Introduction
The idea of the incapacity of women is … totally inadmissible …
To argue against facts, is indeed contending with both wind and tide;
and borne down by accumulating examples, conviction of the present
plans will pervade the public mind, and not a dissenting voice will be heard.
(Judith Sargent Murray, qtd in Botting 19)
The eighteenth-century novel Wieland, by Charles Brockton Brown, uses Jungian
archetypal concepts, in a journey of the soul, or the psyche therefore befitting a genre of a
psychological novel. Archetypal concepts and “C.G. Jung’s views on literature” influence and
anticipate literary criticism most notably of Northrop Frye’s Anatomy of Criticism, which
identifies … the "conventional myths and metaphors" which he calls "archetypes" (Spiritus
Mundi 118), “providing criticism with a conceptual framework and a body of knowledge
derived not from an ideological system but rooted in the imagination itself “ [Web]. The
thesis relies on text and historical aspects of culture affecting gender to explore Clara’s
relationship with Jungian archetypal aspects of the anima and animus. The thesis, which is
titled, “Wieland: An Archetypal Experience of Gender,” makes a claim that as Clara’s story
unfolds, her relationship with the strength of her positive feminine archetype, becomes
paradoxically apparent in the text, as an inspired imaginative dynamic in contrast to Clara’s
experience and relationship with the oppressive cultural expectations of gender and the rigid
patriarchal archetype.
Wieland presents a discourse on gender not unfamiliar within our own century amid the
violent patriarchal cries of Isis and rising numbers of domestic violence statistics in the western
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world. Additionally, there is continuous debate even in the most liberal corners of America,
regarding gender rights and public and private choices, that violate accepted patriarchal treasured
norms and religious mandates. Examples include government sanction of homosexual marriage
and church ability to deny such celebrations. Conversations about abortion and even gender
change operations face similar debates regarding morality, public obligations and private choice.
People of all genders continue to struggle regarding the value placed on both anima and animus
archetypes within each of us and how we wish to project ourselves in the world, like Clara
herself.
Jung: Dreams of Feminine Equity
In myths and fairytales, as in dreams, the psyche tells its own story, and
the interplay of the archetypes is revealed in its natural setting as formation,
transformation/the eternal Mind’s eternal recreation. (Jung, CW 9.1, para 400.
qted in the National Conference Brochure of the Sandplay Therapists of America.)
Consider nature, as the character Clara’s human condition within a natural setting at
Mettingen, at the beginning of the Revolutionary War outside of Philadelphia and see her
symbolically, as a container of archetypal oppositions in the literary plot of the novel Wieland, by
Charles Brockton Brown. For example, a turtle “holds oppositions” of the masculine and positive
feminine archetypes, in its quest for survival from egg to the water and becomes a “ …
transcendent and liminal symbol, [who as] … an orphan … imprints on the land itself… …
[bringing] back a piece of the earth with [it], which explains the marking of the turtle shells [as]
… therefore a transcendent function” (Grishko). Clara also is such a transcendent and liminal
symbol, an orphan at the age of six, who bonds to the land itself, her older brother, Theodore, and
their childhood companion, Catherine, while guarding her father’s manuscript and absorbing
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cultural and religious gender expectations of colonial America. She brings this heritage to us
through her own markings that are the words of her narrative. Consider how her idyllic
description of Mettingen, is an idealization of nature that parallels aspects of womanhood, when
she describes how the banks of the river are “… chequered by patches of dark verdure and
shapeless masses of white marble and crowned by copses of cedar, or by the regular magnificence
of orchards, … while the ground, which recede[s] from the river [is] scooped into valleys and
dales,” (Brown 54). Furthermore, Mettingen’s beauty can be conceived of as formulating a
psychic refuge. Clara herself can also be conceived of as a psychic refuge, because she presents
herself as a dependable figure of womanhood. Reflect upon how she defends her virtue to Pleyel,
as follows: “… the tenor of my life, … all my conversations and letters; … every sentiment that
my tongue and my pen have uttered, bear testimony to the rectitude of my mind …” (134).
Conversely, she is also an independent woman, whose masculine attributes hold aspects of the
Goddess and other, as part of a transcendent function. Her Goddess aspect is most evident in her
assumption of the role of narrator, an assumption that ignores eighteenth-century gender
conventions of masculine superiority. Also consider textual references to Clara’s perfection, such
as when her maid Judith, embellishes Clara’s bravery by associating her with attributes of a
Goddess, as she says Clara’s “perfections (are) little less than divine” (230). As other though,
moving to another space with her transcendent function that holds oppositions, Clara condemns
herself with accusing words of a rigid patriarchy. She states: “I confess that the curses of a world,
and the frowns of a deity are inadequate to my demerits” (254). Thus, within the narrative, Clara
has changing attitudes, which represent as her transcendent function. Additionally, a transcendent
function “… facilitates the transition from one attitude to another … ” (Taki-Reece). Clara does
so through the writing of her narration, as she moves from one space of realization to another.
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Clara can also be said to operate as a liminal symbol. A liminal symbol “mediates
between the unconscious [inner] and conscious [outer world]” (Howe). For example, Clara states
of herself that she “perceives a ray slit across the gloom and disappear [a perception, which then
calls] … up a train of horrors, … as if … suspended over me, [is] the exterminating sword”
(73). Clara’s dark mother shadow material leaves her on the edge of unconsciousness and the
unknown. A liminal symbol stands for an expansion of “consciousness … to explore
unconscious nature in a cyclical journey of … experience,” (Morena). Clara’s journey requires
perseveration, as the bonds of family relationships, demands of a supernatural alien voice, and
religious and society expectations of gender repeatedly haunt her.
She struggles with oppositions within and around her. Jungian archetypal oppositions
reveal “… a correspondence between the interior landscape and exterior landscape” …
(Zappacosta). These landscapes are those of the psyche and the exterior world. There is also a
correspondence “to the underworld, the earth and the heavens” (Harding 212), which can refer to
reality standing before one, as well as hidden and/or unknown aspects of reality and the psyche.
