Fall 2012
The War of 1812 - America’s First Forgotten War
by Ryann Nicole Brooks
The War of 1812, often called the “second war
of independence,” is one of the most overlooked and
misunderstood events in United States history. It marked the
second time the United States declared war on the British
Empire, in a move that would threaten the survival of the
young nation. Ultimately, it would grant the United States
true recognition as an independent nation in the eyes of
major European powers, and helped to bolster its reputation
in international politics. It also marked the second time the
United States would attempt (and fail) to conquer Canada.
It was a relatively short war, lasting only two years and eight
months. There was no clear winner, and not much changed
as a result of the war. It represents the last great attempt to
unite Native Americans against the expansive power of the
United States. The War of 1812 produced some of the most
recognizable symbols of American history, like “The Star
Spangled Banner” and Uncle Sam. It saw the burning of the
White House, and produced its share of heroes. The war
stirred what many historians pinpoint as the root of American
nationalism, while at the same time marked a deeply-rooted
facet of sectionalism that would help lay the groundwork for the
Civil War nearly fifty years before it began.
Why then is the legacy of the War of 1812 so often
forgotten? Part of the reason may be that, unlike other conflicts,
the war has no easily definable causes. Some arguments point to
almost a decade of ineffective and restrictive policies put forth
by both American and British politicians. These policies include
the British impressment – or seizure – of American seaman in
U.S. waters. Others attribute the war to the rise of American
expansionism and the desire to acquire Canada to “secure
additional farm land” and “put an end to British influence over
American Indians.” Some historians have argued that sectional
Center for
Great Plains Studies
differences between
the main political
parties in the United
States pushed the
country to war,
while others claim
that ideological
factors of upholding
national honor and
republican values
were to blame.
Donald R. Hickey
argues that the war
was the result of
a combination of
factors, not least
of which was a
lingering resentment
of the British by
Crewmen of Chesapeake prepare one cannon shot
during the Chesapeake-Leopard Affair in 1807.
Americans, and the
perceived threat of
British encroachment on American independence. Indeed,
relations between Great Britain and the United States following
the end of the Revolutionary War resembled a rivalry more than
an alliance, but that alone does not explain the war. Reginald
Horsman argues that the true impetus of war was not the
achievement of American independence from Great Britain, but
rather the “outbreak of war between Great Britain and France
in 1793,” and the short peace that followed. Independently,
these issues were not enough to spark a war between the United
States and Great Britain, but together they helped create an
atmosphere of tension and distrust between the countries.
1200 Commercial St., Campus Box 4040, Emporia, KS 66801
e-mail jhoy@emporia or [email protected]
Tales Out of School, a newsletter for elementary and middle school teachers, is published twice a year and is available free of charge to interested persons. A
variety of subjects related to teaching Kansas history and the Great Plains appear in Tales. Each issue emphasizes a single topic and includes a resource of
websites, books, and teaching tools to assist in the classroom. Readers are encouraged to submit items to the newsletter that they believe will be useful to fellow
teachers. Past issues of Tales are available on the website at www.emporia.edu/cgps. If you would like to have your name added to the mailing list or would like
to send suggestions please email us at [email protected].
The years leading up to the war were tumultuous at best,
both locally and internationally. With the election of Thomas
Jefferson, Republicans had gained power of the White House in
1801 after a decade of Federalist rule. Jefferson’s administration
worked diligently to reverse Federalist policies dealing with
everything from the economy to the size of the military. By
1803, Great Britain and France had gone to war again, marking
the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars. While the United States
remained a neutral power during this time, it still weathered
difficulties because of it. France had re-opened trade with the
United States and the French West India colonies, and Great
Britain attempted to subvert this by invoking the Rule of
1756 which had stated that trade with a neutral party could
be not opened in a time of war. The United States responded
by inaugurating a system of “broken voyage” where shipments
bound for France were first taken to the United States. The
practice of “re-export trade” proved to be incredibly profitable
for the United States, topping off at around $53 million by
1805.
