GENDER
Learning Objectives
Issues to Consider
Gender refers to more than just a biological state. The knowledge that a child is a girl or a boy
can affect the way they are treated from birth and so we will consider the biological,
psychological, and social determinants of gender.
Biological differences include the chromosomes, which are different from conception. Different
amounts of hormones are produced and research is beginning to indicate that there might be
differences in the brains of girls and boys, women and men. These biological differences may
lead to psychological differences. For example, the finding that boys are more active than girls
may be linked to their greater levels of testosterone.
However, if we take a social approach we may say that boys learn to be more active because
this is what is expected of their gender. We will also consider people with a condition known as
gender dysphoria, that is, people unhappy with their gender identity, as this can offer further
insights into the explanations of gender development. We will also look at a variety of cultures
in order to make cross-cultural comparisons in the roles occupied by men and women.
On completion of this subsection you should be familiar with the following.
Use this list of learning objectives as a revision checklist. Cross-reference the objectives with the
Specification.
Psychological explanations of gender development
Outline and evaluate Cognitive-Developmental Theory, including Kohlberg, and GenderSchema Theory.
Discuss explanations for psychological androgyny and gender dysphoria, including relevant
research.
Biological influences on gender
Critically consider the role of hormones and genes in gender development.
Outline and evaluate evolutionary explanations of gender roles.
Discuss the biosocial approach to gender development.
Social contexts of gender role
Explain and assess social influences on gender role. For example, the influence of parents,
peers and school, and the media.
Critically consider cross-cultural studies of gender roles.
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Psychological Explanations of
Gender Development
For details, see Eysenck’s A2 Level Psychology (pages 230–244).
Cognitive-Developmental Theories
Kohlberg
Fill in the blanks.
Any cognitive-developmental theory is based on the idea that children have to have reached
a certain level of c____________e development before they can appreciate certain concepts,
such as what it means to be a b___ or a g____ and the full implications of this. Kohlberg
proposes that children go through three stages in the development of full gender identity:
1. B_________ gender identity (age 2 to 31/2 years): Boys la_______l themselves as boys,
and girls label themselves as girls. However, they believe it would be possible to
c__________e sex.
2. Gender st_____________ (31/2 to 41/2 years): There is an awareness that sex is stable over
ti________ (e.g. boys will become men), but less awareness that sex remains stable
across different s_______________, such as wearing clothes normally worn by members
of the opposite sex. When a doll was dressed in transparent clothes so there was a
discrepancy between its clothing and its genitals, children in this stage decided on its sex
on the basis of cl______________ (McConaghy, 1979).
3. Gender c______________ (41/2 to 7 years upwards): Children at this stage realise that
sex remains the same over time and over situations.
An essential element of Kohlberg’s theory is that children will not show sex-typed
b_______________ until they have an un__________________g of gender, that is, until they
have the necessary mental str_______________________s to understand it. They need to
have acquired gender constancy before they can act in a fully sex-typed way. This means
that they must understand gender properly before they start to i__________e their same-sex
parent (and other same-sex people) rather than the opposite-sex parent.
Once a child has acquired the mental structures necessary to understand gender differences,
they develop sc_____________s of what it means to be male or female (the clothes you
wear, hairstyles, personality characteristics). They then actively seek out s________-sex
models and other information to learn how to act like a boy or girl; a process known as
self-so_____________________n (because they are socialising themselves).
RESEARCH EVIDENCE FOR KOHLBERG’S THEORY
Summarise the research evidence below.
Ψ Munroe, Shimmin, and Munroe’s (1984) research. How does this support Kohlberg?
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Ψ Slaby and Frey’s (1975) research. What did this research find about gender consistency
attention?
Ψ Ruble, Balaban, and Cooper’s (1981) research. What did this research find about
gender consistency and children’s TV viewing habits?
EVALUATION OF KOHLBERG’S THEORY
Summarise the evaluation points below.