The abyss, which stands before Theodore in a dream, is like an underworld, reflective of Clara’s
psychic maternal dark shadow. Unconscious connotations are suggested of the “primal depths of
… incestual desires” (Jordan 93), bringing to fore an underworld within us that is deeply sexual
yet hidden because of cultural mores. For example, eighteenth-century American society does
not condone sexual passion in women, nor acknowledge the sexuality of the female body, let
alone admit the existence of incest. But Brown does not shy from such considerations, although
he disguises such thoughts in metaphorical language. For example, the earth of Mettingen is
described as containing feminine archetypal vegetative richness, suggestive of the potentiality of
feminine bodies, such as the native virgin Clara, who is born in Mettingen. Theodore enhances
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the beauties of Mettingen, of Clara metaphorically, as he “bedeck[s] this exquisite assemblage
of slopes and risings with every species of vegetable ornament … ” (54). His gardening takes on
new meaning when earth and vegetation is conceived of as a feminine archetype and Mettingen
as the birthplace of both siblings, reinforcing a claim he might have to Clara’s body, or as a
reference to Clara’s own animus. As an outsider, Carwin does not enrich the earth at Mettingen,
however he contends for Clara’s body against an unknown force he considers to be a
supernatural guardian of Clara, again giving her Goddess attributes. Consider how Carwin
describes “ … my eternal foe …[baffling] … my best concerted schemes {and in defeat
acknowledges that] … twice … you [are] saved” (103). His words suggest that she has a
heavenly animus protective force that he cannot hope to conquer. However, there is also
evidence of Clara’s interior anima feminine wiles through her manipulativeness. For example,
consider her statement recalling Pleyel’s unhappiness, being due to “the ambiguousness of my
behavior,” (88) as she hopes to inspire within Pleyel jealousy of Carwin, in order to prompt from
Pleyel a declaration of love. Also consider how Clara invites the supernatural animus of the
heavens through the power of feminine archetypal moon, when she states, ”dark is less fertile of
images than the feeble luster of the moon” (98). Clara’s narrative has an evolution into darkness
and renewal through the feminine moon’s image, known for cyclic waning and waxing,
revealing sexual passion, other and the power of renewal through the positive anima.
Brown can be said to promote feminine equity with his exploration of Jung’s feminine
psyche through the myth of Clara,1 whose positive feminine consciousness, her anima, prevails
See Shamdasani (Biography 56), for description of Jung’s depiction of myth, as symbolic of
the libido.
1
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in her creative narration of shadow and renewal. Consider Clara’s statement that she is
2
“ingenious and indefatigable in the invention of torments” (179). These words support belief in
women’s equality, even in the experience of destructive thoughts, passions and blame. Her tale
also contains allusions to the constrained role of women, as she questions her independence and
daring, yet her narration holds continuing independent viewpoints. For example, Clara identifies
a strong moral lesson of how virtue becomes a victim of evil through the “errors of the sufferers”
(278). She uses her feminine positive archetypal quality of relatedness in recognizing the
sufferers, to include male and female, self and other.
In her exploration of destructive thoughts, passions and evil, Clara is enabled through
empathy and Theodore’s own words to conclude that Theodore’s murders are driven by his
religion. For example she states that he “… has a savage decree, which the madness of Wieland
has assigned to heaven … ” (259). Furthermore, the Enlightenment era belief in the nature of man
falters, as Theodore is blocked from reason, observation and experience that is conceptualized as,
“building blocks for moral values [and] scientific inquiry … ” (Pollack 12). The instinctually
accessed emotional support of the positive feminine archetype, which calls for harmony in all
relationships, is absent. Theodore loses all control of rational thought and will, as well as any
sense of relatedness in the murder of his wife and children. Woodman suggests that the
patriarchal archetype reveals “an either/or, black and white world (with) no both/and,” (Conscious
57). Rigidity best describes the nature of Theodore’s relationship to the powerful paternal
Consider the possibility of a feminist message in Wieland. See Waterman’s (117)
description of how some critics see Brown’s novel Ormond, as maintaining a “commitment
to some form of feminism.” See Kaplan’s (84) assertion that Brown’s novel, Alcuin “contains
arguments for and demonstrations of women’s intellectual equality to man.” Additionally
consider Brown’s novel, Edgar Huntley and the allusions to the mythic Queen Mab (Grabo.
Introduction xii-xiv). Queen Mab has king’s drink mead, which can be conceived as occurring to
help them ‘understand feminism and women’s mysteries’ (“Famous Fairies”).
2
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archetype. A rigid patriarchal archetype allows, “the abstract idea of God,” which “lacks context
and ignores all sense of connectedness,” to take over will (Yescavage 18). It costs Theodore his
life and that of his wife and children. Jung states as follows: “An abstract thought is always
ruthless. It is the most dangerous to think, and it is the most marvelous” (America 18). Jung is
exploring the rigid patriarchal archetype of damaging self-control of the intellect and abstract
ideas of God, which in opposition releases the dark maternal shadow of devouring brutality,
rather than a positive anima.
Yet, it must be emphasized again how the idyllic world of Mettingen, as Clara represents
it, reinforces the myth of Clara as an ideal anima archetype. She is like Clark’s description of a
“saint and prophetess,” (280) an image of woman celebrated in the Romantic Movement,
representative of ultimate womanhood, favored by divinity. As a narrator, she tells the reader of
events to come, not unlike a prophetess. Clara can also be seen as demonstrating Jung’s “eternal
feminine, [by acting as a] … guide on a journey through the passions and rational aspects of a
story,” (Man 186). She is an archetypal feminine image of glorious proportions. So much so
that she is above common women, a figure worthy of worship but perhaps not of realistic belief
in eighteenth-century America.
