Wadi Shu#eib, A Large Neolithic Community in Central Jordan: Final Report of
Test Investigations
Alan H. Simmons; Gary O. Rollefson; Zeidan Kafafi; Rolfe D. Mandel; Maysoon al-Nahar; Jason
Cooper; Ilse Köhler-Rollefson; Kathy Roler Durand
Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, No. 321. (Feb., 2001), pp. 1-39.
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Wadi Shuceib, A Large Neolithic Community in Central Jordan: Final Report of Test Investigations ALANH. SIMMONS
Department of Anthropology
Box 455012
University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Las Vegas, NV 89154-5012
[email protected]
GARY0. ROLLEFSON
Department of Anthropology
Whitman College
Walla Walla, WA 99362
rollefgo @ whitman.edu
Department of Archaeology
University of Jordan
Amman, Jordan
[email protected]
Jones and Stokes
2820 Northrup Way
Bellevue, WA 98004
jasonc @jsanet.com
ILSE KOHLER-ROLLEFSON
ZEIDANKAFAFI
Dean of Research and Graduate Studies
Yarmouk University
Irbid, Jordan
[email protected]
ROLFED. MANDEL
Department of Geography
University of Kansas
Lawrence, KS 66045
mandel @falcon.cc.ukans.edu
League for Pastoral Peoples
Pragelatostrasse 20
64372 Ober-Ramstadt, Germany
[email protected]
Department of Anthropology
and Applied Archaeology
Eastern New Mexico University
Portales, NM 88 130
kathy.durand @ enmu.edu
Wadi ShuCeib is one of the huge Neolithic "mega-sites" that have been investigated
in the Levantine Near East in recent years. The site, located in the central Jordanian
highlands, was test excavated over two seasons. Although these were only limited
excavations, they demonstrated that Wadi ShuCeib is a large Neolithic settlement that
spans the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (Middle and Late phases), the Pre-Pottery Neolithic
C, and the Pottery Neolithic periods; it was abandoned after the Neolithic. This paper
is a report of the findings from those studies and provides information on the chipped
stone, ceramic, ornamental, and faunal assemblages, as well as on the human burials,
architecture, geomorphology, chronology, and stratigraphy of the site.
SIMMONS ET AL.
INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH BACKGROUND (A. SIMMONS)
adi ShuCeib is a large Neolithic settlement located in central Jordan, south of
the town of Salt (fig. 1). In 1988, test
excavations at the site confirmed the presence of
substantial Neolithic remains (Simmons et al. 1989),
and in 1989 additional, although still limited, excavations were conducted. Several preliminary reports
have been published on these investigations (e.g.,
Simmons et al. 1989; Simmons, Kafafi, and Rollefson 1991; Kafafi, Rollefson, and Simmons 1993),
and more specialized analyses have been undertaken on selected aspects of the recovered materials.
These latter studies usually have been in the form of
master's theses (e.g., al-Nahar 1993; Bataineh 1996;
Cooper 1997; Roler 1992). This paper serves as the
final report of these investigations.
The site has been known since the 1920s and was
professionally noted by Diana Kirkbride in the
1950s. Zeuner (1957: 23) briefly mentioned the site,
referring to it as "Site 44." He indicated that it contained Pre-Pottery Neolithic (PPN) plaster floors and
chipped stone implements. The site also was briefly
discussed by Mellaart (1975: 63, 68) in his review
of the Near Eastern Neolithic, who noted the presence of diagnostic Neolithic white wares (vaiselle
blanches) and observed that the site probably was
abandoned in the seventh millennium b.c. More recently, the site was discussed by Rollefson (1987),
who suggested that it could possibly rival the large
Neolithic communities of 'Ain Ghazal and Jericho.
Over the past two decades, research interest in
the Neolithic of Jordan has intensified. Several relatively small sites have been investigated, especially
in southern Jordan, such as Ghwair I (Najjar 1994;
Simmons and Najjar 1996; 1998a; 1998b; 1999) and
BaCja (Gebel and Biernert 1997; Gebel and Hermansen 1999). These have complemented our knowledge of moderate-sized Neolithic communities that
had perhaps been exemplified by sites such as Beidha
(Kirkbride 1966; 1968). Despite the importance of
these small sites, however, our perceptions of the
Levantine Neolithic have been dramatically changed
by investigations at major centers, or "mega-sites,"
such as 'Ain Ghazal (Rollefson, Simmons, and Kafafi
1992; Simmons et al. 1988), Basta (Gebel et al. 1988;
Nissen, Muheisen, and Gebel 1987), Es-Sifiya (Mahasneh 1997a; 1997b), and 'Ain el-Jammam (Waheeb
W
BASOR 321 and Fino 1997). Such communities are among the
earliest-known settlements housing large populations, and while not "urban" in any true sense, they
represent people's first experiments with large-scale
communal living.
These centers, which exceed 10 ha, were different
from those closer to the Mediterranean coast, and,
falling slightly outside of the so-called Levantine
Corridor (cf. Bar-Yosef and Meadow 1995: 7 1-74),
may have represented unique desert-edge adaptations
(Simmons 1995). The large settlements exhibit an
occupational history unlike that found elsewhere.
They generally were founded during the Middle or
Late Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (MPPNB, LPPNB), often contain a previously undocumented transitional
phase (Pre-Pottery Neolithic C [PPNC]), continue
into the Pottery Neolithic (PN), and then are abandoned. Reasons for the abandonment are undoubtedly complex, but compelling arguments have been
made that the residents of these enormous settlements mismanaged resources to the point of creating ecological havoc. This was largely due to the
incompatibility of farming and herding activities,
as well as the demands for building materials. Some
people adapted by moving to desert areas and adopting a nomadic lifestyle, while others remained at
the large settlements and continued farming until
this, too, was no longer viable (e.g., Kohler-Rollefson 1988; 1992; Kohler-Rollefson and Rollefson
1990; Rollefson 1996; Simmons 1997a; 1997b).
Based on surface observations and examination
of stratigraphy exposed in a road-cut, all indications were that Wadi ShuCeibwas another such large
center, but it had never been professionally investigated. The site was of particular interest for a number of reasons. First, it is located midway between
the major Neolithic centers of Jericho and 'Ain
Ghazal. Second, it contained evidence for the PPNC
transitional phase, which was still not widely documented. Third, we were curious to see if an adaptive response and an occupational sequence similar
to that at 'Ain Ghazal could be documented at Wadi
Shuceib, or if the site would reveal a sequence more
similar to that at Jericho, which comprised a Natufian basal occupation, Pre-Pottery (PPNA and PPNB)
and Pottery Neolithic habitations, and substantial
post-Neolithic settlement. Finally, Wadi ShuCeib is
endangered and being actively destroyed by agricultural activity and by widening of the Salt-Shuna
road. It was this road, in fact, that initially exposed
the site, revealing cultural sections up to 5 m thick.
With these considerations in mind, investigations
200 1
WADI SHUCEIB,FINAL REPORT OF TEST INVESTIGATIONS
Mediterranean Sea
+
'Ain al-Jamman
Modem Towns
Neolithic Villages
Fig. 1. Map of Jordan, showing the location of Wadi ShuCeiband other Neolithic sites mentioned in the text.
3
4
SIMMONS ET AL.
were initiated at the site. Given the logistical and
financial constraints of undertaking large-scale study
at these huge sites, it was never our intention to
conduct anything more than a sampling of Wadi
Shuceib. The primary goals of the two seasons at the
site were to document its cultural sequence and to
obtain representative artifactual and economic data
that would assist us in placing Wadi ShuCeibwithin
a wider regional context.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
(A. SIMMONS
A ND J. COOPER)
Wadi ShuCeib (2188E, 1534N, Levant Palestine
Grid, Sheet 50.J.26 Shunat Nimrin; Rollefson 1987:
521) is approximately 20 km west-northwest of
Amman along the Salt-Shuna road. It is located
about 8 km south of Salt and less than 1 km north of
the village of Wadi Shuceib; some of the site may
extend into the modern village. The settlement is
located on the north bank of the Wadi ShuCeibat an
elevation of some 375-380 m above sea level. It sits
on a moderate slope near the edge of the wadi, and
presently the immediate area around Wadi ShuCeib
is characterized by relatively lush vegetation. A
number of springs occur less than 1 km from the site
(Tacani 1992).
Wadi ShuCeibis positioned on the Jordanian Plateau and is surrounded by a steppe-woodland environment (cf. Henry 1989: 61-64; Roberts and Wright
1993). Equal access west to the Jordan Valley and
east into the steppe-desert ecozones was provided by
this transitional locality, although Wadi ShuCeib is
not as close to the latter ecozones as is 'Ain Ghazal.
The current steppe-desert vegetation is treeless except along drainages and provides only enough moisture to maintain dwarf shrubs, herbs, sedges, and
annual grasses. A steppe-forest transitional zone
also exists, made up of deciduous pine, oak, pistachio, and juniper, ranging between xeric woodland
and steppe trees and shrubs (Roberts and Wright
1993).
The site area is presently dominated by Mediterranean woodland vegetation. Steppe vegetation
is also locally abundant in and around the wadi.
Available plants include shrubby gray-leaved and
aromatic sage (Salvia graveolens), pitch trefoil
(Psoralea bituminosa), trichodesma (Trichodesma
boisseiri), Lebanese fritillary (Fritillary persica),
BASOR 321
yellow crocus (Sternbergia clusiana), cerinthe (Cerinthe palastina), and Indian sage (Salvia indica)
(rare) (Camerapix 1994).
On average, Wadi ShuCeibreceives nearly 400 m m
of precipitation (Beaumont 1985). Ethnographic data
and estimates from agriculturalists show that a minimum of 220 mm of precipitation per year would be
necessary for successful planting, sowing, and harvesting (Fisher 1978). Wadi ShuCeibis thus located
in a relatively optimal environment, especially compared with settlements such as 'Ain Ghazal, which is
situated at the 250 mm isohyet (Simmons et al. 1988:
39). This probably was an important consideration
for the founding of the settlement. The steppe and
arable portions of the desert during the Neolithic
may well have provided relief for overworked agriculture fields that had become deficient in organic
material. Proximity to this open land allowed farming as well as accessible grazing terrain for domesticated fauna.
GEOMORPHIC CONSIDERATIONS
(R. MANDEL)
The archaeological deposits at Wadi ShuCeibare
sealed in colluvium that forms a broad apron at the
foot of the valley wall. The geomorphic setting is
very similar to that of other large Neolithic sites
in Jordan, including 'Ain Ghazal, 'Ain el-Jarnmam,
and Es-Sifiya. The deepest cultural deposits at Wadi
ShuCeib overlie a diamicton that is predominantly
reddish-brown silty clay. A few angular limestone
clasts ranging from 2 to 10 cm in diameter are scattered through the fine-grained matrix of the diamicton. The diamicton is colluvium largely derived from
reddish-brown residual soils developed in limestone
upslope from the site. The presence of colluvium below and between the cultural levels indicates that
deposition of slopewash occurred prior to and during the period of occupation. Erosion of soils on
steep sideslopes and concomitant deposition of colluvium on footslopes may have been accelerated by
degradation of the immediate local environment
during the PPNB, PPNC, and subsequent PN periods.