That same year British officials ruled with the Essex
decision that “landing goods and paying duties in the
United States was no longer proof of bona fide importation,”
meaning that American merchants would have to provide
proof that ships bound for France had indeed broken their
voyages when landing in U.S. ports. Another problem was
the impressment of American ships and seaman by the British
navy. Because American ships offered higher pay and better
working conditions, “probably a quarter of the 50,000 to
100,000 seaman employed on American ships” were British.
To overcome shortages in their own ranks, British “press
gangs” would board American ships in an effort to reclaim
British subjects – and sometimes American citizens – for
service on their own ships. In an effort to end impressment
and reinstatement of the re-export trade, American and British
diplomats put forth a renewal of the Jay Treaty of 1795, called
the Monroe-Pinkney Treaty. Under the terms of the treaty the
This 1814 copy of “The Star-Spangled Banner” was the first printed edition
to combine the words and sheet music. Copies such as these were sold from a
catalog of Thomas Carr’s Carr Music Store in Baltimore. Currently this is one
of only ten copies known to exist, and is housed in the Library of Congress.
United States would have given up the “promise of benevolent
neutrality” while gaining British allowance of the re-export trade
so long as American ships paid a small duty when breaking
voyage in the U.S, advanced notice of British blockades, and the
promise that the British would no longer involve themselves in
American trade within five miles of the U.S. coast. Jefferson,
however, rejected the treaty and refused to send it to the Senate
for ratification in 1806, and relations between the powers
rapidly deteriorated.
On June 22, 1807 the U.S.S. Chesapeake, an American
frigate, was approached by the H.M.S. Leopard, a British vessel.
The British navy demanded that a boarding party be allowed
to board the Chesapeake, which employed a large number of
British citizens, to search for deserters. The Americans refused
and the Leopard fired at the ship, killing three and wounding
eighteen others. While Jefferson ordered “all British warships
out of American waters,” he waited for Britain’s response. The
British condemned the attack and offered to pay reparations,
which staved off a war. Between 1807 and 1810 four pieces of
legislation put forth by the United States attempted to satisfy
relations with Great Britain. The Embargo Act (1807), issued
by Jefferson restricted international trade by American ships
without permission; the Non-Intercourse Act (1807) eased up
the restrictions of the Embargo Act and instead limited the
restriction to Great Britain and France; the Erskine Agreement
(1809) offered to resume trade with Great Britain and cease
trade with France if the British would stop impressment
of American sailors (it was denied); Macon’s Bill No. 2
(1810) again forbade trade with France and Great Britain,
but offered to open trade up with the first nation that lifted
trade restrictions on neutral parties. France agreed, and trade
resumed.
By 1811, relations with Great Britain had all but failed,
but this was not the only problem for the United States. 1811
also marked the “outbreak of a new Indian war on the western
front.” Angered by the continued aggression of American
imperialism against Native Americans, Shawnee brothers
Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa (or Prophet) had started building
an “Indian confederation based on the rejection of the white
man’s ways” around 1805. Having steadily grown more militant
and larger in size, on November 7, 1811 the confederation
attacked an U.S. army camp led by William Henry Harrison,
who would later become the ninth U.S. president. Despite
catching the soldiers off-guard, the Battle of Tippecanoe proved
to be an American victory, although the confederation did not
disband until Tecumseh’s death in 1813 at the Battle of the
Thames.
Tensions with Great Britain had deteriorated completely
by the time James Madison, who had succeeded Jefferson in the
presidency in 1809, made the declaration of war on June 18,
1812. It was a move that deeply divided the country, exposing
sectionalism between the Republicans and the Federalists.
Republicans had grown overwhelmingly supportive of going
to war, while the Federalists were vehemently against it. Two
days after the declaration the Federal Republican, a Federalist
newspaper in Baltimore, Maryland that had a
reputation for being inflammatory, came out
against the war and became the target of violent
opposition. Over the course of the summer
anti-Federalist mobs destroyed ships suspected
of carrying provisions to the British, attacked
British-sympathizers and broke into the jail
holding Federalist prisoners. Republicans blamed
the violence in Baltimore on the Federalists, and
pointed to incidents in New England where antiwar Federalists had incited similar riots, but the
damage was done. “Revulsion against the violence
… contributed to Federalist election victories in
Maryland, New York, and New England” and
the Federal Republican became “one of the most
widely read newspapers in the country.”