The archetypes of gender are potent. “Jung in his commentary on The Spirit of the
Golden Flowers, speaks of the anima, as the earth spirit, ‘the woman who is half-fish living in
the depths of the water, or … who lives deep within the earth’” (Harding 50; Jung qtd in
Harding 50). In contrast, the animus holds an opposite. “The animus is the air spirit, ‘the spirit or
the sky’” (Harding 50; Jung qtd in Harding 50). The ideal of gender archetypal structures is that
the anima and the animus both are within each of us, both male and female. Further
understanding is unveiled through Weinrib’s assertion that the “Jungian view is that all of us are
8
to some extent androgynous” (Images 39). There are both masculine and feminine energies
fundamental to the human condition. Weinrib sheds further light on archetypes with the
statement: “Archetypes are innate psychic dynamisms, universal predispositions toward typical
forms of human apprehension and emotional and behavioral responses to experience” (Images
206). In the narrative, Clara relates to her gender archetypes unconsciously. Clara’s narrative is
of feminine archetypal properties of night, the moon, earthiness, secrets and sexuality, but she
also is the carrier of masculine oppositions. Typically competition and conflict mark relations
between men, while women “… nurture virtues that [have] no hint of competition and conflict”
(Spurlock 17). However, in her transcendent function, Clara develops a creative resolution to
events. Consider, for example, Clara’s explanation of her feminine curiosity and masculine
persistence in resolving mystery: “I cannot delineate the motives that led me on … [except for]
a supernatural voice … that undermines the foundations of my judgment …” (169). Gothic
events affect her by inciting masculine determination and passion, although danger exists,
particularly as a member of the weaker sex.
Gender can also be expressed as a matter of passion, or libido, even in the brother-sister
relationship of Clara and Theodore. Brown hints more directly of incest in the brother-sister
psychological bond, as he describes them as so symmetrical and happy in their childhood
togetherness. Theodore’s statement of Clara is telling: “There is no human being whom I love
with more tenderness, and whose welfare is nearer my heart” (124). The brother-sister bond is
unmasked, as more important to Theodore, than his relationship with his wife, which also
implies in silence that Clara’s psyche could be vulnerable to secret incestual desire.
For Clara, the dark maternal shadow of the unconscious appears not only in the silent
suggestion of incest but symbolically, when she acknowledges “an hereditary dread of water”
9
(94). Water is associated with nature and therefore the feminine and the unconscious. Jung states
for example, in Man and His Symbols, that, “the lake in the valley is unconscious” (18). Despite
Clara’s fears, which spread beyond water, she attempts to open her closet, where Carwin hides in
its dark recess and uses his vocal seduction to terrify, as she states, “I returned to the closet, and
once more put my hand upon the lock” (97). Jung describes the dark maternal presence as,
“anything secret, hidden, dark; the abyss, the world of the dead, anything that devours, seduces,
and poisons, that is terrifying and inescapable like fate” (Man 82). It is a nightmare scenario,
because it is from the unconscious and the unconscious often holds sexual desire and secrets the
conscious mind cannot face.
But agency for Clara exists, when she moves from the edge of unconsciousness to
consciousness, as a liminal symbol, confronting Carwin and regaining reason and control. She
describes her renewal, as “a tide, which suddenly mounts to an overwhelming height, and then
gradually subsides, my confusion slowly [gives] place to order, and my tumults to calm” (98).
Clara is sensitive to the feminine perceptions of her senses but relies on masculine reason.
Furthermore, she recognizes the requirement of evidence in the use of masculine rationality, as
she states, “these are means by which we are able to distinguish a substance from a shadow and
reality from a phantom of a dream” (99). Her animus asserts its positive masculine powers to
ward off the danger of the dark maternal shadow.
Clara’s draw to the dark maternal shadow, recalls Jung’s own words, with her following
ones: “As the moon passé(s) behind a cloud and emerge(s) these shadows seem … to be endowed
with life, and to move” (98). Jung similarly states the following: “The shadow is a living part of
the personality and therefore wants to live with it in some form (Man 20). For Clara, she voices
premonitions, fears and anxieties from her own dark maternal shadow not only about others, but
herself. For example, “in the midst of her difficulties, Clara … admit[s], the extent of
10
Carwin's demonic hold over her with images that show him quite literally lurking in her
mind” (Jordan 92). Consider her statement: ‘"The image of Carwin [is] blended in a
thousand ways with the stream of my thoughts" (148). Clara is mentally captivated and
simultaneously perturbed by Carwin. Also consider the following: “Witness my infatuation in
opening the closet in opposition to divine injunctions” [my emphasis] (160). An attraction to the
man inside is implied, which is unacceptable for women to acknowledge not only according to the
rules of society but God. Yet the force of Clara’s implication is hidden within the myth
celebrating her virtue and bravery.
In consideration of Clara’s internal conflict regarding sexuality, it is also noteworthy that
Carwin engages Clara’s maid in a lewd manner. Carwin admits using her servant to gain access to
Clara’s chamber and closet and says of Judith the following: “Your servant is not destitute of
feminine and virtuous qualities; but she was taught that the best use of her charms consists in the
sale of them” (230). Later he uses his voice with the intention to trick Pleyel and causes him to
doubt Clara. Pleyel states afterwards that, “… it is impossible to repeat your avowals of love …
Great God! Thou witnessedst the agonies that tore my bosom at that moment” (154). His
accusations unconsciously acknowledge sexuality, desire and passion within both he and Clara.
At the same time, Clara’s personal maid’s behavior with Carwin, reinforces an unconscious
sexuality in Clara’s narrative, because a personal maid is intimately associated with Clara herself.
As the narrative moves to Clara’s loss of Pleyel’s love and Gothic violent scenes of
death of her family, she retreats to the unconscious--a psychological womb. Clara then allows her
mother’s brother to assist in leaving home father’s home, suggesting an implicit embrace of
stories of the mother, along with her uncle’s male wisdom. For example, Clara states of her uncle:
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“Nothing more powerfully tended to console me than his conversation” (208). Marion
Woodman writes in her work, Leaving My Fathers House the following: “Conscious femininity is
grounded enough to relate to the divine without identifying with it,” … [as] identification is
unconscious; relationship is conscious” (14). Clara’s use of the positive feminine archetype
allows her conscious relatedness with her uncle to prevail in her acceptance of him, as a substitute
father. Clara describes him thus: My uncle took up abode with me, and performed for me every
office of nurse, physician and friend” (269). As Woodman states, claiming the positive energy is
usually projected onto a man, carrying “… our inner Father-God image” (13). Her uncle,3
subsumes her positive feminine archetype in protectiveness. A transformation occurs, which Jung
explains as follows: “the man who assimilate[s] [the positive feminine archetype]… become[s] a
Mana personality, a being of superior will and wisdom” (qtd in Shamdasani. Biography 105).