The absence of buried soils suggests that sedimentation was rapid on the colluvial apron throughout
the Neolithic. A final episode of colluviation left a
50 cm thick deposit of fist-size limestone cobbles
across the site.
2001
WADI SHUCEIB, FINAL REPORT OF TEST INVESTIGATIONS
5
WADI SHU'EIB
Modern Hullding
,
I
Scalc
40111
Contolir Lines
- Zm
Fig. 2. Site topographic map of Wadi Shuceib.
SITE DESCRIPTION, METHODOLOGY,
AND EXCAVATION AREAS
(A. SIMMONS
AND J. COOPER)
Description
While surface indications do not show a great
deal of cultural material at Wadi ShuCeib,the recent
expansion of the highway has provided deep sections in which approximately 5 m of cultural materials are visible. These include gray ashy sediment
mixed with rubble, chipped stone artifacts, and architectural features, mainly in the form of plastered
floors, which are clearly visible in section. These
deposits overlay a reddish-brown clay. Zeuner (1957)
mentioned the same red soil mixed with gravel
stratigraphically below a plastered floor in the exposed road-cut when he visited the site in the 1950s.
Although the most visible cultural deposits at
Wadi ShuCeib are those exposed in the road-cut, it
is clear that the site is larger than initial impressions
might lead one to believe. When the settlement was
surveyed and mapped in 1988, we determined that,
laterally, it is exposed approximately 800 m in a
southwest-northeast direction along the Salt-Shuna
road. In addition, there is a considerable portion of
the site that lies downslope toward the Wadi ShuCeib
and to the east of the road, on a colluvial terrace.
Furthermore, a considerable amount of cultural material is visible in the plowed fields to the west and
upslope of the road. Thus, we estimate that the site
area ranges between 14 and 30 acres. While this
has not been verified by extensive excavation, we
did conduct a fairly thorough survey of the site area
and believe that this is a conservative estimate. This
makes Wadi ShuCeib considerably larger than Jericho (estimated at 10 acres) and somewhat smaller
than 'Ain Ghazal (estimated at 35-40 acres).
We decided to place three excavation units
along the exposed road-cut and labeled these as
Areas I, 11, and I11 (fig. 2). Area I is about 12 sq m,
Area I1 is approximately 20 sq m, and Area I11 is
6
SIMMONS ET AL.
BASOR 321
about 1.5 sq m in horizontal extent. Although only
slightly over 30 sq m were excavated, we believe
that a representative slice of the cultural sequence
has been documented. The excavations revealed a
stratigraphic record containing PPNB, PPNC, and
PN (including both Jericho- and Yarmoukian-style
ceramics) materials. No substantial post-Neolithic
deposits were observed.
Methodology
The investigations at Wadi ShuCeibwere carried
out to conform with the existing methodology employed at 'Ain Ghazal to ensure data comparability. Excavation followed a locus system, and the
principal excavation unit was 5 x 5 m in size, including balks. Natural stratigraphy and architecture
dictated the depth of individual levels. The majority
of matrix was sieved in 114 inch mesh, and appropriate samples were taken from in-situ contexts.
After excavation, the area was backfilled by mechanical means.
Excavation Areas
Area I. Area I is the southernmost part of the
site that was examined. Much of this area had been
disturbed by the road-cut, which removed the walls
of several superimposed structures. Area I was selected because of numerous plaster floors, as well as
the remains of a human burial, which were visible
in the road-cut. A series of plastered floors, often
with a foundation of cobbles, was excavated in this
area. These represent several occupation episodes
with limited horizontal variation.
We excavated 5 m of cultural deposits in Area I,
covering a horizontal area of 12 sq m. This is the
only area of the site where bedrock was reached; in
this area, the earliest occupation was the MPPNB.
Cultural deposits in Area I were primarily MPPNB
and LPPNB, with the exceptions of a dugout pit
that originated in a PPNC horizon, and limited PN
materials. Four construction phases and thirteen subphases were documented.
Excavation in Area I revealed a total of seven
superimposed plastered floors in various states of
preservation. In addition, evidence of floor replastering episodes was found. There is a similarity in
plastering techniques for all seven floors: plaster
was laid down over a prepared foundation that usually consisted of a layer of small, rounded cobbles
Fig.3. Standing architecture from Area II at Wadi
Shuceib, showing structure with doorway located beneath
the surface of the modem roadway.
(5-10 cm) and larger flat stones. Many of the floors
were painted red.
Area II. Area I1 was the focus of excavation
and revealed the most complex stratigraphy. Approximately 20 sq m were excavated. Area I1 initially was selected based on ceramics identified on
the surface and in the upper horizons of the roadcut. Stone walls also were exposed in the road-cut.
The most substantial aspect of Area I1 is the presence of standing architecture, much of it over 1.5 m
in height. At least one structure has a sealed doorway; open doorways also are well preserved (fig. 3).
A complex series of rebuilding episodes is represented, covering all three Pre-Pottery Neolithic
phases at the site. The most substantial rebuilding
appears to have occurred during the LPPNB phase,
and the majority of standing architecture appears to
relate to the PPNC and PPNB phases. Unfortunately,
WADI SHUCEIB,FINAL REPORT OF TEST INVESTIGATIONS dence for a major break in occupation between any
of the phases. This is confirmed by the radiocarbon
determinations. This is an important observation because many Neolithic sites farther west exhibit an
occupational gap between PPN and PN deposits.
In Area I1 between the southwest and northeast
extremes of the site, MPPNB deposits were not
reached in the otherwise complete cultural sequence,
which suggests that this part of the hillside consisted
of a "saddle" dipping in a southeasterly direction
between rising terrain toward the northwest and
northeast. The colluvial terrace below and across
the roadway from Area I1 may have been the main
focus of MPPNB settlement, although no excavation
units were placed in the farmland there to test this
possibility.
An intriguing aspect of Wadi ShuCeib's stratigraArea III. Only limited excavations were conducted in Area 111. The goal here was to excavate a phy is the presence of the massive sorted layer of
small sounding to bedrock. Area 111 covers approxi- cobbles referred to by Mandel (see above, "Geomormately 1.5 sq m and is slightly over 5 m thick. It is phic Considerations") that roughly separates porlocated at the north-central area of the site and con- tions of the Pre-Pottery and Pottery Neolithic levels.
tains both PPN and PN materials. Excavation here Similar cobble layers have been documented at
was limited to defining the stratigraphy toward the other Neolithic sites, such as 'Ain Ghazal (Mandel
and Simmons 1988), Abu Thawwab (Kafafi 19881,
northern end of the site.
and Abu Gosh (Farrand 1978; Ronen 1971). It has
been suggested that they may be indications of a
STRATIGRAPHIC SUMMARY
period of severe erosion brought about by increased
(A. SIMMONS
A N D G . ROLLEFSON)
summer monsoons coupled with culturally induced
environmental mismanagement (Davis et al. 1990;
Even though we only excavated a tiny portion Simmons 1997a; 1997b). Ultimately, such factors
of Wadi Shuceib, it is apparent that the site's strat- may have led to the abandonment of the mega-sites,
igraphic sequence is primarily confined to the including Wadi Shuceib.
Neolithic period. There is virtually no evidence for
We note that at Abu Gosh, Ronen (1971) also
occupation after the Neolithic (beyond a few scat- feels that a stony layer incorporated within structered late ceramics), a pattern mirrored at other Jor- tural features was a natural result of increased predanian mega-sites. A four-phase sequence spanning cipitation throughout the Levant from ca. 6000 to
MPPNB, LPPNB, PPNC, and PN was revealed in 3000 B.C. Farrand (1978), however, disagrees and
Area I, the most southwesterly portion of the site believes that the stony deposits at Abu Gosh are reexposed by the road-cut. That the site extended at lated to construction and habitation activities at the
least 120 m toward the northeast is confirmed by a site. He also believes that the period in question
well-defined MPPNB-LPPNB sequence of artifacts was warmer and drier, rather than moister. At Wadi
and features recovered in Area 111. Due to the nature Shuceib, the cobbles may reflect environmental facof the road-cut in this area, the small test trench tors, but they also were used in construction as bases
primarily sampled the lower portion of the section, for floors.
and it is probable that intact PPNC and PN deposits
Clearly, this is a complex issue that cannot be
occurred above and inslope to the excavation unit resolved here. We hope that future research at Lehere. It is certain that pottery-laden rubble deposits vantine Neolithic sites will address this problem
continued toward the northeast beyond the Area I11 in greater detail, starting with simply documenting
trench, and it is likely that PPNC deposits also ex- whether or not the cobble layers occur. For examtended toward the northeast. Based on the observed ple, they do not seem to be reported from southern
stratigraphy in the excavated area, there is no evi- Jordanian sites, to the best of our knowledge.
the area exposed was so limited, and the architecture so complex, that we do not have a clear understanding of any individual structure plan.
Area I1 revealed more than 8 m of cultural materials, and neither bedrock nor sterile deposits were
reached. The Neolithic deposits measure more than
4 m thick below the present road surface. We terminated excavation in a small sounding here approximately 30 cm below a PPNB plastered floor. There
is no indication of how thick the deposits are in this
area. Given this depth, it is intriguing to speculate
whether earlier (i.e., PPNA or even Natufian) deposits are present, as at Jericho. While this must remain
a possibility, it cannot be verified or refuted without
additional excavation in this area.
8
SIMMONS ET AL.
Southern
BASOK 321
Balk
Area II Sq. 5 Tr. A
Section Looking North
Drawn by: Dr. J. Kareem
Fig. 4. Area I I architecture, showing detail of wall construction.
In Area 11, we have better evidence for bounded
structures,
since walls were exposed. Again, these
(A. SIMMONS
A ND J. COOPER)
are primarily restricted to the PPNB. Structures were
Architectural remains at Wadi ShuCeibare abun- present both in the road-cut area above the present
dant. Unfortunately, because of the limited excava- road's surface and in the area excavated beneath
tion program, no complete structures were exposed. the road. In the areas excavated beneath the present
The majority of architecture that was excavated road surface, walls were still intact up to a height of
dates to the PPNB. In general, this appears to fit well about 1.5 m and in some instances contained doorwithin the generalized PPNB pattern of rectangular ways or windows. Walls generally were built of two
rows of medium to large dressed stones, and unhewn
stone buildings with plastered floors.
The best evidence of architecture at Wadi ShuCeib stones, adjoined at right angles, forming rectangucomes from Areas I and 11. In Area I, only PPNB floors lar structures. Floors inside buildings of Area I1
were uncovered; wall remains were limited within the were made from white plaster laid on top of a levelexcavated boundaries. As noted earlier, a series of ing cobble foundation, as in Area I. Mud plaster (or
seven superimposed floors was excavated in Area I. huwwar) was also used as an indoor living surface.
Their similarity is striking, and they appear to repre- Small stones and light brown mud were placed besent successive rebuilding episodes. A common pat- tween the bigger stones to stabilize the wall structern of these floors is a foundation of cobbles that ture. The practice of painting plastered floors was
appears almost tailored to floor structures. That is, identified in Area I1 where two floors were painted
the cobbles were systematically laid down, covering in dark red without design. These floors represent
pits and hearths as well as floor surfaces. A plastered either two occupational phases or renovation, based
on the presence of a sterile layer of brownish soil
surface, often painted red, was then laid down.