Ψ Support for Kohlberg’s stages. How strong is the research support?
Ψ Support for the active role of children in gender development. Why is this idea
valuable?
Ψ Sex typing is well under way before a child achieves gender constancy. How is
children’s sex-typed behaviour inconsistent with the theory?
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Ψ Ignores external factors. Which external factors are ignored?
Ψ Exaggerates the importance of cognitive factors. Why did Huston (1985) say these
factors have been identified?
FIND OUT FOR YOURSELF: How much are children exposed to gender stereotypes? Conduct a
content analysis of the sex-role stereotypes in children’s birthday cards. Select a number of categories
based on sex-role stereotypes and code the frequency that these stereotypes occur. For example,
colours used: pink/blue; clothing: dresses/shorts; play activities: “girls’ toys”/“boys’ toys”. You could
also conduct a content analysis of the toys section in catalogues. Consider the play activities and
clothing when selecting the categories. The next content analysis may take longer depending on how
much children’s TV you watch! Select particular children’s programmes and draw up categories of
possible sex-role stereotyping and then conduct the analysis.
Gender-Schema Theory
Fill in the blanks.
Bem (1981) and Martin and Halverson (1987) advanced this theory. Their starting point is
the same as Kohlberg—that children develop gender sc_________s. Once these are formed,
any information children receive about gender roles is actively used to organise and
understand the world. These gender schemas determine:
• what in________________on children attend to
• how they int____________t the world
• what they re_______________r of their experiences
Martin, Wood, and Little (1990) suggest that these schemas develop in three stages:
1. Children learn what t______ of things are as______________d with each sex, e.g. “boys
have short hair; girls wear dresses”.
2. Children begin to link gender items together and draw inferences based on the
c_________’s view of sex-appropriate behaviour, e.g. if a girl has long hair, she is also
likely to wear dresses, play with dolls, and enjoy helping mummy with the cooking.
However, these inferences are mainly made only about their own s____. This stage is
around 4–6 years.
3. From about 8 years of age, children can make these inferences about the
o______________e sex. So, a girl is now more likely to offer a boy a train set to play with
than a doll and may assume he’d rather do things with his father than his mother.
The main difference with Kohlberg’s theory is that Gender-Schema Theory states that these
schemas are formed as soon as the child acquires a b________ gender i_______________
(that is, from around 2 years old).
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RESEARCH EVIDENCE FOR GENDER-SCHEMA THEORY
Summarise the research evidence below.
Ψ Schema-consistent and sex-inconsistent pictures. What did Martin and Halverson’s
(1987) research show?
Ψ “Boy” and “girl” objects. What did Bradbard et al. (1986) find?
Ψ Gender labelling of toys. What did Masters et al. (1979) find?
Ψ Gender-related bias in recall. What did Liben and Signorella (1993) find?
EVALUATION OF GENDER-SCHEMA THEORY
Summarise the evaluation points below.
Ψ Has explanatory power. What does the theory help explain?
Ψ Focuses on the child as being actively involved in making sense of the world.
Why does this have validity?
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Ψ Over-emphasis on the role of the individual child in gender development. Which
factors are over-emphasised?
Ψ De-emphasises the importance of social factors. Which social factors are ignored?
Ψ Descriptive rather than explanatory. Why does the theory lack explanatory power?
Ψ Assumptions of theory not upheld. Why do schemas not directly affect behaviour in
the way suggested by the theory?
Psychological Androgyny and Gender Dysphoria
Psychological androgyny
Fill in the blanks.
Androgyny is a term used to describe people who have both ma__________e and
f__________e qualities. Psychological androgyny involves having a combination of traits,
some that have traditionally been associated with femininity and some that have
traditionally been associated with masculinity.
The androgyny scale
Bem devised a way of measuring an______________y. She compiled a list of personality traits
that research had shown could be divided into masculine, feminine, and neutral. Feminine
items included affe_____________e, cheerful, childlike, and co______________________e.