Consider the uncle’s position as a doctor, or Medicine Man, as well as a savior and hero but also
Clara’s unreliability in assessing her interactions.
Throughout Clara’s narration her words are uneven and not entirely congruent. For
example, consider the following statement: “I prevailed at length to move toward the closet. … A
sort of belief dart[s] into my mind, that some being [is] concealed within, whose purposes [are]
evil’” (96). Clara is disputing the source of evil. “Presumably she means within the closet, but
there is a nice ambiguity in the sentence that makes it possible the evil being is within her own
mind” (Grabo. Coincidental 15). Her own lack of “foresight” is what she criticizes in her ending
lines, suggesting she might have stopped herself, or others, but fails, yet does not explain what
she might have actually done differently. She can be seen to hold an ambivalent view of her own
Note on 181 of Wieland that her uncle’s name is Thomas Cambridge, a last name associated
with the wisdom of Harvard and the first with the saint who “verified the resurrection of his
master” (Catholic Online).
3
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capacity for evil, as she examines her relationship to the brittle negative and powerful
patriarchal archetype and the dark maternal archetype. She states after her brother’s death:
Henceforth I foster but one wish—I ask only quick deliverance from life and all the ills that attend
it” (266). Her desire is death, irrespective of God, or religion. Although time changes her despair,
she wonders if “it merely argues a fickleness of temper and a defect of sensibility” (269). She
blames herself for attainment not only of survival but happiness.
Religion
For I do not allow woman to teach, or to exercise authority over men; but
she is to keep silent. For Adam was formed first, then Eve. And Adam was
not deceived, but the woman was deceived and became a transgressor.
(1Timothy 2:12-14, qtd in Witcombe)
Religious hypocrisy and irrationality are unveiled in Wieland, along with the capacity for
violence in the name of God. Theodore’s religion is part of the powerful patriarchal archetype,
which Clara does not embrace, but accepts, without curiosity, or questions. Even after tragedy
has struck, Clara states that, “I address no supplication to the Deity” (5). Her statement could
also be one of guilt, as she does not hope to find succor through God. Theodore’s beliefs are
explained by Clara to differ from her own, as he follows the Calvinist beliefs of the colonist’s
forefathers. She explains: “Moral necessity, and Calvinistic inspiration [are] the props on which
my brother [thinks] proper to repose” (28). But Clara does not perceive his murder of his wife
and children, as consistent with a divinity supportive of humanity. The evidence for her view of
his actions is in the ending of the novel, where Clara states: “If Wieland frame[s] juster notions
of moral duty, and of the divine attributes…the double-tongued deceiver [can be] baffled and
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repelled” (278). She expresses hope that evil can be defeated through a vision of a more
forgiving God.
In contrast to her brother’s beliefs, Clara shows agency in choosing religious belief in a
loving and kind God imbued in nature. Clara states of her religious views, that she shares them
with Catherine, and that their religion is, “… the product of lively feelings, excited by reflection
in our own happiness, and by the grandeur of external nature” (24). The female protagonists
reveal an Enlightenment era faith in people and their world, in conflict with social expectations
of visible belief, through attendance at a Christian church. God and nature are in feminine
harmony, rather than masculine conflict. Brown seems to present Clara, as a woman one can see
agreeing with Murray on the equality of the sexes in the eyes of a loving God.4
Theodore’s early tolerance of the lady’s beliefs, might be explained in the viewpoint of
John Adams, as a Unitarian, who would oppose Theodore’s religion, as he, “… strenuously
dissent(s) from Calvinism, [but has firm adherence], … to the doctrines of the Puritans
concerning civil and religious liberty” (Chamberlain 13). This is played out in the novel by
Theodore’s tolerance not only of the ladies’ beliefs, but the addition of Carwin to conversations
at the Temple, as a Protestant who converts to Catholicism, and Pleyel’s own religious views,
which are not as dogmatic, as those of Theodore. In fact Clara states: “Pleyel [is] the champion
of intellectual liberty, and reject[s] all guidance but that of his reason” (28). Theodore thus is
wiling to converse on religious differences. She states of these conversations: “Their discussions
4Note
that in 1782, Judith Sargent Murray compiles and publishes a Universalist catechism,
which today is considered the earliest writing by an American Universalist woman,” in which
she makes her first public assertion of male and female equality, a hallmark of Universalism”
(Murray. Mingling 11). “[Universalism] is the first Christian denomination to ordain female
ministers” (Harris “Introduction.” The Gleaner. xxii). Furthermore, Brown is a Quaker and the
Quaker Church in America ordained female ministers even earlier than the Universalists
(“Quakers in the World”).
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[are] frequent, but …they [are] always listened to by us [Clara and Catherine] with avidity and
benefit” (28). Clara becomes a symbolic healer, again holding oppositions within her narrative.
But her brother’s belief is in a paternalistic God and he obeys the will of God. Theodore’s
Calvinism views the nature of man as sinful; God is all-powerful and punitive to the unrepentant.
Hell and damnation is the fate of those who do not fear God.
Jonathan Edwards, is instructive of the Calvinist viewpoint, as he speaks of the need to
acknowledge sin, believe in Christ and the will of God for eternal salvation, or be eternally
damned.5 Likewise, Theodore’s religion does not allow questioning of God, as he complies with
a command to murder and says to Clara, in accusation of her apparent lack of fear of God,
“Dastardly wretch! Thus eternally questioning the behest of they maker” (248)! There is a taint
of sex, as Clara is accused of weakness, a moral attribute patriarchy has assigned women since
the fall of Eve. Consider Theodore’s claim that Clara is, “Weak in resolution” (248).
Furthermore, his words to Clara, suggest that she is a fallen woman, as he pronounces Clara,
“Wayward in faith” [my emphasis] (248). Paradoxically, these words also suggest an
independent woman and the idea of Clara holding oppositions.