ARCHITECTURE
200 1
WADI SHUCEIB,FINAL REPORT OF TEST INVESTIGATIONS
9
Wadi ShuCeibExcavation 1989 Final Top Plan Fig. 5. Area II architecture, final top plan.
located between them (Kareem 1989). Hearths excavated within the structures indicate domestic duties
had taken place within the buildings. In some cases,
storage rooms were inferred to be adjacent to the
central hearth rooms.
A considerable degree of remodeling or rebuilding occurred in Area 11, complicating stratigraphic
associations and individual structure integrity. Figures 4 and 5 illustrate typical architectural features
in Area 11.
MATERIAL CULTURE
A huge material cultural assemblage was recovered during both the 1988 and 1989 seasons. This
includes a well-preserved faunal assemblage and a
massive lithic assemblage, as well as a more limited
ceramic assemblage and several burials. The follow-
ing sections summarize these data. We note that the
level of information available for different aspects
of the material culture is variable, and what we report here represents our best summary of easily accessible data.
CHIPPED STONE
(G. ROLLEFSON)
Introduction
Just over 45,000 chipped stone artifacts were
recovered (table 1). In addition to the presence1
absence of ceramics for the later deposits, the aceramic stratigraphic successions in the three areas of
excavation were seriated according to several parameters of lithic technology and typology shown to
be discriminating at 'Ain Ghazal. These included
SIMMONS ET AL.
BASOR 321
TABLE1. Wadi ShuCeibDebitage Classes, 1988-89 Excavations
MPPNB
Class
Blades
Bladelets
Flakes
C.T.E.*
Burin spalls
Other
Cores
(Tools)
Subtotal
Microflakes
Debris
Total
Blades
Flakes
n
LPPNB
n
%
664
186
1,053
78
44
13
18
(201)
2,056
561
450
3,067
664
1,053
32.3
9.1
51.2
3.8
2.1
0.6
0.9
(9.8)
100.0
18.3
14.7
%
1,418 27.7
538 10.5
2,871 56.2
186
3.6
1.3
69
3
0.1
28
0.6
(304) (6.0)
5,113 100.0
1,826 23.0
1,011 12.7
7,950
1,418 33.1
2,871 66.9
38.7
61.3
PPNC
n
PN
%
5,694 31.8
1,508
8.4
9,592 53.5
538
3.0
297
1.7
53
0.3
237
1.3
(2,514) (14.0)
17,919 100.0
5,673 20.3
4,317 15.5
27,909
5,694 37.2
9,592 62.8
n
Total
%
n
%
1,450 31.0
314
6.7
2,617 56.0
111
2.4
1.3
60
20
0.4
102
2.2
(325) (7.0)
4,674 100.0
9,226 20.5
2,546
5.7
16,133 35.8
913
2.0
470
1.0
89
0.2
385
0.9
(3,344) (7.4)
902
500
6,076
1,450
2,617
8,962 19.9
6,278 14.0
45,002 100.0
14.8
8.2
-
-
35.6
64.4
*C.T.E. = core trimming element.
relative proportions of debitage classes (especially
b1ade:flake ratios; cf. Rollefson, Simmons, and Kafafi
1992: 454-55; Rollefson 1990), variations in projectile points (cf. Eighmey 1992), and burins (Rollefson
1995). The distinctions among MPPNB and LPPNB
and PPNC deposits are supported by a series of radiocarbon dates (see below), confirming the utility and
reliability of the procedures.
General Comments on Chipped Stone
Artifact Distribution
The four principal periods (MPPNB, LPPNB,
PPNC, and PN) are unequally represented within the
chipped stone artifact inventory, a reflection of the
volumes of sediment sampled in the three test areas.
MPPNB artifacts accounted for 17.6% of the total,
LPPNB for 6.8%, the PPNC for 62%, and the PN for
the remaining 13.5%.
Table 1 summarizes the debitage recovered from
the several excavation areas in 1988 and 1989. Except for the MPPNB period, the b1ade:flake ratios
at the bottom of table 1 reflect the general pattern
witnessed for the stratified succession of assemblages at 'Ain Ghazal (Rollefson, Simmons, and
Kafafi 1992: 454, table 3), where flakes became consistently more numerous through time.
The MPPNB deposits in Area I are relatively
shallow compared with those in Area 111, indicat-
ing, perhaps, that Area I was near the southwest limits of the MPPNB settlement while Area I11 was
somewhat closer to the center of the site. Area I
produced 75% of the MPPNB artifacts, explainable
in part by the larger expanse of deposits sampled
there. All seven loci in Area I are associated with
a "chipping station" where initial core reduction
occurred, resulting in a relationship where blades
accounted for 29.4% of the blade and flake total;
core trimming elements accounted for 3.8% of the
major debitage classes (excluding microflakes and
debris), which reinforces the lithic "factory" nature
of the area's loci. Similar b1ade:flake ratios and coretrimming element percentages were noted for chipping floors at 'Ain Ghazal (e.g., Rollefson and
Simmons 1988: table 1).
The Area I11 loci contrast strongly, where blades
make up 47.2% of the blade and flake total, and core
trimming elements account for 0.1% of the major
debitage classes. The b1ade:flake ratio in Area I11
falls within the range of "normal" MPPNB loci at
'Ain Ghazal (cf. Rollefson, Simmons, and Kafafi
1992: 454, table 3), although it appears to be between the norms of MPPNB and LPPNB at that site;
this slight disparity, in view of the radiocarbon date
for Area 111, may be due to the relatively small size
of the Wadi ShuCeibArea I11 sample.
The marginal character of the Area I MPPNB
sample is also reflected in the too1:debitage relation-
WADI SHUCEIB,FINAL REPORT OF TEST INVESTIGATIONS TABLE2. Wadi ShuCeibTool Classes, 1988-89 Excavations Class
MPPNB
LPPNB
PPNC
n
n
n
%
%
%
PN
n
%
Points
Sickles
Knives
Burins
Scrapers
Denticulates
Notches
Awls/borers/drills
Bifaces
Truncations
Backed pieces
Tanged pieces
Other
Subtotal
Retouched pieces
Utilized pieces
Indeterminate
Total
ship, which stands at only 4.7% of the major debitage class total.' In Area 111, tools were more than
twice as numerous, accounting for 10.7% of the
combined major debitage total.
Nearly 75% of the LPPNB artifacts also came
from Area I, with Area I1 contributing about 20%
and Area I11 only 7%. The b1ade:flake ratio (37.5%
vs. 62.5%) for the combined sample is skewed
somewhat by two chipping floors in Area I; if these
loci are discounted, the ratio is approximately 42%
vs. 58% in all three areas. Tools were found on only
8.6% of the debitage in Area I, but the rates rose to
14% in Area I1 and 13% in Area 111.
PPNC artifacts dominated the combined sample,
and once again Area I was the principal source, with
more than 83% of the PPNC total. Several loci in
both Areas I and I1 were dense with lithic materials,
although these appear to be more in the way of massive trash deposits than chipping stations per se. The
It should be stressed here that all tools were classified
according to debitage class and not as a separate category
of artifact.
percentage of tools in Area I was 14.7%, while in
Area I1 tools were made on 11.7% of the blades and
flakes.
The areal distribution of chipped stone artifacts
for the PN period was the reverse of that seen in
the earlier periods. Area I1 produced almost twice as
much debitage as Area I, although the percentage of
tools was about equal in both areas (10% in Area I
vs. 9.5% in Area 11). As was the case for the PPNC
layers, no obvious chipping floors were noted among
the PN loci.
Detailed typological information on cores is not
presently available. We note, however, the abundance of naviform types.
Chipped Stone Tools
The tools from Wadi ShuCeib (table 2) were
classified according to the scheme used at 'Ain
Ghazal. In general terms, burins, knives, scrapers,
and denticulates were the principal mainstays of all
four periods at Wadi Shuceib. The awl class and sickles were relatively popular in the LPPNB period, and
notches dominated the PPNC inventory (fig. 6).
12
SIMMONS ET AL.
BASOR 321
LPPNB
PPNC
Fig. 6. Histograph of tool classes.
Projectile Points. Projectile points (figs. 7, 8)
were not particularly numerous for any period, and
for the MPPNB and LPPNB they are so rare that
few comparative observations can be made. Preliminary classification into the subjective "spear point"
and "arrowhead" categories, based on general size
(Rollefson, Simmons, and Kafafi 1992: 459), follows the pattern witnessed at 'Ain Ghazal. MPPNB
and LPPNB projectile points are dominated by large
and relatively thick and heavy specimens (9 of 11
and 6 of 8, respectively), while there is a gradual
diminution in size throughout the sequence, with 35
of the 56 PPNC points and 16 of 28 PN points being
large and heavy. The increased percentage of smaller
points indicates a growing shift toward smaller game,
although it must be emphasized that the larger points
still constitute the majority in all periods.
Table 3 presents the classification of the points
according to standard point typologies. The high incidence of breakage was particularly problematic for
the small samples from the MPPNB, LPPNB, and
PN periods, but the PPNC sample shows considerable
diversity among the classifiable specimens. Even the
PPNC sample from the Wadi Shuceib, however, is
too small to compare with the Beidha seriation presented by Mortensen (1970: figs. 19, 21, 25-26).
One of the PPNC Abu Gosh points, at least, has a
heavy patina that suggests it is intrusive from an
earlier phase, and the same appears to be true for
several of the PN specimens.
WADI SHUCEIB,FINAL REPORT OF TEST INVESTIGATIONS Fig. 7. Projectile points. a-c: Byblos variants. To scale.
Two of the "other" PPNC point types are completely bifacially retouched pieces whose tangs were
snapped off. Another resembles Mortensen's Type
A6 (Mortensen 1970: fig. 14h) but with alternating
retouch that produced serrated lateral edges and a
bifacially retouched tang.
- The fourth anomalous
type is a short (2'4 cm)
leaf-sha~ed
point with
One lateral and
partial retouch on the other, with no tang.
Sickle Blades. Sickles are relatively abundant
in the LPPNB period (table 2), although they play a
more moderate role in the other Neolithic phases at
Wadi Shuceib. Characteristic sickle gloss was found
only on one edge in most cases, and retouch was
rare except for occasional microdenticulation in the
PPN samples.* The PN sickles include unretouched
2~~~~~~ experiments in replication and grain harvesting have shown that sickle gloss, which has traditionally
been used to define sickles as tools, develops principally
when flint blades are used to reap somewhat green, incompletely ripe cereals. When flint is used on dry cereals, the
development of sickle gloss is extremely reduced and may
SIMMONS ET AL.
BASOR 321 Fig. 8. Projectile points. a: Jericho variant; b: Amuq; c: Jericho. To scale.
Knives. Knives were defined as specimens that
exhibit one or more of the following characteristics:
(1) continuous invasive retouch along one or more
acute edges; (2) a "rounding" of unretouched sharp
edges (usually only detectable under low magnification) that did not result in miniature step fracture^,^
and (3) the presence of a low-gloss or non-gloss deposit on an edge (Rollefson, Kafafi, and Simmons
1990: 99).
Unifacial retouch (often marginal in nature) characterizes MPPNB and LPPNB knives, although bifacial knives become increasingly more important in
the PPNC and PN levels. Bifacial tabular knives appear to have been restricted to the PN sample, but this
may reflect a sampling bias since they were noted in
the LPPNB and PPNC periods at 'Ain Ghazal.
not be present at all, making the identification of these
tools very difficult (Quintero, Wilke, and Waines 1997).