Examples of masculine items were agg_____________e, analytical, dominant, and
aut_______________e. Neutral items included adaptable, concerted, conscientious, and
fri__________ly. Sixty of these traits make up the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI). Individuals
rate themselves on how much each trait applies to them (on a scale of 1–7) and then receive
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a m________________y score, a femininity score, and an androgyny score. If the masculinity
and femininity scores are very different then the individual is rated as sex-typed (either
masculine or feminine). If they are similar, the individual is said to be an_______________s
(for a copy of the scale, see A2 Level Psychology page 238).
Bem believes that it is desirable to have a ba_____________e of feminine and masculine
characteristics, to be, for example, ambitious, self-sufficient, nurturant, and compassionate.
She maintains that this makes an individual better able to cope with life’s cha_____________s
than being either extremely masculine or extremely feminine because such individuals are not
constrained by the demands of rigid gender roles. On the other hand, those who are strongly
sex typed are limited in the range of b__________________s available to them.
RESEARCH EVIDENCE FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL ANDROGYNY
Summarise the research evidence below.
Ψ Androgynous individuals. What did Bem (1978) find about their ability to resist social
pressure?
Ψ Shaffer, Pegalis, and Cornell (1992). How does this research support Bem’s findings?
Ψ Androgynous children and adolescents. What did Allgood-Merton and Stockland
(1991) find?
Ψ Masculinity and femininity. What did Spence (1993) find?
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Ψ Androgyny and creativity. What did Norlander, Erixon, and Archer (2000) find?
Ψ Masculine traits may link better to self-esteem than feminine traits. How does
research challenge Bem’s claim that androgyny affords the best adjustment?
Ψ Positive and negative characteristics of androgyny. Why should these be separated out?
Gender Dysphoria
Fill in the blanks.
Gender dysphoria (also known as gender identity disorder) is a condition in which people
are unc______________le with the gender to which they have been assigned (dysphoria
means unhappiness). In the extreme, this can lead to tra________________m, a desire to
change your gender. Most people are happy with the gender in which they have been
reared but in a few cases individuals do not feel that they have been assigned the correct
gender. Some girls feel as if they should be a boy and conversely, some boys feel that they
are a girl. This is more common in b_____ but occurs in both sexes.
Biological explanations of gender dysphoria:
the influence of prenatal hormones
Fill in the blanks.
Girls have sex chromosomes known as XX whilst boys have sex chromosomes known as XY.
One explanation of gender dysphoria is that it is caused by unusual d________________ in
parts of the br______n before birth. There are small areas of the brain that are different in
males and females. The theory is that in people experiencing gender dysphoria one of these
areas has developed in a way that corresponds to the o___________e sex of their other
biological sex characteristics. It is possible that h____________s can cause parts of the brain
to develop in a way that is not consistent with the genitalia and, usually, with the
chr______________s. This means that the brain has not developed in a way that
corresponds to the gender assigned to the child at birth.
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RESEARCH EVIDENCE FOR BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS
OF GENDER DYSPHORIA
Summarise the research evidence below.
Ψ Somatostatin neurons. What do Kruijiver et al. (2000) link these neurons to?
Ψ Zhou et al. (1995). How do they identify a biological basis to gender dysphoria?
EVALUATION OF BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS
Summarise the evaluation points below.
Ψ Support from research. How well does research support the biological explanations?
Ψ Some research contradicts the theories. How do Rekers et al. (1979) contradict a
biochemical basis to gender dysphoria?
Ψ Alternative theory. Which factors are ignored by the biological explanations?
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The family constellations explanation for gender dysphoria
Fill in the blanks.
Stoller (1968) points out that certain f___________y conditions are associated with gender
dysphoria. For boys who want to be girls he suggests that there is an ov_______________e
relationship with the mother and a di____________t father. For girls who want to be boys,
he suggests that that they have a d___________________d mother in the first few months
of their life and a father who is either not present or does not support the mother but
leaves the child to try to control the mother’s depression.