Theodore’s sense that women are fallen comes through in the narrative in his brutality.6
Consider the destruction of Louisa’s lips, as “… not a lineament remained!” (179). The
violence is an order from God, according to Theodore, with the words that “the children
must perish with their mother,” (197), but Theodore takes further misogynous action on his
own. His words to his wife also reinforce the understanding of a rigid paternalism, which
5See
6See
Edward’s admonition to fear God (301).
Kafer’s account (113) of the real life killing of the Yates family, which parallels
Wieland’s murders and perhaps inspires the author.
15
discounts and dislikes women for their gender. Theodore tells his wife that she must die, but
first says, “Catherine! I pity the weakness of thy nature: I pity thee, but must not spare” [my
emphasis] (194). Gender discrimination appears at work, as he seems to imply that the Catherine
is inherently weak, due to her gender, which is invoked as her nature and so he condemns her,
along with divinity [my emphasis]. As the words of Theodore are part of Clara’s narrative, they
are also words that she herself has internalized.
Additionally, it is Carwin’s compelling voice, which Theodore hears but mistakes as
divine.7 Carwin’s rhetoric employ’s a relationship with a powerful and rigid patriarchal authority
archetype, in order to deceive Theodore’s interior will. Carwin might also be said to represent
“the Jeremiah figure of evil,” attacking what is displeasing to the “Eye of God,” (Holton CD 4).
God is all seeing of rights and wrongs, including those of Eve, and it is commonplace in 18th
century churches to view Eve as lacking virtue, so culturally all women are suspected of this
failing. Again Clara herself holds these notions within her in her transcendent function.
Judith Sargent Murray, an early American voice on behalf of women, upbraids religious
views of women, as fallen. She writes:
That Eve was indeed the weaker vessel, I boldly take upon me to
Deny—Nay, it should seem she was abundantly the stronger vessel
since all the deep laid Art of the most subtle fiend that inhabited the
infernal regions, was requisite to draw her from her allegiance, while
Adam was overcome by the influence of the softer passions merely by
his attachment to a female. (Berkin 151)
See Holton CD 4 for a description of religious revivalism of the Great Awakening, led by
George Whitefield and the effect on gender of the actions of Adam and Eve, described by
Witcombe (3-7).
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She suggests that Eve is the stronger spirit, as she must be persuaded by ultimate evil in her
conversion, while Adam is persuaded by the wiles of womanhood to taste the forbidden apple.
This challenge of the conventional view of the biblical story has a parallel with the story of
Wieland, as Carwin’s mental seduction of Theodore contributes to his loss of a relationship with
positive patriarchal archetype embracing reason and his anima celebrating relatedness, ultimately
costing him the lives of his family. Clara recognizes within her narrative that Theodore’s notions
are folly, as she mourns the loss of her family and searches for answers amid her connections to
memories of them and to the evil she identifies of Carwin, rather than accept other that is within
herself.
Femininity: From Personal to Political
Virginia Woolf once wrote that women are condemned by society to function
as mirrors, reflecting men at twice their actual size. (Woodman. The Owl Was a
Baker’s Daughter 101)
In eighteenth-century America the feminine gender is traditionally conceived of weak
and in need of protection and privacy but that concept begins to change with the events of the
American Revolution, where women are required to perform public tasks in the absence of their
men.8 After the war, Dr. Benjamin Rush is known as the “father of psychiatry,” (Berkin 155),
because of his creation of psychiatric hospitals for the mentally ill and work on behalf of
providing treatment rather than punishment for the mentally ill. He promotes the notion of
8See
Kerber’s work on women’s sacrifices during war and contribution to their family’s
survival and patriotism on behalf of the country (35-113).
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mental illness as a disease, rather than an evil, regardless of gender. Rush also articulates
concepts of Republican Motherhood, as follows:
The equal share that every citizen has in the liberty and the possible share
he may have in the government of our country … makes it necessary that our
ladies should be qualified to a certain degree, by a peculiar and suitable education,
to concur in instructing their sons in the principles of liberty and government.
(Rush, qtd in Berkin 155)
He advocates that liberty, government and patriotism of men, requires a particular education of
women, so that they can instill it in their sons, as a matter of public policy. Rush’s work on behalf
of Republican Motherhood, can be said to be a” precursor to modern day feminism” (Harris.
Introduction. The Gleaner xxvii). Rush achieves this shift on behalf of women, by changing the
view that the personal world of women is private. He instead builds an understanding that “the
personal is political” (Kerber 283). Rush presents a particular education of women, as essential to
the country, which Brown seems to take further in a call for equity in education.10 However, Rush
also suggests that there is equity in the nature of women, when he writes of dreams. Rush writes
in Medical Inquiries and Observation, 1812: “[Dreaming is] ‘as much a native faculty, as
9See
Wieland, where disease is a word Clara uses to describe her own condition (209) and
refers to her uncle ministering to her in her home, (269) which she calls an asylum, (268)
in contrast to her brother’s prison space.
See Waterman (25) and Kaplan (92) for Elihu Smith’s connection to Rush and Kaplan (75) for
a description of Smith’s role in Brown’s publications; Mulford’s (xiv) depiction of the vision of
Rush’s morality; Barnard and Shapiro for Rush’s (309-20) and Wollstonecraft’s (320-31)
influence on the education of women; Waterman’s (92-129) description of how Smith and his
literary organization, The Friendly Club, Godwin and Wollstonecraft influence Brown;
Waterman’s (129) description of Brown’s support for women (129); Waterman’s (108) cited
evidence of Brown promoting gender equity in education in Wieland through “the Wieland’s
siblings equal access to education”; as well as Stern’s (184) description of Brown articulating “
the plea for female education throughout his literary career”.
10
18
memory or imagination…’” (qtd in Zarrow). Dreaming becomes a part of the concept of both
feminine and masculine nature and a foundation upon which Jung builds his psychological
theories.