3 ~ Quintero
.
and p. Wilke have remarked (personal
communication) that similar edge damage occurs from using sickle blades on dry cereal stands (see fn. I), so many
of the tools assigned to the knife class in this analysis
might be unglossed sickles.
Scrapers. The scraper class includes endscrape n , sidescrapers, cortical scrapers, steep scrapers,
and Core scrapers. This class dominates the PN tools
and is the third most frequent in the MPPNB and
PPNC. Sidescrapers increase consistently from the
MPPNB (47% of the scraper class) through the PN
forms, microdenticulated pieces, and typical macrodenticulated examples; there is also at least one
specimen that is backed and truncated.
WADI SHUCEIB,FINAL REPORT OF TEST INVESTIGATIONS
TABLE3. Wadi ShuCeibProjectile Point Classifications
Generaltype
MPPNB
LPPNB
n
n
%
Amuq
0
0.0
Abu Gosh
0
0.0
Byblos
2 40.0
Jericho
2 40.0
Helwan
1 20.0
Other
0
0.0
Subtotal
5 100.0
Indeterminate 6 54.6
Total
11
Mortensen ( 1970) type
A3
1 20.0
A4
0
0.0
A5
2 40.0
A6
1 20.0
A7
0
0.0
A8
0
0.0
A9
0
0.0
A 10
0
0.0
A 11
0
0.0
A 13
0
0.0
A 14
0
0.0
A 15
0
0.0
A 16
0
0.0
A 17
1 20.0
A 20
0
0.0
Subtotal
5 100.0
Other
0
0.0
Indeterminate 6 54.6
Total
11
%
PPNC
n
%
PN
n
%
3 50.0
1 16.7
2 33.3
0
0.0
0
0.0
0
0.0
6 100.0
2 25.0
8
11 25.6
2
4.6
25 58.1
1
2.3
0
0.0
4
9.3
43 100.0
13 23.2
56
4 30.8
0
0.0
7 53.8
2 15.4
0
0.0
0
0.0
13 100.0
15 53.6
28
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
0
5
8
0
2
5
5
4
1
1
1
6
3
1
3
4
1
0
37
4
15
56
0
0.0
0
0.0
1
7.7
0
0.0
4 30.8
0
0.0
0
0.0
0
0.0
2 15.4
1
7.7
1
7.7
1
7.7
3 23.1
0
0.0
0
0.0
13 100.1
0
0.0
15 53.6
28
period, when they constitute 65% of all the scrapers.
Endscrapers range from 37% in the MPPNB to 25%
in the other three samples, with the other scraper
categories accounting for the remainder (10% to
16%).
Denticulates and Notches. Flakes and blades
with "normal" denticulation far outnumber microdenticulated tools. The ratios range from 75:25 in
the LPPNB to 95:5 in the PN. The notch class includes single or multiple notched flakes and blades
and end-notched flakes and blades. End-notches are
consistently rare, accounting for only 7.5% of the
0.0
0.0
33.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
33.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
33.3
99.9
0.0
62.5
0.0
5.4
13.5
13.5
10.8
2.7
2.7
2.7
16.2
8.1
2.7
8.1
10.8
2.7
0.0
99.9
7.1
26.8
PPNC notch class up to a maximum of 25% in the
small LPPNB sample.
Perforators, Awls/Borers, and Drills. The awl
class consists of perforators (small projections formed
by two adjacent notches), awls or borers (with tapering, long, thick bits formed usually by alternating
retouch), and drills (long, slender, parallel or subparallel bits). The awltborer variety is the most frequent
member of this class throughout the sequence, ranging from 40% in the MPPNB to 77% in the LPPNB.
Perforators account for a third of the awl class in the
MPPNB down to a modest 15% in the PPNC period.
16
SIMMONS ET AL.
Drills are most numerous in the MPPNB period
(26.7%) and least frequent in the LPPNB (7.7%).
BifQcial Tools. The bifacial class of tools includes bifaces, axestadzes, picks, chisels, choppers,
and wedges. Most of these tools are well described
in the literature, although bifaces and wedges need
some clarification.
Wedges are flakes or blades (more rarely cores)
that usually show bifacial retouch along one or
more edges, but the defining characteristic is the
presence of evident battering on at least two opposed edges. While one of these battered edges is
usually blunt, it is not uncommon that both were
originally acute.
"Bifaces," as the term suggests, are bifacially retouched pieces that do not conform to the patterns
of the rest of the biface class, nor do they exhibit
the fine execution associated with bifacial knives,
projectile points, or bifacial scrapers. Made on flakes,
blades, or cores (nodular or tabular), the retouch is
invasive on both surfaces, although the edges produced by the retouch are invariably sinuous and inconsistent in terms of contours. Bifaces may be
"preforms" that were left unfinished in the course of
manufacturing-perhaps
because of flaws in the
raw material or mistakes in the retouching process.
This interpretation of the "unfinished tool" status of
bifaces is supported by the observation that the
overwhelming majority are either fragmentary or,
where complete, manifest undulating edge contours
that may have been beyond correction.
There are few bifacial tools in the MPPNB and
LPPNB period, in part a consequence of sample
size. In the PPNC period, wedges make up nearly
half the biface class (42 of 88), and they account for
more than a third of the PN biface class (8 of 23).
The biface "type7' is less frequent in both samples:
15% in the PPNC and 18% in the PN. More than a
quarter of the PN sample are axes, and these tools
are nearly as popular in the PPNC, where axes make
up 23% of the biface class. Nine picks occur among
the PPNC biface class, but only one appears in PN
deposits. Choppers and chisels are rare throughout
the excavated sample.
Other Tools. Truncated flakes and blades occur
sporadically at Wadi Shuceib, and they do not constitute a major element of the inventory. The same
may be said of backed blades and flakes, and tanged
elements. (Tanged blades were invariably broken,
and it is possible that these pieces may have been
BASOR 321
proximal elements of tanged knives or projectile
points.)
The "other" category includes tools that could
not be confidently assigned to other type definitions. Among these are multiple tools on the same
artifact, such as combination endscraper-borers or
backed notched blades, for example. While such
combinations are relatively frequent in the MPPNB
sample, they are uncommon in the other three
collections.
Two sets of artifacts in the "other" category suggest that they deserve a specific type designation.
One of these is the "tanged scraper" (see Rollefson,
Forstadt, and Beck 1994: table 1, fig. 3), which accounts for 2 of the 8 "other" tools in the PN period,
11 of the 46 "other" pieces (24%) in the PPNC collection, 2 of the 5 "other" tools in the LPPNB, and
5 of the 12 "other" tools (42%) in the MPPNB. This
tool has scraper retouch across the transverse edge of
relatively short, expanding flakes, which often bear
considerable cortex; the proximal portion of the flake
has intensive bilateral retouch forming a tang, usually preserving the point of percussion on the striking platform. Such scrapers are rare at 'Ain Ghazal
(only three were reported from all deposits; Rollefson, Forstadt, and Beck 1994: 449, table 4), nor is
there any notable mention of such tools from Neolithic sites in other parts of the Levant. We propose
to emphasize the uniqueness of this tool type by
referring to it as the "Shuceib scraper."
Another tool that occurs frequently in the "other"
category is the raclette, characterized by very shallow
scraper retouch on flakes (very rarely on blades), often
along cortical margins on lateral or transverse edges;
many examples fall into the "small flake" category
(maximum dimension less than 2 cm), and a few
have raclette retouch around more than 75% of the
perimeter of the piece. Only one raclette was
detected in the PN sample, but they account for 34
"other" pieces (74%) in the PPNC collection. Two
raclettes occur in the LPPNB "other" category, and
none in the MPPNB. Raclettes were noted with similar frequency among the various periods at 'Ain
Ghazal (Rollefson, Forstadt, and Beck 1994: table 4).
Retouched and Utilized Pieces. Included among
these "casual tools" are flakes and blades with edge
alterations of less extensive intentional retouch ("retouched pieces") or edge damage due to simple utilization ("utilized pieces"). Retouched pieces (flakes
and blades) are the second most common tool "type"
in the MPPNB and LPPNB periods, and they are
WADI SHUCEIB,FINAL REPORT OF TEST INVESTIGATIONS TABLE4. Wadi ShuCeibBurins from the 1988-89 Excavations Type*
I- 1
MPPNB
LPPNB
n Cum %
3
6.38
n cum %
2
7.14
47
28
Subtotal
Unclassifiable burins 6
11.32 0
TOTAL
53
28
*See Rollefson 1995 for type list.
0.00
PPNC
n Cum %
17
7.69
22 1
15
236
PN
n Cum %
0
0.00
60
6.36 1
61
1.64
BASOR 321
SIMMONS ET AL.
TABLE5. Wadi ShuCeibBurin Group Indices
Period
MPPNB (n = 47)
LPPNB (n = 28)
PPNC (n = 219)
PN (n = 59)
Group 1 Group 11 Group 111 Group IV
Simple Transverse Dihedral Truncation
14.89
25.00
30.14
22.03
also numerous in the PPNC sample; the PN inventory produced far fewer casually retouched pieces.
The ratio of retouched blades to retouched flakes
is similar for all four periods, running from 40:60
in the MPPNB and PN to roughly equal numbers in
the LPPNB and PPNC periods. Utilized pieces are
skewed more toward blades, from 55:45 in the
LPPNB to 87: 13 in the PN period.
Burins. Discussion of the burin class has been
reserved until last because, in conjunction with research at 'Ain Ghazal, these tools have so far received more intensive scrutiny than the other tool
classes. At 'Ain Ghazal, burins greatly outnumber
any other tool class, ranging from 26% in the PPNC
deposits to almost 40% of the MPPNB collections.
Burins also predominate at Wadi ShuCeib in the
MPPNB and LPPNB samples, although they are only
the second most frequent group of tools in the later
two periods at the site. It is unlikely that this is a
reflection of "cultural" differences between the two
sites, although why these disparities exist is not easy
to determine. Certainly the relatively small exposures
investigated at Wadi ShuCeib may have introduced
some degree of sampling error in the comparison, but
it is also possible that specific environmental variations at Wadi ShuCeiband 'Ain Ghazal are responsible for the differences in burin popularity.
Burins were typed according to unambiguous
technological definitions (table 4; cf. Rollefson 1995:
table 1). Based on the presence or absence of certain
technological features, these types can be assigned
to groups of burin types, including "Simple burins"
(Group I), "Transverse burins" (Group 11), "Dihedral
burins" (Group 111), and "Truncation burins" (Group
IV). The results are tabulated in table 5.
Figure 9 presents cumulative graphs of specific
burin types for the four Neolithic periods. Recalling the small sample sizes in some cases, the Wadi
ShuCeibgraphs resemble the general patterns of the
much larger samples from 'Ain Ghazal (Rollefson
1995: fig. 1). The MPPNB trajectory is very convex,
53.19
42.86
18.26
6.78
25.53
10.71
26.48
35.59
6.38
2 1.43
25.11
35.59
reflecting the importance of the transverse burin
group. The LPPNB graph is not so marked in its
convexity due to higher percentages of types "lower"
in the type list (in this case, the truncation group).