Rekers links gender dysphoria in boys to ab___________________e of a father figure, either
physically or ps_______________________y.
Bleiberg, Jackson, and Ross (1986) have linked the development of gender dysphoria with an
inability to mourn a parent or an important att_____________________t figure in early life.
Di Ceglie (2000) suggests that parents have a strong desire for a child of the o_______________e
sex and, not necessarily deliberately, reinforce gender-ina__________________e behaviour.
RESEARCH EVIDENCE FOR THE FAMILY
CONSTELLATIONS EXPLANATION
Summarise the research evidence below.
Ψ Di Ceglie’s (2000) case study “James”. How does this support a family structure basis
to gender dysphoria?
Ψ Biller (1974) and Hamilton (1977). How have these studies supported a family structure
basis to gender dysphoria?
Ψ Rekers’ (1986) research on “gender disturbed” boys who show cross-gender
identity. What did this research find?
Ψ Rekers’ (1986) research on mental health problems and/or psychiatric treatment.
Are the percentages found in the research valid?
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EVALUATION OF THE FAMILY CONSTELLATIONS EXPLANATION
Summarise the evaluation points below.
Ψ Support from research evidence. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the
evidence?
Ψ Alternative theory. Which factors are ignored by the theory?
CONCLUSIONS—SO WHAT DOES THIS MEAN?
Answer the following questions in your conclusions.
• What do the cognitive-developmental theories reveal about gender development?
• Are androgynous individuals better adjusted than masculine and feminine types?
• What is gender dysphoria and what explains it?
Using this in the exam
Explain what is meant by gender dysphoria.
Outline and evaluate one or more explanations for gender dysphoria.
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(5 marks)
(20 marks)
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Biological Influences on Gender
For details, see Eysenck’s A2 Level Psychology (pages 244–253).
The Role of Hormones and Genes in Gender Development
Prenatal sexual development
Fill in the blanks.
When the ovum (e____) combines with a sp________, the zygote that is formed will either
have XX chromosomes and be a girl, or XY chromosomes and be a boy. The sequence of
sex development is as follows:
• For 7 weeks development is virtually id________________l for girls and boys.
• The Y chromosome then induces the release of te___________________ne, which
stimulates the growth of m______ sex organs. If no testosterone is released, the foetus
develops female reproductive organs.
• In a rare condition, known as complete androgen inse______________y syndrome,
genetic males (i.e. those with XY chromosomes) are insensitive to the male hormones and
do not develop male genitalia. They are born looking like girls and are often brought up
as girls because the condition is not usually detected until pu_____________y.
The influence of the sex chromosomes
Fill in the blanks.
We have discussed one influence of the ___ chromosome—to induce the release of
testosterone in the developing foetus. The Y chromosome is one fifth of its size hence boys
carry less g_______________ material than girls and this may be one reason why males are
more vulnerable than females throughout their lives. Montagu (1968) listed 62 specific
di____________ that are largely or wholly due to sex-li_____d genes and found mostly in
males, including some very serious ones such as haemophilia as well as less important ones
such as red/green colour-blindness.
The role of hormones
Fill in the blanks.
The role of hormones in sexual development is of enormous importance. Each sex has
identical sex hormones, the difference between them is the a__________t they produce.
Within normal biological development, females produce a preponderance of female sex
hormones (oe____________n and pr________________________e) whilst males produce a
preponderance of an______________ns (a collection of male hormones) of which one of the
most important is testosterone.
Up to about the age of 8–10, negligible amounts of sex hormones are produced by either
sex but after that both sexes produce more male and female hormones. From around 11
years of age, both girls and boys increase their production of f_________e hormones but
females produce far more than boys. Conversely, once children reach puberty both sexes
increases their production of male sex hormones rapidly but boys more so than girls.