But Rush also sees dreaming exercised in romantic writings, which might include
Wieland, as detrimental to women’s nature, because traditional patriarchal defined marriage is
undermined, along with society’s expectation of virtuous women. For example, even Foster, the
novelist who wrote, The Coquette, an instructive tale of seduction states: “… novels are the
favourite, and most dangerous kind of reading …, [which] often pervert[s] the judgment,
mislead[s] the affections, and blind[s] the understanding” (qtd in Showalter 31). John Adam’s
letter to Rush speaks further to the expectations of women in relationships with men, as he states
the following: “I say then that national Morality never was and never can be preserved without
the utmost purity and chastity in women, [as] without national morality, a Republican government
cannot be maintained” (Mulford. Introduction. The Coquette xvi-xvii). Not only must the sacred
hymen be protected but a mental conception of purity must be preserved, as a duty of women in
both the private realm and public arena.
Brown presents Clara not only holding an idealized vision of virtue society expects of
women but she also is given gender equity that far outdoes Rush’s vision. As Clara relates of she
and Theodore, “we [are] instructed in most branches of useful knowledge, and saved from the
corruption and tyranny of colleges and boarding-schools” (22). The reference to corruption and
tyranny may allude to well-known colleges. For example, Morgan discusses how young men at
Yale engage in debauchery and a profligate lifestyle (Morgan. 178-86).11 Clara and her brother
11
See Beecher qtd in Morgan of his experiences at Yale (178).
19
are given an equal education, unheard of for women at the time, that is represented to be better
than what is given in colleges for men, as her own education and that of Theodore, allegedly
inspires virtue.
Another aspect of gender is addressed by Brown through the theme of seduction. For
example, he makes an indirect but unmistakable reference to the 1788 personal tragedy Sarah
Wentworth Morton experiences, when her sister Francis kills herself, following her seduction and
birth of a child fathered by the husband of Sarah Wentworth.12 Consider Brown’s allusion in
Wieland to William Hill Brown’s 1789 novel, The Power of Sympathy, which is based on the real
life Morton scandal, when Clara states, “the tale I am going to tell is not intended as a claim upon
your sympathy” [my emphasis] (5). Additionally, within W. Brown’s novel, the real life story of
Elizabeth Whitman is cited. She is a resident of New Haven, which is the location of Yale, though
Hannah Foster’s novel, The Coquette, is yet to be written, suggesting the early reach of the
Whitman Scandal and reinforces the notoriety of colleges such as Yale. W. Brown states in his
novel: ”The story of Miss Whitman is an emphatic illustration … [of how] an inflated fancy,
[and] … a poetic imagination … not counter-posed with judgment … [are] the cause of her
ruin” (23-5). With Wieland, C. Brown seems to continue the argument of W. Brown, particularly
through the fictive story of Louisa Conway. For example, Clara says of Lady Conway: “If the
lady [crushes] … her disastrous passion in the bud, and [drives] the seducer from her presence,
See Mulford’s Introduction to Foster’s novel, The Coquette for history (xxxxix) and the
entire Introduction for additional background of aversion to the idea of women reading
Romance novels (ix-li) and Morton’s text on poetry, which examines her own psychological
experiences of the events in the real life characters represented in W. Brown’s, The Power of
Sympathy. She writes about the difficulties of innocent beautiful women, the position that society
put them in and how, “the worst elements of the earth,” debase them in her poem, “Woman,” as
well as the process in being reunited with a spouse through tragedy, in her poem “Conciliation,”
both of which seem a reflection of her situation in 1788, necessary to her healing (Woman 177-8;
Conciliation 183-4).
12
20
when the tendency of his artifices [are present] …we [will] not have to deplore …
catastrophe” (278). The seduced female assumes blame, whether the seduction is physical, or
psychological, which Clara is very aware of in her narrative.
Foster has the female assume blame in seduction, as the friends of Ms. Whitman
repeatedly warn her and she herself belatedly recognizes pending social ruin, because she
questions herself as follows: “But how can I rise superior to ‘The World’s dread laugh, which
scarce the firm philosopher can scorn’” (James Thomson, qtd in Foster 184; The Coquette,
Mulford’s Explanatory Notes, Letter XLIV 264). In Wieland, Carwin’s manipulations, Maxwell’s
seductive acts and Clara’s effort to incite jealousy in Pleyel, echo the warnings to women of W.
Brown and Foster regarding the consequences of sexual seduction and coquettish behavior.
However Theodore’s murders and subsequent death shows the vulnerabilities of either gender to
seduction of the mind.
Brown is also commenting on how culturally Clara is seduced to assume blame as a
woman. Her guilt regarding her fascination with Carwin can be seen, as a phenomenon of
Republican Motherhood, which insists that virtue is the duty of women, while ignoring the
licentious behavior of men, such as Carwin’s desire to rape her. Consider Carwin’s words,
…”But for him [an unknown supernatural guardian is implied] I should long ere now have borne
away the spoils of your honor” (103). Pleyel then suggests Clara’s will is an issue in her
destruction, when saying to her that Carwin makes “… your will the instrument by which he
might bereave you of liberty and honor” (151). Clara struggles with the issue of blame, yet also
assumes on cultural self–blame, when she ruminates over past events and states “… I had forseen
21
nothing” (160). She blames herself for having shortcomings, while ignoring strengths.
13
She
goes so far as to state “It [is] better to know nothing, than to be deceived by an artful tale” (145).
But later, following the murders, fire and removal to Europe, in a state of self-renewal, she
transforms by assigning blame to a “proliferation of ‘constitutive categories,” which includes her
own attributes of guilt and others (Leitch. “Judith Butler” 2536-37). She considers a range of
potential actions and actors, as responsible for Theodore’s murders and the Conway tragedy. For
example, she is willing to consider, “…the evils to which Carwin and Maxwell [are] the authors”
(278). Yet the mystery of guilt is not solved, as there is retained in Clara’s ruminations a gothic
sensibility of forces out of her control. Consider her statement “ … I acknowledge that my guilt
surpasses that of all mankind…” (254). There is a lingering whiff of sexuality in her tale of
seduction. For example, she condemns herself as “…sunk below the beasts” (253). Her reference
creates the image of bodily failings due to sexuality.
A Burning House
With Dreams upon my bed thou scarest me and allrightest me with Visions.