The PPNC pattern is relatively diagonal due to the
reduced importance of transverse burins and the
strength of both dihedral and truncation types. The
PN burin assemblage assumes a somewhat concave
profile because of the rarity of transverse burins and
the reliance on dihedral and truncation types. The
relative importance of the different burin groups is
demonstrated for each period in figure 10, and the
distribution of the groups over time is illustrated in
figure 11.
Two major factors intrude on any interpretation
of figures 9-11. The first of these involves sampling size reliability, for there are relatively small
numbers of burins in the MPPNB, LPPNB, and PN
collections. Compounding the sampling problem is
the uneven distribution of the different collections
among the excavation trenches. More than 80% of
the PN burins come from Area 11, with the rest from
Area I; the reverse is the case for the PPNC period
(72% from Area I, 28% from Area 11). Two-thirds of
the LPPNB burins come from Area I, 30% from
Area 11, and a single burin (3%) from Area 11. For
the MPPNB period, Area I yielded 45% of the burin
total, with the remainder coming from Area 111.
Since all the trenches are small in area (especially
Area 111), the totals for each period may reflect a
bias of one or more specific activities requiring
certain burin types as opposed to a true generalized
focus of burin usage for each cultural phase across
the entire site.
The second problem is simpler yet more profound.
Although the burin tool type was defined more than
a hundred years ago, there is still considerable vagueness concerning the use of burins, ranging from wood
and bone carving or engraving (e.g., Clark 1972: 11;
Bordaz 1970: 71) to the processing of reeds and
grasses (Moss 1983) to no evident utilitarian function
as a tool at all (Finlayson and Betts 1990).
200 1
WADI SHUCEIB,FINAL REPORT OF TEST INVESTIGATIONS Type of Burins
Fig. 9. Cumulative graph of burins.
Nevertheless, a comparison with comparable results from 'Ain Ghazal suggests some intriguing
possibilities (cf. Rollefson 1995: 5 16- 18). The general patterns of the cumulative graphs for the two
sites are similar, despite the probable sampling errors
mentioned above (and a small sample size for the
LPPNB at 'Ain Ghazal). But there are strong contrasts among the burin group indices.
In view of the lack of functional attributions to
burin types specifically and to burin groups in general, it may be instructive to note the contrasts in
the probable environments of Wadi ShuCeiband 'Ain
Ghazal during the Neolithic. 'Ain Ghazal appears to
have been always at the edge of the steppe, enjoying
a complex ecozone of woodland, parkland, gallery
forest, steppe, and desert environments (KohlerRollefson and Rollefson 1990; Rollefson and KohlerRollefson 1992). The situation for Wadi ShuCeibis
less clear, but the steppe and desert ecozones must
have always been somewhat less accessible to the
Wadi ShuCeibresidents.
The importance of truncation burins (Group IV)
among the desert and steppe Neolithic sites, regardless of temporal affiliation within the Neolithic, is
undeniable (e.g., Betts 1986; Rollefson 1988), and
the popularity of Group IV burins through the sequence of 'Ain Ghazal parallels closely the degenerated landscape that gradually assumed steppe and
desert conditions. The lack of comparable importance for Group IV burins at Wadi ShuCeibmight then
indicate that the resources that were more increasingly important at 'Ain Ghazal were not available or
necessary in the better-watered region around Wadi
Shuceib. But until more reliable information about
the environmental situation around Wadi ShuCeib
can be determined, this general ascription of burin
"function" remains highly speculative.
GROUND STONE
(A. SIMMONS)
Ground stone artifacts are relatively common at
Wadi ShuCeiband comprise a wide variety of types
typically associated with Neolithic settlements. Unfortunately, emphasis was not placed on these artifacts, they remain unanalyzed, and we can provide
no quantitative data on them. In retrospect, this deemphasis represents a major gap in our understanding of the complete material record at the site.
SIMMONS ET AL.
20
BASOR 321
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
-
@ LPPNB (n 28)
30.00%
PPNC ( ~ 2 2 1 )
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
Group I
Group 11
Group 111
Group IV
Fig. 10. Burin groups by cultural period.
60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
30.00%
20.00%
10.00%
0.00%
hlPPNB
LPPNB
PPNC
PN
Fig. 11. Chronological distribution of burin groups.
ORNAMENTS AND JEWELRY
(M. AL-NAHAR)
The study of personal ornaments and jewelry can
provide important information on economic and
cultural systems, including beliefs, as well as details
of artistic techniques and expression. The jewelry
from Wadi ShuCeibwas analyzed in detail (al-Nahar
1993) and is summarized here.
Relatively little jewelry was recovered during the
excavation seasons. The sample can be divided into
two major types: rings (or "bracelets") and beads.
2001
WADI SHUCEIB,FINAL REPORT OF TEST INVESTIGATIONS
These were described and subjected to geological
analysis. By examining the geological properties,
the solidity of the materials, and the shapes of the
ornaments, we potentially gain an understanding of
technological changes, if any, in the ornament industry of the Neolithic period.
Rings (or "Bracelets")
In the LPPNB layers, five ring fragments were
found: four limestone and the fifth of bituminous
limestone. The four limestone fragments include
one with a triangular section, another with a polygonal section, and two with ovoid sections. The bituminous limestone ring has an ovoid section.
In the PPNC layers, ten ring fragments were recovered. Six are made of limestone, two of chalky
limestone, one of marble, and one of bituminous
shale. The limestone fragments include five with
ovoid sections, and a sixth with a triangular section.
The two chalky limestone fragments have ovoid sections, as does the marble ring. The bituminous shale
fragment has a circular section.
In the PN layers, nine ring fragments have been
found: four of limestone, two of chalky limestone,
one of chalk, one of bituminous limestone, and one
of bituminous shale. The limestone rings have ovoid
sections. One of the chalky limestone rings has a triangular and the other an ovoid section. The chalk
ring has a circular section, while the bituminous
limestone ring has an ovoid section. The bituminous
shale ring has an ovoid section.
Beads
One limestone bead and one bone pendant were
recovered from the MPPNB layers. The limestone
bead is discoidal. In the LPPNB layers, only one
bone pendant was recovered. In the PPNC layers,
two polished bone ring-like beads and one agate
convex-ovoid bead were retrieved, while the PN
layers produced one malachite discoidal bead and
one tooth pendant. In addition to these materials,
some 20 plaster "beads" also were recovered from
a burial (see "Human Remains" by Roler Durand
below).
Raw Material
Although the number of beads and rings found
at Wadi ShuCeibis very small, they exhibit a wide
21 range of raw materials from which they were manufactured. These appear to have different proveniences.
Accordingly, it is useful to review their possible
sources since this might shed some light on mechanisms of trade or exchange.
Limestone and Dolomitic Limestone. Most
limestone in Jordan pertains to the Wadi Sir Formation. This rock type is prevalent in Jordan, especially in the Amman district. It has a solidity of 3
Moho, and comes in white, gray, and red colors.
Chalk and Chalky Limestone. This material is
to be found in the lower strata of the Umm Er-rijaam
Formation. This formation occurs in many areas of
Jordan, especially in the north (e.g., at Umm Qais,
Quaibeh, At-Turrah, Hartha, and Akraga). The color
variants of these chalks (3-2.5 Moho) include white,
gray, orange, and red.
Bituminous Limestone and Bituminous Shale.
These materials are thought to be derived from the
Al-Muaqqar Chalky Marl Formation, also prevalent
in Jordan. This formation is exposed in the northern part of the Kingdom, in the Irbid area, in the
northeast part of the country (at Ar-Reesha, A1-H4),
and at Khau (northeast Zarkah). In southern Jordan,
bituminous limestone is found in DabaCa (60 km
south of Amman), in the Dead Sea depression, at
al-Lajjun, and near the city of Ma'an. The color of
this material is either black or gray. The solidity
of bituminous limestone is 3-2.5 Moho, while that
of bituminous shale is 2.5-2 Moho.
Marble. The marble found in Wadi ShuCeib
is called DabaCaMarble. Normally outcropping in
the lower strata of the Umm Er-rijaam limestone
Formation, DabaCa Marble is available in the region around DabaCa.It comes in red, brown, black,
and green color variants, and its solidity is 3-3.5
Moho.
Malachite. Malachite is an oxide of copper
found in a 70-km-long stretch in the eastern side of
Wadi Araba, and in the area between the Dead Sea
and Garandal, near the city of Tafileh. Some of the
most important sites include Wadi Abu-Khushaibah,
Salwan, and Feinan, which, in turn, include Khirbet
al-Nuhas, Wadi Dana, Wadi Khaled, and Wadi
al-Hajar. The malachite is green and its solidity is
3.5-4 Moho.
22
SIMMONS ET AL.
Agate. This mineral occurs at Batin al-Ghool,
about 6 krn to the southeast of Ma'an. Colors vary
from transparent white to transparent black, which
means it could be transferred to all colors. Its solidity is 7 Moho, which is very high.
The analysis of the raw materials from which the
jewelry was made indicates contact between the
occupants of Wadi ShuCeib and the occupants of
Neolithic sites to the north and south of it. In order
to establish a typological system for the Wadi ShuCeib
ornaments, a larger sample is needed. From the small
number of ornaments recovered so far, it can be
concluded that there were no obvious, detectable
changes during the PPN and the PN periods in the
ornament industry at the site. Ornament shapes and
methods of production were determined to a large
extent by raw material types and hardness.
CERAMICS
(Z. KAFAFI)
A considerable ceramic assemblage was retrieved
during the excavations. A source analysis involving
petrography, geological mapping, X-ray diffraction,
thermal analysis, and scanning electron microscopy
indicates that the ceramics were locally manufactured. This study also indicates that the ceramics
were low-fired between 600 and 700°C in an open pit
(Bataineh 1996; al-Saacd, Abu-Jaber, and Bataineh
1997).
Ceramics were recovered from the upper levels
of the excavation units, and several were collected
from the surface. The surface sherds include examples from the Yarmoukian, Chalcolithic, Roman,
and Byzantine periods. The excavated top levels in
Area I and Area I1 yielded Roman and Byzantine
sherds mixed with Yarmoukian ones. The laterperiod sherds could have been mixed with the
Neolithic ones, having washed in from upslope. No
post-Neolithic architectural remains were associated
with these latter ceramics.
The PN period ceramic assemblage consists of
Yarmoukian and Jericho Pottery Neolithic A specimens, with the Yarmoukian sherds being dominant.
Figures 12 and 13 illustrate some of the vessel forms.
In Area 11, Yarmoukian pottery was encountered inside and outside rectangular stone structures. The Pottery Neolithic A ceramics were recovered from a pit
in Area I1 and were mixed with Yarmoukian pieces.
The Yarmoukian ceramic inventory from Wadi
ShuCeib is similar to that found at 'Ain Ghazal
(Rollefson and Simmons 1986; Kafafi 1990), Abu
BASOR 321
Thawwab (Kafafi 1988), and 'Ain Rahub (Kafafi
1989). This type of pottery is usually dated to ca.
5500-5000(?) B.C. It consists mostly of bowls and
jars and is characterized by herringbone incisions,
sometimes accompanied with red paint.
The Pottery Neolithic A sherds were primarily
recovered from Area 11. This type of pottery is characterized by very coarse ware with straw temper.