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RESEARCH EVIDENCE
Summarise the research evidence below.
Ψ Young, Goy, and Phoenix’s (1964) research on pregnant monkeys. How does this
support the role of hormones?
Ψ Knickmeyer et al.’s (2005) research into foetal testosterone. What effects were
found?
Ψ Dalton’s (1969) research on the effect of sex hormones on the menstrual cycle.
What is the role of progesterone in pre-menstrual syndrome?
Ψ Contradictory research. How do Mcfarlane, Martin, and Williams (1988) contradict
Dalton’s findings?
Ψ The effects of male sex hormones. What are the three consistent effects?
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The Biosocial Approach to Gender Development
Fill in the blanks.
The bi_____________l approach to gender development emphasises that it is the interaction
of both nature and nurture that is important rather than one or the other. The theory fully
acknowledges the importance of biology so it would involve all the biological research just
covered, but it also acknowledges that social factors may in_________t with these to
influence gender identity.
Biosocial theory was first advanced by Money and Ehrhardt (1972) who start by proposing that
there are a number of critical e__________s that affect the early development of the child.
These events begin before birth with the biological influences covered in the previous section.
These biological factors obviously have a large influence on the child. However, from birth
onwards, social factors also begin to play an important part. As we have already seen, once a
child is la______________d as a boy or girl they are treated very differently and these social
factors interact with the bi________________l ones to determine the child’s gender identity.
In the majority of cases, the child’s biological sex m__________s the gender of upbringing
and there are no problems. However, some individuals, known as intersex children, are born
with ambiguous g__________ls and are not obviously one sex or the other. Money believes
that provided that a child’s sex of rearing is decided before their third birthday, then social
factors are so strongly influential that such children will accept their as______________d
gender identity. The th______ year is another critical period and since a child’s gender
identity is established by that age, then, according to Money, it cannot thereafter be
changed without causing the child serious psychological problems.
RESEARCH EVIDENCE FOR THE BIOSOCIAL APPROACH
Summarise the research evidence below.
Ψ A case study of a woman with testicular feminising syndrome, Mrs DW (Goldwyn,
1979). Does this support biological factors (insensitivity to androgens) or social factors?
Ψ The Batista family (Imperato-McGinley et al., 1974). Why is this family unusual and
does this support biological or social factors?
Ψ Money and Ehrhardt’s (1972) study of male twins. How does Colapinto’s (2000)
report on this infamous study support biological factors over Money’s claim that we are
born gender neutral?
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Decide whether the above studies support biological or social factors more. But of course
remember that these factors do interact.
BIOLOGICAL
SOCIAL
EVALUATION OF THE BIOSOCIAL APPROACH
Summarise the evaluation points below.
Ψ Support from research evidence. How strongly is biosocial theory supported?
Ψ Lack of support in specific aspects of the theory. How has Money been discredited
by the Reimer case?
Ψ Contradictory evidence from research. How is the research evidence contradictory?
Evolutionary Explanations of Gender Roles: Sociobiology
Fill in the blanks.
Sociobiology applies the principles of ev_______________n to the understanding of social
behaviour. The theory argues that the behaviour of all animals has evolved so that it maximises
the likelihood that individuals will pass on their g_______s to future generations. In human
terms, this means that both women and men unconsciously behave in ways that promote
conception, birth, and s___________l of their offspring. In pursuit of this end, the optimal
mating behaviour differs dramatically between men and women (Trivers, 1972). Since a man
can, in theory, impr________________e many women within a short time and will only waste
some easily replaceable sperm if sexual intercourse does not result in pregnancy, it is in his
interest to be pr__________________s and seek out good child-bearers. A woman, who has to
invest a great deal more in bearing each child than does a man, is likely to be far more
ch_________y when selecting a mate. She will be coy, take her time, and choose a man who
can provide for her and her infant, perhaps an older man who is established in his career.
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RESEARCH EVIDENCE FOR SOCIOBIOLOGY
Summarise the research evidence below.