Drawing shows the ruins of the U.S. Capitol following British attempts to burn the
While the United States attempted to subvert
building; includes fire damage to the Senate and House wings, damaged colonnade in
rebellion within its borders, the war began
the House of Representatives shored up with firewood to prevent its collapse, and the
shell of the rotunda with the facade and roof missing. 1 drawing on paper : ink and
against the British on the North Atlantic. In July,
watercolor. Historical context: George Munger’s drawing, one of the most significant
under the command of General William Hull,
and compelling images of the early republic, reminds us how short-lived the history of
U.S. forces invaded Canada with the promise
the United States might have been. In the evening hours of August 24, 1814, during
the second year of the War of 1812, British expeditionary forces under the command
to emancipate Canadians “from tyranny and
of Vice Admiral Sir Alexander Cockburn and Major General Robert Ross set fire to
oppression” under British rule.
the unfinished Capitol Building in Washington, D.C. All the public buildings in the
The attack was badly organized, and in August
developing city, except the Patent Office Building, were put to the torch in retaliation
for what the British perceived as excessive destruction by American forces the year
Hull retreated to Detroit and surrendered to
before in York, capital of upper Canada. At the time of the British invasion, the
the British. Over the course of the two years,
unfinished Capitol building comprised two wings connected by a wooden causeway.
the United States engaged Britain by ship and
This exceptional drawing, having descended in the Munger family, was purchased by
the Library of Congress at the same time the White House purchased the companion
on land, suffering heavy losses in Detroit and
view of ‘The President’s House.’
Frenchtown, and opposition to the war did
not fade away. In December 1814, a group of
the British in New Orleans. On January 8, 1815, Jackson and
Federalists met at the Hartford Convention and discussed the
his army defeated British forces in the city. The British had been
possibility of secession in response to the disaffection of New
attempting to gain control over territory the United States had
England states in regards to the militia. Moderate Federalists
acquired from France in the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, which
won out, however, and the convention turned into more of a
party caucus than anything, but the threat of secession shows just included what is now the state of Kansas. The British lost over
2,000 men at the battle, compared to seventy on the U.S. side.
how divided the U.S. was during the war.
Jackson’s success launched him into the limelight as a national
By 1815, the United States and Great Britain were divided
hero, and helped win him the presidency in 1828. Reports of
on successes in the war, and negotiations for peace were in the
the peace treaty had been steadily spreading through the nation
works in late 1814. Signed on December 24, 1814, the Treaty
in the meantime. Madison submitted the treaty to the Senate on
of Ghent restored the status quo ante bellum – or the state that
February 15, 1815, and the treaty was unanimously accepted the
existed before the war. Both sides
next day, ratified by Madison shortly after.
agreed to evacuate enemy territories
After two years and eight months, the war ended in a draw.
and return property and prisoners
Roughly 2,260 Americans were killed, and 4,505 wounded,
within 120 days. Both the U.S. and
Britain agreed to make peace with the and the war had cost the United States approximately $158
million. The War of 1812 had started partly a result of decades
Native Americans, and do their best
of unresolved tension with Great Britain, and the end of the
to abolish the slave trade. But the
war marked no major changes for either country. But although
speed of communication meant that
the war seemed inconsequential, this was not the case. The war
immediate peace could not yet be
helped launch four presidencies, and dramatically influenced the
achieved and the most famous battle
American economy. Although the Treaty of Ghent specified that
of the war had yet to be fought.
all land acquisitions be returned to the pre-war status quo, the
In November 1814, Major
General Andrew Jackson had invaded United States had permanently acquired part of Florida in 1813
and neutralized Florida with an army from Spain, a neutral power. The U.S. had broken the power
of the Native Americans in the Northwest and Southwest, and
of roughly 4,100 men and met with
19th Century personification of
little opposition before racing to meet Great Britain had failed to negotiate a permanent reservation for
Uncle Sam – U.S.
them, which would become an issue in the coming years. The
war also marked a divide in the United States that would come
into play again in the years leading up to the Civil War.