The forms consist of bowls and small jars decorated
with a red or red-brownish paint of a creamy slip.
Similar pottery vessels were excavated at Jericho IX
(Kenyon and Holland 1982), DhraC (Bennett 1980),
and Dharih (Bossut, Kafafi, and Dollfus 1988).
The two PN assemblages at Wadi Shuceib-that
is, the Yarmoukian and the Pottery Neolithic Amay be contemporaneous. This is based on their
association in the same loci. Additional analysis,
however, is required before we can draw a line between the two phases, whose precise chronology is
poorly understood. Wadi ShuCeibis one of the few
sites that contains both traditions known from both
sides of the Jordan River.
It is informative to place the Wadi ShuCeib ceramics within a broader context, especially since it
contains both Yarmoukian and Pottery Neolithic A
ceramics. According to some scholars, our current
understanding of early Levantine ceramics indicates
that, in fact, there is only one phase of the Pottery
Neolithic, consisting of three closely related and
contemporaneous traditions: Yarmoukian Ware, Pottery Neolithic A (or Jericho IX) Ware, and Nizzanim
Ware (Garfinkel 1999: 5-6, 16- 103). Garfinkel's
thorough typological analysis of early Levantine
ceramics places the Pottery Neolithic B and Wadi
Rabah phases as early Chalcolithic, rather than Pottery Neolithic (1999: 6-7). If one accepts this interpretation, there is then no major chronological
separation between the pottery Neolithic occupations at Wadi Shuceib, despite the presence of both
Yarmoukian and Pottery Neolithic A (or Jericho IX)
wares.
FAUNA
(I. KOHLER-ROLLEFSON)~
The two seasons of excavation produced a faunal
assemblage of 1,447 identifiable fragments of animal bones and teeth that provide important information on the former environment of the site and of
4 ~ sB.. Baldwin, while a student at San Diego State
University, contributed to this section.
200 1
WADI SHUCEIB,FINAL REPORT OF TEST INVESTIGATIONS
23
Fig. 12. Vessel forms. 1: Bowl, red painted; 2-4: bowls; 5 : carinated bowl; 6-10: bowls; 11: bowl, red painted; 12: bowl;
13: bowl, red painted; 14: bowl; 15: jar.
SIMMONS ET AL.
BASOR 321 Fig. 13. Vessel forms. 1: Bowl; 2: small jar, two lug handles; 3: hole-mouth jar; 4: jar; 5-6: bowls; 7-9: jars.
WADI SHUCEIB,FINAL REPORT OF TEST INVESTIGATIONS
TABLE6. Identified Faunal Taxa
Scientijc name
Sciurus c.f. anomalus
Rattus c.f. rattus
Vulpes vulpes
Canis sp.
Felis c.f. sylvestris
Equus sp.
Bos primigenius
Gazella sp.
Capra aegagrus/hircus
Avis, indeterminate
Testudo graeca
Potamon potamios
Common name
Persian squirrel
Rat species
Red fox
Wolf or dog
Wild cat
Unidentified equid
Aurochs
Unidentified gazelle
Wild/domestic goat
Unidentified birds
Greek land tortoise
Sweetwater crab
25
of the cattle and pig bones, may indicate a wild
rather than a domestic state.
In addition to economic faunal remains, a number of bone tools also were recovered. These include a variety of awls, spatulas, needles, and incised
pieces.
Finally, a limited number of shells were recovered and analyzed by D. Reese (Field Museum of
Natural History). These include a worked Pinctada,
a worked Phalium lip, and a small water-worn distal
Glycymeris fragment from LPPNB deposits; the distal end of a water-worn Cerastoderma, a half ventral
side Cypraea, and a fresh Glycymeris from PPNC
deposits; and a Nerita with a ground-down hole at
its apex from the Yarmoukian deposits.
BOTANICAL REMAINS
the animal exploitation patterns of its inhabitants.
Tables 6-9 summarize these data. In terms of spatial
distribution, the material derives from the three
different areas of excavation. Almost half was found
in both Areas I and I1 (48.4% each), and Area I n provided only a small percentage (3.18%).
In terms of temporal association, 5.7% come
from mixed deposits; 16% from the PN, 62% from
the PPNC, less than 15% from the LPPNB, and less
than 1% from the MPPNB. Taxonomically, the assemblage is predominated by the remains of ovicaprids, which include domestic and wild goats, and
possibly sheep. The second most frequently represented mammal is Sus scrofa, the wild boar or domestic pig. Gazelles and cattle (Bas primigenius) tie
for third place. The remains of other faunal categories are numerically quite insignificant; they include
equid, fox, wolf or dog, wild cat, squirrel, and rat
among the mammals, in addition to unidentified
birds, tortoise, and the sweetwater crab.
In a nutshell, the faunal exploitation pattern
documented at Wadi ShuCeib concentrates on the
utilization of four or possibly five ungulates: goat,
possibly sheep, pig, gazelle, and cattle. While the
50% reliance on ovicaprids corresponds to the findings at other contemporary sites in the area, the
relatively high frequency of Sus species remains is
somewhat unusual. This can probably be attributed
to the location of Wadi ShuCeibin the vicinity of the
Jordan Valley, a prime habitat for wild boar.
No assertions can yet be made regarding the
domestication of the ungulates. The large size of
many of the ovicaprine remains, however, as well as
(A. SIMMONS)
Numerous soil samples were taken in anticipation of recovering botanical remains. Eighteen samples from all phases were submitted to R. Neef
(Deutsches Archaologisches Institut) for analyses.
Unfortunately, and to our great disappointment, virtually no identifiable charcoal and only one (unidentifiable) grain fragment was present. Thus, very
little can be said about plant resources used by the
residents of Wadi Shuceib. Undoubtedly, the suite of
plants would have included both domestic and wild
resources, if comparisons to 'Ain Ghazal and other
Neolithic settlements are made.
CHRONOLOGY
(A. SIMMONS)
A total of ten radiocarbon determinations (tables 10-1 1) have been obtained from Wadi Shuceib.
All the samples are from charcoal. The conventional
(C13 adjusted) dates range from 8240 i 250 to 5690
i 210 b.c. (10,190 * 250 to 7640 * 210 b.p.). Calibrated determinations from Wadi ShuCeib suggest
an older occupation for the site, as is common when
calibration is applied to determinations of this period. The calibrated dates bracket the age of the site
at 10,960 CAL B.C. (12,910 CAL B.P.) to 6060 CAL
B.C.(8010 CAL B.P.),up to ca. 2500 years older than
the uncalibrated determinations.
In general, the radiocarbon determinations are in
accord with the stratigraphic evidence, and they
document well the PPNB and PPNC occupation of
BASOR 321
SIMMONS ET AL.
TABLE7. Absolute Numbers and Percentages of Major Faunal Taxonomic Categories by Area Taxon
Area I
Testudo
Bird
Rodent
Small carnivores
Canis sp.
Ovis/Capra
Gazelle
Small ruminants
Bos
Sus
Equus
Totals
1
2
2
6
1
340
14
208
27
97
3
70 1
(<I%)
(<I%)
(<I%)
(48.6%)
(2%)
(29.6%)
(3.8%)
(13.8%)
Area II
Area III
6 (<I%)
2
6
1
1
-
(-1
-
327 (46.6%)
48 (6.9%)
149 (21.3%)
45 (5.7%)
111 (15.9%)
6
700
19 (41.3%)
7 (15.2%)
8 (17.4%)
-
10 (21.7%)
-
46
Total
1
9
5
12
1
686
69
365
72
218
9
1,447
(<0.1%)
(<1.0%)
(<0.1%)
(1.0%)
(<0.1%)
(47.3%)
(4.8%)
(25.2%)
(5.0%)
(15.1%)
(<1.0%)
TABLE8. Number of Identified Specimens of Major Faunal Taxonomic Categories by Occupation Periods Taxon
Testudo
Bird
Rodent
Small carnivores
Canis sp.
Ovis/Capra
Gazelle
Small ruminants
Bos
Sus
Equus
Total
Mixed PN PPNC LPPNB MPPNB Total 1
1
2
37
4
19
3
16
1
82
112
4
75
15
25
2
235
the settlement. Unfortunately, no dates were available for the PN occupation. Of the ten determinations, three do not fit well within the stratigraphic
sequences. Beta-35080 (8240 b.c.) appears far too
old for its presumed LPPNB placement. Likewise,
Beta-35083 (6780 b.c.) is slightly older than its
PPNC stratigraphic location would suggest, and Beta35087 (7120 b.c.) is somewhat older than indicated
by a LPPNB stratigraphic placement. These could
possibly represent contaminated specimens or sampling errors. Note that the first two have large standard deviations.
1
1
2
8
1
416
48
239
43
139
4
902
7
2
1
1
114
13
29
11
38
2
217
7
3
11
1
9
5
12 1
686 69 365 72 218 9
1,447 HUMAN REMAINS
(K. ROLERDURAND)
Twelve burials, representing 21 individuals, were
excavated during 1988 and 1989 (tables 12-13).
Eight of the burials (including Burials 1, 5, 6, 7, 8,
10, 11, and 12) date to the LPPNB, one of the burials
(Burial 9) dates to the PPNC, and the remaining
three date to the PN (Burials 2, 3, and 4). In addition
to these formal burials, the partial remains of a minimum of 12 individuals were found in the excavated
areas of the site and in areas exposed by the road-cut
200 1
WADI SHUCEIB,FINAL REPORT OF TEST INVESTIGATIONS
TABLE9. Spatial Distribution of Principal Ovis/Capra Skeletal Elements Element
Cranial fragments
Mandible
Teeth
Scapula
Pelvis
Humerus
Femur
Radius
Ulna
Tibia
Metacarpal
Metatarsal
Metapodial
Talus
Calcaneum
Carpal
Patella
Phalanx I
Phalanx I1
Phalanx I11
Vertebrae
Horn core
Total
Area I Area II Total
10
6
22
9
7
9
13
12
13
1
42
36
19
4
8
293
25
21
61
7
6
10
3
12
1
1
1
16
11
4
221
35
27
83
16
13
19
16
24
14
2
1
58
47
23
4
8
514
(tables 14-15). The skeletal materials at the site are
in very poor condition; most of the bones were fragmentary when recovered.
In the following section, a detailed narrative is
provided for the burials recovered during the 1989
field season at Wadi Shuceib. These include Burials
1 and 6 (both of which were partially excavated in
1988 but fully recovered in 1989) and Burials 9, 10,
11, and 12. Summary information for all burials is
also provided in tables 12 and 13. Further details
concerning the burials from the 1988 season (including Burials 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, and 8) can be found in
Simmons et al. (1989). This descriptive section is
followed by a discussion of the general burial practices evident at Wadi ShuCeiband a comparison of
these to practices at other PPNB sites in the region.
Burials from the 1989 Field Season
Descriptions of the burials excavated during the
1989 season are given below. Of particular interest
are two multiple burials from the LPPNB levels of
27
Area I, each of which contained some burial goods.
For Burial 1, these include several plaster beads and
an extremely poorly preserved plaster female figurine approximately 25 cm in length (Roler 1991).