Ψ Buss’ (1989) research on gender differences. How does this support evolutionary theory?
Ψ Williams and Best’s (1982) research on gender stereotypes. How does this support
evolved gender differences?
Ψ Mead’s (1935) New Guinea study. Which three tribes were studied and how do the
gender differences found support sociobiology?
Ψ Davis (1990) conducted research on “personal” advertisements. How does this
support evolved gender differences?
Ψ Singh’s (1993) research on waist-to-hip ratio. How does this support sociobiology?
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EVALUATION OF SOCIOBIOLOGY
Ψ Support from cross-cultural studies. ____
Ψ Contradictions from cross-cultural studies. ____
Ψ Studies do not offer complete support. ____
Ψ Problems with the actual theory. ____
Ψ Lack of empirical evidence. ____
Ψ No predictive power, so not a scientific theory. ____
Ψ Difficult to untangle the effects of culture from those of evolution. ____
Ψ Problem with the argument that certain patterns of behaviour are “hard-wired”
by evolution and cannot easily be influenced by other factors. ____
Write the numbers of the explanations below next to their matching evaluation points above.
(1) Despite Buss’ work, there are significant historical and cultural differences in
heterosexual mate selection. For example, men’s preference for younger women was
considerably greater in the past than it is now and is greater in traditional than in modern
societies (Glenn, 1989). The difficulty of separating culture from evolution will always mean
that sociobiology is likely to remain controversial.
(2) The hypotheses suggested by the sociobiologists often have no empirical evidence to
support them; they are merely conjecture (sometimes referred to as stories).
(3) Williams and Best (1982) also do not offer unequivocal support. They found that the
consensus of what women and men find desirable was true in collectivistic societies but
weaker in individualistic societies where gender equality is more influential. This suggests
that socialisation practices as well as biology can influence the characteristics men and
women find desirable.
(4) However, it is important to look in more detail at some of the findings. In the study by
Buss (1989) there were some significant findings that have received far less attention. Both
men and women placed exactly the same four attributes highest on their preference list—
mutual attraction, dependable character, emotional stability and maturity, and pleasing
disposition. Their rankings of qualities also placed the same four items on top—kind and
understanding, intelligent, exciting, and healthy (Smith & Bond, 1993). So the support for
the sociobiological view that there are large and significant differences in the attributes
universally sought by males and females is not entirely convincing.
(5) When we look more closely at both human and non-human animal behaviour
concerning sex and infant care, we find a huge variety of behaviours within a single species
and changes in environment can have a profound effect on this behaviour. Even species of
birds change their mating behaviour quite drastically according to the availability of good
nesting sites and food sources, so it would be very surprising if humans were less adaptable.
Having plasticity of behaviour rather than rigidly determined invariant patterns can have a
great survival value (Fausto-Sterling, 2000).
(6) Most cross-cultural studies have indicated that the cultural expectations and stereotypes
for boys and girls are surprisingly similar in otherwise very different cultures.
(7) One important characteristic of a good theory is that it can be used to make predictions
about the future. However, sociobiology has little predictive value. There are so many
possibilities with regard to how behaviour may evolve that prediction becomes impossible.
(8) The major limitation of sociobiological explanations in general is that they use hindsight
to explain almost any behaviour in terms of why it has evolved. The reasoning is post hoc
(after the event) and it is possible to argue that almost any observed gender differences are
due to evolution.
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CONCLUSIONS—SO WHAT DOES THIS MEAN?
Answer the following question in your conclusions.
• Is biology destiny?
Using this in the exam
Outline the role of hormones and genes in gender development.
(10 marks)
Evaluate the evolutionary explanation of gender roles.
(15 marks)
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Social Contexts of Gender Role
For details, see Eysenck’s A2 Level Psychology (pages 253–263).
Social Influences on Gender Role
The influence of parents
Fill in the blanks.