(William Blake, qtd in Jung. Man and His Symbols 73)
Sexuality is ever present in this tale, as Clara explores her sexuality through her
descriptions of Mettingen and her own dreams. At the summerhouse, she dreams of being on the
way to Theodore’s house, when he begins] beckoning and calling [her] to make haste [but he
stands in darkness on] … the opposite edge of [a dangerous abyss or] gulph” (71). A dark hidden
nature of their relationship becomes palpable with secretiveness and danger suggestive of incest.
She dreams of sexual passion as well, visualizing Pleyel and herself one with the land of
See Gordon’s description praising women for using “ … romance [as] a strategy to …
command space” (51) [which is also accomplished through] “ … active detective work
[which might be celebrated] … in a different narrative … as creative or ingenuous” (55).
13
22
Mettingen with her words that, “we shall meet at the temple [and then] the moon will rise at
eleven and at that hour, we shall wind along the bank [where he] … will reveal his soul to me”
(90). There is a meeting of the mind and heart in the references to the temple and the bank. The
temple blends feminine love of music and connections with those who are close to her to spiritual
concerns of religion and masculine philosophy. The bank, or heart sits on the edge of a body of
water lighted by a moon, all archetypal feminine properties. She thinks of her father, where “his
manuscript, containing memoirs of his own life, [makes it] the most useful book in her
collection,” which happens to be contained within her closet (95). Later in Brown’s Wieland,
Clara has a “frantic conception that my brother [is] within” (86). She makes this statement in
reference to her closet, the scene of her secrets. Her anima is very present in the references to
feminine archetypal sensory information, such as “the murmur of the waterfall”(97) and vision of
“moon-light [that] stream[s] into each window, and every corner of the room”(101). Her closet
symbolizes not only her inner psychological secrets, but her sexuality and heritage, represented by
her body, psyche and gender. Her animus is represented by her father’s manuscript within her
closet and aspects of both her anima and animus are apparent within her closet.
Clara threatens society norms of gender with her masculine attributes. Carwin’s most
persuasive description of Clara’s masculinity is of her courage. He says that she is “fearless and
tranquil, … persist[ing] in defiance of an interdiction [his words to hold, hold], so emphatic and
solemn,” (245). She is given a heroic status. Clara’s masculine courage and strength are further
accessed in the text through her hidden penknife and intentions to defend herself. For example,
she describes her penknife, as a symbol and instrument of her courage by stating: “This … will
be my safe-guard and avenger. The assailant shall perish, or myself shall fall” (166). Her speech
is one of male-ascribed eloquence, a voice of a Republican orator, like John Adams and his fellow
23
patriot, Patrick Henry, who is famous for his 1775 Virginia Convention speech: “Give me
liberty or give me death” (web). It is a voice consenting to defiance not impossible to conceive of
in eighteenth-century America, if one considers female heroines during the Revolutionary War
and after.14 Also of note is Murray’s argument that female courage, moral and intellectual abilities
of women are equal to men, in her 1798, “Observations on Women’s Abilities” (Murray, qtd in
Lewis 43).15 These are among the collective oppositional views of gender that Clara holds.
Clara asserts through her penknife a courage Murray might applaud. Furthermore, the
scene of Clara with a raised penknife suggests the female French Corday’s murderous heroism,
which Brown is known to project in his novel Ormond.16 It also is a reminder that, “armed
resistance may be necessary to defeat patriarchal authority,” (Lewis 45). Clara is at this point in
the narrative a figure employing masculine courage in a chivalrous defense of her womanhood.
But beyond her actions as an independent and courageous female, there is a
psychological oneness of Clara and Catherine. Catherine is Clara’s “… partaker of all my
thoughts, my cares, and my wishes” (172). They can be said to have a “sister-sister bonding …
[which is indicative of] a fluid sense of psychological sexual identity” (Downing 35).17 They both
14See
Waisman (22-6) for a depiction of eighteenth-century American heroines.
Also see Brown’s depiction of feminine courage in his 1799 novel, Ormond, such as follows: “I
delighted to assume the male dress, to acquire skill at the sword, and dexterity in every boisterous
exercise. The timidity that commonly attends women, gradually vanishe(s). I [feel] as if imbued
with a soul that [is] a stranger to sexual distinction. (Brown. Ormond, qtd in Lewis 37).
15
See Barnard and Shapiro (“Narratives” 360) and Williams (“12a. Corday” 3651-5), for
information on Corday’s acts during the French Revolution.
16
17
Note that eighteenth-century Philadelphia is not a stranger to same-sex expressions of love
(Saint-Me'ry 347-53).
24
have romantic men in their lives, yet are incredibly similar in their outlooks and have in
common the absence of parental figures in their adult lives.
From a Jungian perspective, the orphaned Clara can be seen as having a need for a
psychological mother. Wirth states if a woman has a homosexual attachment the following:
“There has not been enough of the mother. She has been thrown too much over into the father
world somehow” (234).18 For example, Clara seems to project a union in ideas and spirit with
Catherine but may not follow a normative path of society due to the absence of her mother. Also
Catherine herself does not have a mother presented in the narrative. Furthermore, Gordon
credits mothers with the capacity to introduce daughters to the rational path of life” (42-3).
Sexual choices and other aspects of life are connected to the maternal archetype. It is however
important to remember Kay Bornstein’s words suggesting genders are “only what we decide they
are” (qtd in Lewis 51). Identity is in the eyes of the beholder and mind of the individual.
Conclusion: The Aftermath
Feminine and Masculine belong first and foremost to the Other
[whatever that is] than to the archetypal level of our being, and finally
to the more conscious level. (Sheila Moon 216)
As narrator, Clara does achieve agency through her relationship with the feminine
archetype. She contends “… with multiple competing histories and an onslaught of disconnected
phenomenon, while trying to arrive at coherent accounts” (Emerson 134). She is able to bring
emotional understanding of events through a rapprochement with the mother and other, but with
reality perhaps hidden in shadow. For example, Clara shows empathy for the other and self, when
See Lewis (51) regarding Brown’s interest in Wollstonecraft’s ideas on women having
sexual passions and Godwin (332) for a description of Wollstonecraft’s interest in a woman
named Fanny Blood.