This figurine appears to share some of the stylistic
characteristics of the much larger statues recovered
from 'Ain Ghazal (Tubb and Grissom 1995). Burial
6 contained a bone pendant and a clay bead. Burials 1 and 6 were initially partially excavated in 1988
and were completed in 1989, while Burials 9-12
were retrieved in 1989.
Burial I, Area I . This burial lies along and was
partially removed by the road-cut. Portions of it were
removed from the side of the road-cut to prevent the
erosion of the burial prior to excavation during the
1988 season. It was a multiple burial, containing
four individuals: a 7-8 year old child (1-1, or "Individual 1" in Burial 1, table 12); an adolescent, approximately 15 years old (1-3); a young adult male,
approximately 18-24 years old (1-2); and an older
adult, 50+ years old (1-4). The burial pit was located
beneath a PPNB red plastered floor. While separate
pits could not be discerned during excavation, the
condition of the floors above the burial suggests that
it represents two interment events.
Burial 1 is unique, both for this site and other
PPNB sites in the region, in that it contained grave
goods. These include a large but very poorly preserved plaster figurine (fig. 14), approximately 20
white plaster beads, and several fragments of small
plaster figurines. The large figurine is of a female,
approximately 22 x 11.5 cm, and represents the full
body (with breasts), with the exception of the feet. It
is composed of green plaster and has a number of
stylistic similarities to statues found at 'Ain Ghazal
(Rollefson 1985: 59) and Jericho (Kenyon 1957).
Similar features include a flattening of the body so
that the profile (front to back thickness) of the figurine does not match its overall proportions. In addition, the arms are small in proportion to the rest of
the body, a feature also seen in statues at 'Ain
Ghazal. Unlike the statues found at 'Ain Ghazal and
Jericho, however, this figurine has a blank face. The
statues from 'Ain Ghazal, by contrast, are notable
in that the faces display considerable detail. As
Rollefson (1985: 59) explains, "the specific combinations of facial features on each specimen suggest
that individual renditions were intended. Among the
statues . . . relative dimensions of the face vary, with
emphasized cheeks in some cases, prominent chins
in others."
SIMMONS ET AL. BASOR 321 TABLE10. Radiocarbon Determinations Cultural phase/
stratigraphic
placement
Location
Sample Number
Beta-35080NS-1
Beta-35081NS-2
Beta-35082NS-3
Beta-35083NS-5&8
Beta-35084NS-6
Beta-35085NS-7
Beta-35086NS-9
Beta-35087NS-108~12
Beta-35088NS-11
Beta-35089NS-138~14
Area I
Area I
Area I
Area I1
Area I1
Area I1
Area I1
Area I1
Area I1
Area I11
LPPNB
MPPNB
MPPNB
PPNC
LPPNB
PPNC
LPPNB
LPPNB
LPPNB
MPPNB
Measured
Conventional
radiocarbon
radiocarbon age b.p.
age b.p.
13C/12Cratio
(13C adjusted)
10,220 i 250
8600 i 100
8670 * 210
8760 * 280
7660 * 210
8120*280
8500 i 160
9100 * 140
7810 i 340
9160*190
-26.8
-26.7
-26.2
-26.9
-26.1
-25.9
-25.9
-26.4
-27.2
-26.4
10,190 * 250
8570 * 100
8650 * 210
8730 * 280
7640 + 210
81 10 + 280
8490 * 160
9070 * 140
7770 * 340
9130 * 190
TABLE11. Calibrated Radiocarbon Determinations
Sample
WS-1
WS-2
WS-3
WS-5&8
WS-6
WS-7
WS-9
WS-10&12
WS-11
WS-13&14
Area
I
I
I
I1
I1
I1
I1
I1
I1
I11
Calibrated-B. C.
Calibrated-B. P.
10,960 to 9210
12,910 to 11,160
9740 to 9430
7800 to 7480
10,220 to 9240
8270 to 7290
10,500 to 9100
8550 to 7140
7060 to 6060
9010 to 8010
9570 to 8370
7620 to 6420
7940 to 7140
9890 to 9100
8610 to 7910 and 7900 to 7830 10,560 to 9860 and 9860 to 9780
7540 to 5990 9490 to 7940 8780 to 7770 10,730 to 9720 The figurine was located on the rib cage of the
older adult (fig. 15). It was not possible to determine
the sex of this individual (I-4), as only the ribs and
fragments of the right arm and hand were recovered.
The size of these fragments, however, would not
preclude its being female. The phalanges and metacarpals of the right hand were arthritic.
The young adult male (1-2) was located at the
top level of Burial 1. He was interred in a flexed
position, lying on his left side, with the "head" (had
it been in place) oriented to the southeast and the
feet to the northwest. The skull was missing, but the
mandible was recovered, with the full set of lower
teeth in place (including unerupted M3s). The axial
remains include vertebral, sacral, and innominate
fragments. Parts of both arms were recovered, including the left and right clavicles, the distal portions of both humeri, the proximal portions of both
ulnae, and parts of both hands. The left femur and
tibia were also recovered; the tibia is misshapen
from a poorly healed fracture.
The adolescent (1-3) was located beneath the
young adult male, and the body was oriented in
the same manner: fetal position, lying on left side,
"head" to the southeast, feet to the northwest. While
both the skull and mandible of this individual were
missing, the remainder of the upper body was well
represented. The left scapula, radius, and ulna were
missing, but the remainder of the arms, shoulder girdle, and cervic and thoracic vertebrae were present
(though fragmentary). Portions of each hand also
were present. Only the left femur and patella were
recovered from the lower portions of this individual.
The child (1-1) was located in the middle of the
pit, above and to the west of the adolescent, near
the older adult. The mandible was recovered, with
30
BASOR 321
SIMMONS ET AL.
TABLE13. Pre-Pottery Neolithic C and Pottery Neolithic Burials at Wadi ShuCeib
Burial
number Area
Burial
type
Sex/age
Recovered bones
Grave description
Period
9
I1
Single
Fl30-40
Portions of mandible, lower
Disturbed by PN wall conhalf of L arm,L hand, several struction
rib fragments
PPNC
2
I
Single
FIAdult
2 cranial fragments likely
associated, mandible shows
periodontal disease and
premortem tooth loss, partial
remains of rest of skeleton
Scattered over several loci
PN
3
I1
Single
Below compact mud floor in
circle of stones, flexed, head
to NW
PN
4
I1
Single
secondary
Ul12-24 mos. Very fragmentary, cranium absent, mandible, rib fragments,
ilium, L shafts of radius and
ulna, R femur and tibia
UIAdult
No cranial material, 1 vertebra, rib fragments, both humerii, R femur and tibia, L
fibula, 1 manual phalanx
Adjacent to a wall, long bones PN
parallel to wall
TABLE14. Summary of Isolated Skeletal Finds from
Wadi Shuceib, 1989 Season
Area
I
I
I1
I1
I1
Skeletal material
Right ulna of infant, < 1 year old
Right humerus and ulna of infant, > 4 months old
Distal sacral segment of adult; proximal of foot phalanx
Right tibia and femur, left humerus of infant
Fragments of two infants: 4 femora, humerus, clavicle, ulna, and fibula
the posterior teeth in place. The arms were represented by fragments of both humeri and ulnae, the
left radius, and several metacarpals. Fragments of
both ischia were recovered, as were the left femur,
tibia, and both fibulae. Sternal and rib fragments
also were recovered, and several sections of articulated cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae were
present.
The evidence from the plaster floors indicates
that there were two discrete interment episodes associated with this pit. The adolescent and the other
adult, with the figurine placed on its chest, were the
first individuals interred in the pit. The young adult
male and the child were added at a later date, after a
new floor had been constructed over the cut made by
the original pit. The remains of the older adult were
disturbed by the activity of the second burial.
Burial 6, Area I . This burial also was multiple
(fig. 16); it was located in Area I beneath a red plaster
floor that was utilized prior to the floor that was associated with Burial 1. The stratigraphic association
indicates an LPPNB placement. There was evidence
of three adults in the burial pit: a young adult female
(1-1, for Burial 6 in table 14), approximately 18-24
years old (M3s were unerupted); a young adult male
(I-2), approximately 20-30 years old (based on dental wear); and a third adult of unknown age and sex,
as evidenced by the presence of a third right hand in
the burial pit. If this originally was a complete individual, the majority of the body was removed by the
road-cut.
The young adult female skeleton was recovered
in nearly complete, though fragmentary, condition.
The body was interred in a flexed position, on its
200 1
WADI SHUCEIB,FINAL REPORT OF TEST INVESTIGATIONS
TABLE15. Isolated Skeletal Materials
from the 1988 and 1989 Seasons
Age group
Infants
Adolescents
Adults
PPNB
PPNC
6
PN
1
1
2
2
31
feet to the north. The portion of the burial pit that
could have contained the skull of this individual was
removed by the road-cut. The left half of the mandible remained, along with a fragment of the first cervical vertebra and the hyoid bone. The remainder of
the skeleton was fragmentary but fairly complete.
The following bones were not recovered: the right
scapula, the left humerus, and the pelvic bones. In
addition to the first cervical vertebra, six thoracic
vertebrae were recovered. Most of the bones from
the hands and feet were present, with the exception
of five carpals from each hand.
Burial 9, Area II. This partial skeleton was
located directly adjacent to a wall. Very little of the
individual remained, and its location suggests that it
was disturbed and most of the bones removed, when
the wall was constructed. It is the only burial at the
site dating to the PPNC. The individual probably was
a female, approximately 30-40 years old. Bones
present include the articulated lower half of the left
arm (fragmentary humerus, radius, and ulna), a nearly
complete left hand, fragments of the mandible (including 2 upper and 11 lower teeth), and several rib
fragments.
Fig. 14. The plaster figurine from Burial 1, Area I. The
figurine was initially intact but has since crumbled; what is
illustrated is the torso. Two small hands are visible near
breasts.
right side, with the "head" oriented to the northeast.
The skull was not present, but the mandible was
recovered, with the full set of lower teeth intact. The
anterior teeth of the maxilla also were present (all
four incisors and both canines). The remainder of
the skeleton was recovered, with the exception of
the right scapula, most of 'the thoracic and lumbar
vertebrae, and the left femur, tibia, and fibula. The
pelvic bones were present but extremely friable, and
the recovered pieces were not identifiable. The proximal end of the right fourth metacarpal displayed a
healed fracture.
The young adult male was interred on its back, in
a flexed position, in the western end of the burial pit.
The body was positioned at a 90 degree angle to the
other skeleton, with the "head" to the south and the
Burial 10, Area II. This was a secondary
burial, dating to the LPPNB, which contained the
partial remains of an adult (probably female) and a
child. The majority of the bones in this pit were
not articulated, with the exception of the adult's left
foot. Most of the long bones were parallel to one another. The adult's long bones include fragments of
both ulnae and radii, the shaft of the left femur,
and fragments of the right tibia and both fibulae. In
addition, several metacarpals from both hands were
recovered, one of which (the right third) displayed
a poorly healed fracture. Very little of the child's
skeleton was recovered.
Burial 11, Area II. The majority of this LPPNB
burial was not recovered because it lay outside of
the area of excavation. The recovered remains include the skull (very fragmentary), mandible, 3 vertebrae, and 12 manual phalanges of a 7-8 year old
child. This individual was located in a pit, on its
right side, with the right hand positioned under the
skull. A bone needle was recovered with the burial.