Right from birth girls and boys are treated di______________y and described using different
language. Rubin et al. (1974) found that when parents were asked to describe their newborn
infants, sons were considered str____g, active, and well co-ordinated; girls as little,
de_________e, beautiful, and weak. Since researchers matched infants on size, weight, and
muscle tone, these descriptions represent expectations rather than ph___________l differences.
Gender st___________________g is evident in a child’s physical as well as social
environment. The decor of children’s rooms, their clo_______s, and t____s are chosen on
gender lines: pink for girls and blue for boys (Pomerleau et al., 1990). The choice of toys
also differs between the sexes: girls have more dolls and d__________ic items whereas boys
have more tools, sp______ equipment, and large and small vehicles in their rooms
(Pomerleau et al., 1990). Logos are also important: the appearance of an aeroplane or a
flower logo clearly indicates whether the toy should be perceived as masculine or feminine
(Fisher-Thompson, 1990).
Fagot and Leinbach (1989) carried out a longitudinal study on children which showed that
parents encouraged gender-ap_____________e behaviour and discouraged genderinappropriate behaviour in their children even before the age of 2. For example, girls were
re___________d for playing with dolls, and dis____________d from climbing trees.
Cross-gender activity is far more dis______________d in boys than in girls (people may well
smile at a girl pushing a truck around the room and refer to her as a “tomboy” but they are
far more uncomfortable with a boy being affectionate to a doll). Fagot and Hagan (1991),
as well as many other subsequent studies, showed that fathers’ responses to boys who
engage in typical girls’ play are more likely to be ne__________e than mothers’ responses.
Bhanot and Jovanovic (2005) showed that when parents endorse the st________________e
that maths is a male domain, their daughters underestimate their ability in this subject.
These stereotypes are not deliberately imposed on the children but the parents inadvertently
impose them when they give unsolicited (uncalled for) help with ho______________k.
Bhanot and Jovanovic (2005) found that girls have less self-confidence in their maths ability
when their parents give intrusive support, yet this was not true for help with English
homework nor if they gave maths help to their sons.
Peers and school
Fill in the blanks.
Within the school setting children inevitably become exposed to gender stereotypes and
there is huge pressure on them to co____________m to these if they are not to become
isolated and unpopular. By age 6–7, gender identity is established and children begin to mix
in same-sex groups. This process of sex segregation is important because girls’ and boys’
groups so___________e different behaviours and different rules (Maccoby, 1998).
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Friendship groups also differ between the sexes. Girls appear to take greater pleasure than
do boys in personal int_________________n. Benenson, Apostoleris, and Parnass (1997)
found that at age 6, both girls and boys tend to socialise in pairs but they differ in that boys
are greatly involved in co-ordinated group activity with larger groups of peers, something
that is much less true of girls.
Boys’ friendships tend to be less in_________e than those of girls, in the sense that there is
less mutual self-dis___________re, less physical closeness, and less eye contact. Boys’
friendships appear to be based primarily on interest and participation in the same
act______________s rather than close personal interaction. This pattern continues into adult
life (as reported by Dwyer, 2000).
As children move into adolescence the peer group in school becomes even more influential
as the role of p_____________s diminishes (although it is always important). Mac an Ghail
(1994) argues that peer groups are stronger for boys than for girls when it comes to
attitudes towards the value of ed_______________n and whether it is worthwhile to stay on
at school. He suggests that is because there is a “macho-male” culture that conveys the
attitude that academic life is more suitable for girls than for boys.
The media
Fill in the blanks.
Books
Children’s books are another important influence on children’s at_________________s.
Hamilton et al. (2006) carried out extensive research into gender stereotyping in 200
top-selling and award-winning books. There were nearly twice as many male as female
main ch______________s with male characters appearing in illu______________s more
often than female ones. There were also differences in the behaviours of the two sexes
conforming to traditional gender stereotypes: female main characters nur______________d
more than did male characters, were more often than men in no paid occupation, and were
seen in more in__________r than outdoor scenes. Compared with books sampled in the
1980s and 1990s, there was no reduction in se_____________m.
