George Wong
1390 Maile Way
Honolulu, HI 96822
96822 (Kingdom), HI (Phylum),
Honolulu (Order), 1390 Maile Way
(Family), George (Genus), George
Wong (Species).
Development of Hierarchy
Traditionally, two kingdoms
recognized: Plant and
Animal
Development of Hierarchy
Development of Hierarchy
Development of Hierarchy
Additional Kingdoms
Simple dichotomy:
Plants lacked mobility,
do not consume food.
Cell wall.
Animals could move and
eat their food. No cell
wall.
Still used!
Attempts to remedy
problem:
Additional kingdoms
proposed.
Not so simple:
Most microscopic
organisms do not fit
these categories
For example, Euglena
Three “biological” kingdoms:
John Hogg (1860) Proposed
the kingdom Protoctista to
include unicellular and
multicellular organisms,
e.g. algae, protozoans, etc.
His other kingdoms were
Plant, Animal and Minerals,
after Linnaeus.
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Additional Kingdoms
Additional Kingdoms
Also three
kingdoms was:
Ernst Haeckel
1866 Proposed
the kingdom
Protista to
accommodate
plant-animal
intermediates.
Haeckel:
Proposed kingdoms:
Protista included
protozoans, microscopic
algae, bacteria, slime molds
and sponges.
Plantae included kelps and
fungi.
Animalia include infusoria.
Additional Kingdoms
Additional Kingdoms
Haeckel:
Revised kingdoms in 1894:
Protista: Lacked sexual
reproduction. Cyanobacteria
and fungi moved from Plant
Kingdom.
Plantae: Moved colonial
algae from Protista.
Animalia: Blastula stage
during embryo development.
Haeckel:
Protista, a boundary kingom,
between plants and animals.
Plants and animals derived
from bacteria.
Additional Kingdoms
Additional Kingdoms
Four kingdoms:
Herbert Copeland (1938)
added kingdom Monera.
Renamed Protista to
Protocista (eukaryotes that
are not plants or animals.
Delimitation of kingdoms
more precise.
Four Kingdoms:
Copeland’s Kingdoms:
Monera: Included bacteria
and blue green algae.
Nucleus absent.
Plantae: Presence of
chlorophyll a + b,
carotene, xanthophyll and
starch as storage.
Included Chlorophyta!
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Additional Kingdoms
Additional Kingdoms
Additional Kingdoms
Additional Kingdoms
Modern Era of Classification
Copeland’s Kingdoms:
Animalia: Development of
blastula stage during
embryo stage.
Protoctista: Remaining
organisms left over,
including fungi, other
algae, protozoans, etc.
Five kingdoms
Whitaker (1969)
Plantae
Mycetae
Photosynthesis
Animalia
Ingestion
Five kingdoms:
Robert Whitaker (1969)
recognized five kingdoms,
including Mycetae (=Fungi).
Protista, initially included
only unicellular organisms.
Plants, animals and fungi
classified according to mode
of nutrition.
Five kingdoms
Whitaker’s system presently
used in most text books.
But for how long?
Absorption
Protista
Monera
Proposal of Additional
Kingdoms
Proposal of Additional
Kingdoms
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Curtis Gates Lloyd
Curtis Gates
Lloyd
Curtis Gates Lloyd
A few words:
Despised formal
nomenclature associated
with correct citation of
species names.
Did not agree with
placement of authors after
species names.
Curtis Gates Lloyd
A few words:
Independently wealthy and
published his own journal:
Mycological Notes.
In his journal he often made
fun of “name jugglers”.
Described a number of new
species and found he had to
juggle names.
A few words:
Professor M.J. McGinty,
Pumkinville Polymorphic
Institute, Lycoperdon
anthropomorphous .
Never married, lived in his
museum and never owned a
house.
Curtis Gates Lloyd
The True “Fungi”
A few words:
Eccentric to the very end.
Four years before he died.
Lloyd erected monument to
himself:
Phylum:
Chytridiomycota
Zygomycota
Ascomycota
Basidiomycota
Deuteromycota
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Chytridiomycota
Chytrids
Aquatic, with flagellated
stages, i.e. they can swim.
Some soil inhabiting.
Chytridiomycota
Batrachochytrium
dendrobatidis, a parasite on
amphibians.
Threatens many species to
extinction.
Some are parasites.
ca 1000 species
Zygomycota
Zygote Fungi
Zygospore
Zygospores borne during
sexual reproduction.
Soil inhabiting fungi.
Some are parasites and
can grow on stored food.
ca 600 species
Zygomycota
Asexual
spores borne
in sporangia.
Zygospores
Suspensor
Ascomycota
Sac Fungi (Morels and Truffles).
“Body” is yeast and/or mycelium.
Decomposers and pathogens
Yeast needed in making beer.
Knowledge known for more than
6000 years.
Yeast needed in making wine.
Knowledge known for more than
8000 years.
ca 30,000 species
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Ascomycota
Yeast cells
reproducing:
Sexual
spores:
Ascus
Ascospores
Fruiting Bodies
Truffles
truffle
truffle hunter
hunter
with
with truffle
truffle pig
pig
truffles
truffles cost
cost up
up
to
to $800/lb!
$800/lb!
Ergot of Rye
Composed
of mycelium
Ergot
Basidiomycota
“Mushrooms”
Club fungi (mushrooms)
Sexual spores basidiospores
borne on basidium.
Used as food.
Some cause plant diseases.
ca 25,000 species
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“Mushrooms”
Basidium and Basidiospores
Basidiospores
Basidium
Deuteromycota
Imperfect Fungi
Sexual reproduction
unknown in this group.
Some Examples
Penicillium source of penicillin.
Because sexual
reproduction is unknown,
these often unrelated to
one another.
Some Examples
Helminthosporium maydis
Cause of corn epidemic in 1970.
Some Examples
Botrytis cinerea: Cause of
“Noble Rot”.
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“fungi”
Phylum:
Oomycota
Myxomycota
Oomycota
Water molds
e.g. downy
mildew,
potato blight
Related to
“brown” algae
Swimming
spores
Decomposers
& parasites
no “septa”
ca 475 species
Downy Mildew of Grapes
Late Blight of Potato
Myxomycota
“Slimemolds”
Spores produced & germinate
giving rise to amoebae.
Plasmodium: Moving “slime”
mass.
Acellular body, one giant,
multinucleate cell.
ca 1000 species
Phagocytosis
Amoebae &
Plasmodia
Sporangium
Spore germination
Plasmodium
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Various Slime Mold
Sporangia
Various Slime
Mold Sporangia
Time Magazine: The Blob
Inspired “The
Blob” & Remake
1973 yellow crawling object
seen in suburb of Dallas, Texas.
Time Magazine: The Blob
It was “big as a platter, foamy,
creamy & pale yellow”.
Tried killing it with detergents,
insecticides & nicotine.
Police & National Guard
alerted.
Russian first strike!
Extraterrestrial?
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