Burial 12, Area II. This burial, also dating to
the LPPNB, actually consists of two burial pits that
were partially overlapping. The second burial pit
BASOR 321 SIMMONS ET AL.
BEADS
\
\
'\
\
'.'.-.
.
1
,'I FEMALE FIGURINE
,,
/'
.. .-_
-_- _
0
20 CM
_**-'/
c-
* 0
\
4 c ~ C
- _ _ _ _ - - c ~
M . NAGAYASU
AUGUST 2000
Fig. 15. Upper level of Burial 1 with female figurine in place. Figurine is face down.
(B) cut into and partially destroyed the burial contained in the original, lower pit (A). Very little of
the skeletal material was recovered from Pit A,
owing to the damage done during the creation of Pit
B and to Pit A's position beneath two adjoining
LPPNB walls.
The individual in Pit B (I- 1, Burial 12 in table 12)
was an adult, approximately 30-40 years old (based
on tooth and joint wear). The sex could not be determined. The bones recovered from this individual
(those that did not lie beneath the walls) were very
friable. Significantly for a burial of this period, fragments of the skull were recovered, including fragments of the following bones: the occipital, both
temporals, both zygomatics, and both maxillae. The
mandible was not recovered. The first cervical vertebra was removed, along with four thoracic and
four lumbar vertebrae. Portions of all of the bones of
the right arm were present, as were several bones
from each hand. Most of the bones of both feet also
were recovered. This individual was interred in a
flexed position, on its back, with the skull oriented
to the southwest.
Pit A lay mainly beneath the walls. The few
bones that were recovered from pit A include several adult foot bones (I-3), and the right clavicle and
ulna, and lower first molars of a child (1-2, approximately 4 years old).
Burial Practices at Wadi ShuCeib
Clear differences were apparent through time in
the burial practices at Wadi ShuCeib(tables 12-13).
Five of the burials at the site were multiple burials;
all of these date to the LPPNB period. One of the
multiple burials was a secondary burial (Burial lo),
at least for the adult skeleton (the child's remains
were extremely fragmentary so the nature of its interment was unclear). Although the remains taken
from Burials 7 and 8 each represent a single individual, they were removed from the side of the highway
cut, so their complete context could not be determined. Only one LPPNB burial at Wadi ShuCeibhad
clearly been the interment of a single individual
(Burial 11). All of the later PPNC and PN burials
at Wadi ShuCeibcontained only one individual. One
of these burials was a secondary burial (Burial 4),
while the rest represented primary interments.
Three of the LPPNB burials (Burials 1, 6, and 8)
and likely two others (Burials 5 and 7) were directly beneath plastered floors. Interment events for
Burial 1 clearly cut through the floor on several oc-
WADI SHUCEIB,FINAL REPORT OF TEST INVESTIGATIONS M. NAGAYASU
AUGUST 2000
Fig. 16. Plan view of Burial 6. Female is lying on her right side with mandible present; male is lying on his back; cranial
area was removed by road-cut.
casions, as evidenced by holes in the floors above it,
replastering of the floors, and pit fill containing a
large amount of plaster flecks. Although the replastered floor above Burial 6 was in very poor condition (it appeared to have been exposed to weathering
sometime after construction), it also appeared to be
covering damage to the original floor caused by the
interment of the individuals in Burial 6. Burial 8 was
taken from the south-facing section of the highway
cut, but lay beneath a plastered floor visible in the
section. The context was less clear for Burial 5 (removed from the profile of Area 111), but, as with
Burial 1, the fill contained a large amount of plaster
flecks, suggesting the possibility that a floor was cut
to create the burial pit. Finally, Burial 7 was also
taken from the south-facing highway cut. Although
no floor could be observed above it in the profile,
this burial lay in a stone-lined pit within a cobble
layer. Similar cobble layers made up the foundation
of several floors in Area I; thus this burial also may
have been intramural.
Only one burial was recovered for the PPNC
period (Burial 9), and its context is unclear due to
disturbance by wall construction during the PN.
Three PN burials were recovered, but one of these
(Burial 2, an adult) had been disturbed prehistorically and lay scattered across several loci in Area I.
Burial 3 was a young child located in a stone circle
beneath a PN compact mud floor. Burial 4 was an
adult secondary burial located adjacent and parallel
to a wall.
Of the 13 adult skeletons recovered, only 3 had a
cranium or cranial fragments present. These include
maxillary fragments with Burial 8, an entire cranium
with one individual in Burial 12 (table 12), and two
cranial fragments likely associated with Burial 2
34
SIMMONS ET AL.
(table 13). Two of the children (in Burials 5 and 11)
had skulls or cranial fragments present, four apparently did not (from Burials 1, 3, and 12), while one
child was too fragmentary to allow such a determination (from Burial 10).
Discussion
The burials from Wadi ShuCeib are similar in
many respects to burials found at other Neolithic
sites. The majority of burials at these sites are located beneath house floors or walls. They also have
been discovered in trash or midden deposits at 'Ain
Ghazal (Rollefson 1985) and Basta (Nissen, Muheisen, and Gebel 1987). Primary burials are the
most frequent type, but secondary burials also were
reported at Horvat Galil (Hershkovitz and Gopher
1988). Most interments at other PPNB site were in
individual graves, but the presence of multiple burials has been reported for the sites of 'Ain Ghazal
(Rollefson et al. 1984), Basta (Nissen, Muheisen,
and Gebel 1987), Beidha (Kirkbride 1966), Horvat
Galil (Hershkovitz and Gopher 1988), and Jericho
(Cornwall 1981). At Wadi Shuceib, approximately
half of the burials recovered contained more than
one individual (usually two, but up to four, individuals). Large multiple, or mass, burials were found
at Jericho; one burial contained nine and another
held the remains of twelve individuals (Cornwall
1981: 397-403). Finally, the removal of the crania
(but not the mandible) from most adult skeletons
after initial deposition is a common PPNB burial
practice found at all of the sites discussed above.
The most unique aspect of the burials at Wadi
ShuCeibis the presence of grave goods with Burials 1 and 6. Single beads have been found in two
burials at 'Ain Ghazal (Rollefson et al. 1984: 162)
and four burials at Beidha (Kirkbride 1966: 23). No
grave goods were mentioned for the site of Horvat
Galil. At Basta, the placement of graves in trash
deposits makes it difficult to determine whether
there is an association of goods with burials. In one
instance, it was clear that an individual was interred
with a "row of Nerita sp. shells . . . in the wrist
area" (Nissen, Muheisen, and Gebel 1987: 96). We
are not aware of any other examples of figurines
placed with PPNB burials.
In addition to the descriptive analysis of the
human remains from Wadi Shuceib, two more specialized studies also were undertaken. In the first, an
analysis of discrete dental traits was used to estimate
BASOR 321
the genetic distances for Near Eastern Neolithic,
Bronze Age, and modern samples. The Neolithic
samples, which include dental remains from Wadi
Shuceib, were less similar to one another than the
Bronze Age samples, but more similar to one another than the modern samples, which were a very
diverse group. For the Neolithic group, the provenience of the samples seems to have had a great
influence on their degree of similarity. Neolithic
samples from sites in close proximity were more
similar to one another, even if they were separated
by some 1,000 years in time (Roler 1992). On the
other hand, the Bronze Age samples seem to reflect
increasing interaction within the region, springing
from the development of trade networks among sites
(Falconer and Magness-Gardiner 1989).
Another specialized study of the human remains
was an analysis of dental enamel hypoplasia on a
sample of eight individuals from Wadi Shuceib. This
revealed that 60% of the anterior teeth exhibited
hypoplasia, but only 21.4% of the posterior teeth
had the defect. The authors concluded that the most
likely causes of hypoplasia were general nutritional,
as well as environmental, stress, particularly during
their younger years (al-Abbasi and Sarie 1997).
CONCLUSIONS
(A. H. SIMMONS)
Although limited in scope, our excavations have
demonstrated Wadi Shuceib's significance as yet another large Neolithic settlement that spans both PPN
and PN sequences and contains the rare PPNC transitional phase. We are especially intrigued by the wellpreserved architecture and deep deposits in Area 11.
The possibility of either pre-Neolithic or earlier Neolithic (e.g., PPNA) deposits there cannot be overlooked. Any additional research at the site should
focus on this area. In the decade since our excavation, Wadi ShuCeib continues to be endangered by
construction, and we hope that protective measures
can be undertaken before this important site is lost
to modern development.
Within a broader regional context, Wadi ShuCeib
has contributed to a growing data base related to the
so-called mega-sites. The significance of these enormous settlements remains unclear. Indeed, some
scholars have questioned the concept that the large
sites were regional centers (e.g., Hole 2000), noting
that considerable complexity occurs at smaller settlements as well. Certainly recent investigations of
2001
WADI SHUCEIB,FINAL REPORT OF TEST INVESTIGATIONS PPNB sites in southern Jordan that are much smaller
than Wadi ShuCeib and other mega-sites, such as
BaCja (Gebel and Hermansen 1999) and Ghwair I
(Simmons and Najjar 1998a; 1998b; 1999), support
the conclusion of immense complexity, and perhaps
even elite status, at compact communities. It appears
that Neolithic developments in central Jordan were
substantially distinct from those farther south, where
a greater diversity in site types is apparent. Thus a
model of population aggradation and dispersal that
may be relevant for central Jordan, and mega-sites
such as Wadi ShuCeib and 'Ain Ghazal (e.g., Simmons 2000), may not be appropriate for the south.
Only future research will clarify this. What is clear is
that our understanding of not only settlement diversity, but also social organization, identity, and ritual
35 behavior (e.g., Kuijt 2000) during this tumultuous
period is far more complex than originally thought.
As with several other large eastern Levantine
Neolithic mega-sites, Wadi ShuCeibwas abandoned
after the Neolithic. The reasons for this apparent collapse are not yet understood but may relate to both
gradual climatic warming and to Neolithic overexploitation of the immediate environment, which
necessitated alternate adaptive strategies, including
the adoption of pastoral economies. It would, however, be a mistake to view these settlements as "failures." They were, after all, continuously occupied
for over 1500 years. This attests to the remarkable
tenacity of the people who built and lived in these
early complex communities, starting an experiment
in social organization that continues today.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Primary funding for the 1989 Wadi ShuCeibseason was
from a grant from the National Geographic Society. Additional funding (over both seasons) was provided by the
Center for Field Research Earthwatch Corps, the Lindley
Foundation, the Amoco Foundation, and the codirectors'
institutions. We would like to thank the Jordanian Department of Antiquities for their cooperation throughout
the project. The American Center of Oriental Research
(ACOR) also is gratefully acknowledged for its assistance.
We also would like to thank I. Kuijt for his very useful comments on a draft of the manuscript, as well as R. Corona
for drafting figures 1 and 2 and M. Nagayasu for drafting
figures 15 and 16.
The investigations at Wadi ShuCeibwere conducted in
conjunction with excavation at 'Ain Ghazal. The lead author (Simmons) was with the Desert Research Institute,
University and Community College System of Nevada, at
the time of the excavations, and is presently at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. The two other codirectors were
Dr. Gary Rollefson (formerly of San Diego State University, presently, Whitman College and 'Ain Ghazal Research
Institute), and Dr. Zeidan Kafafi (Yarmouk University).
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