18
25
she states: “The impulses of love are so subtle, and the influence of false reasoning, when
enforced by eloquence and passion, is so unbounded, that no human virtue is secret from
degeneracy” (275). In her speech her positive feminine anima asserts itself in empathy.
Yet Clara is dissatisfied with the tenor of her narrative. Clara states: "My narrative may
be invaded by inaccuracy and confusion…” (167). She suggests that her narration is flawed. Also
she says:" My opinions [are] the sport of eternal change"(205). Such change suggests the
movement contained in her transcendent function. Additionally, she questions her perceptions.
For example, Clara asks: "Did I place a right construction on the conduct of Wieland” (253)?
Clara is struggling to hold the oppositions of gender required of a transcendent symbol.
But Jung seems to suggest that gender differences are an illusion, as the anima and
animus co-exist within each of us. Shamdasani quotes Jung as saying that, ”a woman should
recognize the masculinity within herself, [to] become more fully human …” (Image). But in
doing so, Clara is face to face-to-face with the archetype of the devouring mother. As the
following dialogue shows, she regresses into a disorganized primitive state, saying “ …
sometimes I [am] swallowed up by whirlpools, or caught up in the air by half-seen and gigantic
forms, and thrown upon pointed rocks, or cast among the billows” (269). She describes what
could be an unconscious world. She projects fears and confusion regarding her brother’s actions,
and possibly her own, which are representative of her own relationship with a rigid patriarchal
archetype. Clara states, “whether Wieland (is) a maniac, a faithful servant of God, the victim of
hellish illusions, or the dupe of human imposture, [is] by no means certain” (214). Her
compassion is noteworthy in that she allows the possibility that her brother’s actions contain
virtue in his fidelity to God, the brother she has looked up to since her birth.
Yet Clara repeatedly questions her own narration in regard to her brother.
26
Consider her statement: "What but ambiguities, abruptness’s, and dark transitions, can be
expected from the historian who is, at the same time, the sufferer of these disasttrers?"
(Jordan 167). She invites the reader not to believe her. Furthermore she identifies with
Theodore. Consider her words:
Was I not likewise transformed from rational and human into a creature
of nameless and fearful attributes? Was I not transported to the brink of
the same abyss? Ere a new day should come, my hands might be embrued
in blood" (Wieland 204-05).
She leaves the impression that like her brother, she could be a killer. Jordan points out that
no one else is in the room, when Theodore dies as a rationale suggesting the possibility that she
is really a killer19.
Jordan also suggests that Clara’s guilt and shame regarding Theodore’s death is
underscored, by the location of his blood (91). Consider Clara’s statement: “He [is] stretched at
my feet; and my hands [are] sprinkled with his blood…” (264). While she continues the narrative
with the excuse that the blood got on her, as he fell, a neck wound more likely would have
sprayed randomly over all of her and the room. Yet to confront the truth is a horror neither male,
or female are likely to embrace, as a role in killing a sibling is horrific for anyone and explains the
inconsistencies within the narrative, not as one of gender weakness by Clara but human frailty.
Consider Blake’s words:
The roaring of lions, the howling of wolves, the raging of the stormy
See Jordan for a detailed rationale of Clara being a potential murderer of her brother
(91).]
19
27
seas and the destructive portions of eternity [are] too great for the eyes
of man! (qtd in Clark 326).
It must be remembered however that Clara’s relationship with her positive feminine
archetype is what allows her to move forward into the world by recognizing her deep feelings for
her brother and absolving him of guilt. Consider her statement: “My heart was visited and rent by
his pangs” (263). She recognizes her empathy for him. But she also states: “Can I wish for the
continuance of thy being? No”(263). She may mean that she is angry with him and wants revenge
but it seems more likely that she may have killed her brother to save him from his psychological
state of dejection. For example, she describes him as follows: “ … a monument of woe” (263).
Theodore’s death relieves him from pain and prison, so his possible murder may be seen as an act
of love.
In a similar act of compassion, Clara ultimately states of Carwin: “The innocence and
usefulness of his future life may, in some degree, atone for the miseries so rashly, or so
thoughtlessly inflicted,” (273). Jordan suggests her new perspective may also reflect recognition
of her own guilt (91). Yet, she also allows herself some measure of forgiveness. Consider the
effect of the fire in her statement: “A new train of images [appear and] … a belief [springs] up,
that tranquility, if not happiness [is] within reach” (271). She allows herself a future.
Clara grieves but connection with the mother through her Mana gives her access to her
positive feminine archetype of relatedness. As Clara states of her uncle in relationship to both she
and her brother: “This man [is] our nearest relation, and … treat[s] us with the affection of a
parent” (182). The shock of the fire and the presence of her uncle, move her toward life without
her brother. Clara confirms her embrace of life, as she states, “I now willingly [listen] to my
uncle’s solicitations … ” (271). She travels with her uncle to France, a hotbed of eighteenth-
28
century proto-feminist thought and ancient traditions of patriarchy. She finds “her curiosity
revived and [ability to] contemplate with ardour, the spectacle of living manners and monuments
of the past ages” (271). She is enabled by her positive anima archetype to look past her maternal
dark shadow and to her positive animus archetype. Jung describes masculine energy, as “wind,
breath, and unconscious perception” (Modern 180-181). In producing her narrative, Clara is a
woman who struggles not only to present facts but the realities of gender, other and foibles of
human will by using the energy and rationality of her animus. Yet Clara, as Murray states in The
Gleaner of women, “… only contend[s] for the capability of the female mind to become
possessed of any attainment within the reach of masculine exertion” (726).20 Through her
narrative Clara reveals the strength of her evolving positive feminine, accepting frailties and some
forgiveness of other. It is a lesson all of us continue with each generation to struggle with as
women and as men, by reaching for the positive feminine quality of relatedness in recognizing
our interior strengths and weaknesses, along with those of the outer world, in a quest for survival
and the betterment of the human condition.
20
See Waterman (123,129) for an understanding of how Wieland is an argument against gender
essentialism, not only in Clara’s use of her penknife, but her mind.
29
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