But ultimately, the war confirmed that the U.S. was a major
political power. Why then has the war been forgotten over the
course of the past 200 years? Perhaps the confusion surrounding
the start of the war, and the absence of victory played a part in
that, but one thing is clear. The War of 1812 had far-reaching
consequences that affected the future of the United States in
many ways and deserves to be studied further.
Literature Cited
Perkins, Bradford, The Causes of the War of 1812: National Honor
or National Distrust (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
1962).
Hickey, Donald R., The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict,
Bicentennial Edition (Chicago: University of Illinois, 2012).
Horsman, Reginald, The Causes of the War of 1812 (Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 1962.
Horwitz, Tony, “The War of 1812: Remember the Raisin!”
Smithsonian Magazine, June 2012.
Accessed online: http://www.smithsonianmag.com/historyarchaeology/The-War-of-1812-Remember-the-Raisin.
html?c=y&page=1
Langguth, A.J., Union 1812: The Americans Who Fought the
Second World War of Independence (New York: Simon & Schuster,
2006).
Taylor, Alan, The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British
Subjects, Irish Rebels, & Indian Allies (New York: Random
House, 2010).
Author Bio
Ryann Brooks is currently a graduate student in History
at Emporia State University where she is working on her thesis
about Progressive era women in Emporia, Kansas, and holds a
BA in History from ESU. She is a graduate teaching assistant for
the Department of Social Sciences and volunteers at the Lyon
County Historical Archives Center in her free time.
Online Resources
War of 1812 Fun Facts
The Washington Post included fun facts about the War of 1812
in the Kids Post section. Students will find several interesting
bits of information about the war.
http://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/kidspost/war-of1812-fun-facts/2012/06/07/gJQACvgcNV_story.html
War of 1812 Fun Facts
Fact Monster hosts a webpage with many details of the war.
There are ten facts ranging from the number of US troops in
battle, to the Treaty of Ghent.
http://www.factmonster.com/ipka/A0769973.html
Morning Routine of Soldier
This website goes through the routine of the typical British
Soldier in the War of 1812. The question “What did a
soldier do during the day?” is answered clearly for students to
understand.
http://www.warof1812.ca/morningroutine.htm
Causes of War of 1812
Four main causes of the war are listed and explained here. There
are also advantages and disadvantages that the United States
held during the war and those are listed as well.
http://www.essortment.com/war-1812-21611.html
Various Pictures/Text/Audio of 1812
This history site has several images, text, and audio pertaining
to the War of 1812. There are pictures of weapons, documents,
maps, and photographs.
http://images.ourontario.ca/1812/results?q=1812
War of 1812 Aftermath
This webpage re-lives the history and aftermath of the War
of 1812. It discusses the voting on the Treaty of Ghent,
negotiations, and boundary problems.
http://library.thinkquest.org/22916/exafter.html
Who/What/When/Where of Battles
A list of war heroes, battle locations, and items from the War of
1812. This site breaks down the who/what/when/where of the
war.
http://www.socialstudiesforkids.com/wwww/us/uslistwarof1812.
htm
After this Star-Spangled Banner project, students will know the
origins and outcome of the War of 1812. This project requires
reading, chronological thinking, and map-making. It covers
content areas such as language arts, and social studies.
http://americanhistory.si.edu/starspangledbanner/pdf/SSB_
History_Overview.pdf
Weapons
Several different rifles, muskets, and swords were used
throughout the War of 1812. Pictures, background, and
specifications of the weapons are explained thoroughly.
http://www.warof1812.ca/weapons.html
What was Francis Scott Key Writing About?
Grade 4/5
At the end of this lesson over the Star-Spangled Banner, students
will understand the lyrics of the National Anthem. Students will
determine whether the Star Spangled Banner is an acceptable
National Anthem to this day.
http://www.nps.gov/fomc/forteachers/upload/FSK-WritingAbout.pdf
War of 1812 Timeline
This social studies site for kids breaks the War of 1812 down into
several different parts. Each part is separated from the others,
and you click next page to continue on with the breakdown.
http://www.socialstudiesforkids.com/articles/ushistory/
thewarof18121.htm
War of 1812 Breakdown
The Washington Post breaks down the War of 1812. Questions
such as “why go to war?” and “where was the battlefield?” are
answered here.
http://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/kidspost/the-war-of1812-for-kids/2012/06/07/gJQAHWKcNV_story.html
Online Resources for Teachers
Downloadable Lesson Plans for Teachers
Grade 7
Ten lesson plans based off of the War of 1812. These lesson plans
are used to use resources to gather information, process, and
communicate about the information obtained. Students will
record main ideas, key phrases, and observations. In the end,
students should gain a better understanding of the political and
social climate of the war.
http://www.1812history.com/teachers.html
Baltimore and the War of 1812 Activities
Grade 4-12
Three activities are set up on worksheets for teachers to hand out
to students. This Maryland Exploration helps teach students how
characteristics such as being big and powerful or small and agile
affected the War of 1812. It covers independence and expansion,
the Embargo Act, the declaration of war, American Exports, and
much more.
http://www.pride2.org/NewPrideSite/MD/Lesson10/
Lesson10_1.html
History of the War and Star Spangled Banner
Grades K-12
War of 1812 Unit Lesson Plans
Grade 2
This unit for second graders contains a set of thirteen lessons
for students to learn about the country’s history. Students will
understand time and chronology, develop historical empathy,
and gain understanding on how an event in history can have
many different causes and effects.
http://www.coreknowledge.org/mimik/mimik_uploads/lesson_
plans/570/The%20War%20of%201812%202.pdf
War of 1812 Quiz
Grades 6-12
The War of 1812 Website has a general knowledge quiz over
questions involving presidents, dates, and more. The quiz is
20 questions long, and you can obtain your score instantly by
pushing a button that says “Get Score”. The answers are also
corrected if a student answers wrong.
http://www.warof1812.ca/quiz1.htm
War of 1812 Animated Picture
Grades 6-12
This .gif shows a step by step battle in the War of 1812. The
different pictures are spaced out enough for a teacher to address
each of the points on the picture.
http://www.warof1812.ca/image/crysler_farm.gif
War of 1812 Online Game
Grades 4-12
This game, called “A Sailor’s Life for Me!” makes you feel as
if you are one of the boys joining the Navy. You start out by
packing your bag, taking only necessities. You move along to
middle watch, morning watch, forenoon watch, afternoon
watch, first dog watch, last dog watch, and first watch. The game
is great because it puts you in the shoes of a Navy boy and lets
you make decisions on how you would do things if you were in
their situation.
http://www.asailorslifeforme.org/ironsides.php
Books
Francis Scott Key’s Star Spangled Banner (Step into Reading
Book Series: A Step 3 Book)
By Monica Kulling, Richard Walz (Illustrator)
Random House Children’s Books, 2012
ISBN: 9780375867255
Ages 5-8 years
Once on This Island
By Gloria Whelan
HarperCollins Publishers, 1996
ISBN: 9780064406192
Ages 8-12 years
The War of 1812
By Lucia Raatma
Capstone Press, 2005
ISBN: 9780756508487
Ages 8-11 years
The Town That Fooled the British
By Lisa Paap
Sleeping Bear Press, 2011
ISBN: 9781585364848
Ages 6-10 years
Little House by Boston Bay (Little House Series: The
Charlotte Years)
By Melissa Wiley
HarperCollins Publishers, 2007
ISBN: 9780061148286
Ages 8-12 years
Famous People of the War of 1812
By Robin Johnson
Crabtree Publishing Company, 2011
ISBN: 9780778779643
Ages 10-13 years
Major Battles of the War of 1812
By Gordon Clarke
Crabtree Publishing Company, 2011
ISBN: 9780778779650
Ages 10-13 years
War of 1812
By Miriam Greenblatt
Facts on File, Incorporated, 2010
ISBN: 9780816081943
Ages 12-17 years
The Battle of New Orleans: The Drummer’s Story
By Freddi Evans, Emile Henriquez (Illustrator)
Pelican Publishing Company, Incorporated, 2005
ISBN: 9781589803008
Ages 5-8 years
Son of The Hounds
By Robert Sutherland
Fitzhenry & Whiteside, Limited, 2004
ISBN: 9781550419061
Age 10 years