Magazines
Most magazines are aimed at one sex or the other and such publications have a strong
influence on what is seen as the “i___________l” lifestyle and body. There is a great deal of
research looking at the influence of magazines on teenage girls. Field et al. (1999)
interviewed over 500 teenage girls (aged 11–17) in the USA and found that pictures in
magazines had a strong impact on girls’ perceptions of their we_________t and shape. 69%
reported that magazine pictures influenced their idea of the perfect body shape, and 47%
reported wanting to lose weight because of ma______________ne pictures.
Boys are also affected. Giles and Close (2008) studied the influence of “lad mags” (such as Zoo
and FHM), which tend to make fun of men who do not have a well-toned body and place great
emphasis on the importance of being su________________ul with girls. The researchers found
that the more these men read lad mags, the more likely they were to accept and internalise
cu_____________l ideals regarding the male body and to strive to attain it. We must be
cautious, however, in concluding that these magazines cause these attitudes. This was a
correlational study so does not necessarily show c_________e and effect. It’s quite possible, as
the researchers acknowledge, that men who are concerned about physical appearance tend to
read these magazines m_______ than those who are relatively unconcerned.
It is important to note, as does Gauntlett (2008), that the mass media is widely diverse and
carries very many messages, often quite c____________y. He points out that, in contrast to the
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past, we no longer receive singular, straightforward messages about ideal types of male and
female identities and that media images do indeed change over the course of 10 or 20 years.
Television
Social learning theory proposes that children learn from role m_________ls, including those
on television. The presence or absence of role models, how women and men, girls and boys
are presented and what act______________s they engage in have a powerful effect on how
children see their role in the world. Research demonstrates that over the last few years
children, girls especially, have a wider range of role models but for girls how these models
l____k is more important than what they do.
Thompson and Zerbinos (1997) found that when young children (aged 4–9) were asked to
describe cartoon characters they perceived them in very stereotypical ways: males were
ag_____________ve and active; females were domestic and concerned with
app________________e.
Signorielli (1997) studied the types of media most attractive to teenage girls (music
magazines and videos and certain television programmes) and found that although there
are positive role models of women and girls being in______________t and acting
independently, the vast majority were more concerned with dating, romance, and their
appearance while most males focus on their oc_________________s.
Williams (1986) examined gender-role stereotypes in three towns in Canada nicknamed:
“Notel” (n_ television channels); “Unitel” (o___ channel); and “Multitel” (four channels).
Gender-role stereotyping was much gre______________r in the towns with television than
in the one without. During the course of the study, Notel gained access to one television
channel and this led to increased gender-role stereotyping among children.
There is evidence that television can influence gender development in a non-stereotypical
way (Johnston & Ettema, 1982). In the Freestyle project, there was a series of television
programmes in which non-traditional opportunities and activities were mo_____________d.
These programmes produced significant attitude changes away from gender-role
stereotypes, and these changes were still present 9 months later. Interestingly, the effects on
actual be________________r were rather small.
There is little doubt that TV presents largely tr_________________l gender images but there
is mixed evidence about the impact of such images on gender attitudes and behaviour.
Children are not p____________ve recipients of TV images: their existing attitudes, shaped
from a host of other influences, play an important part in interpreting images of gender on
TV. It is too simplistic to state that because the ent_____________________t media is full of
traditional stereotypes then this media is automatically contributing to gender-role
development. Durkin and Nugent (1998) have demonstrated that even by age 4 children
can draw on their kn_____________ge of how men and women are supposed to behave to
comment on what they see on TV.
The influence of gender stereotypes
Fill in the blanks.
Condry and Condry (1976) showed male and female college students a videotape of a baby
reacting to different stimuli. The same tape was shown to everyone but half the observers
thought the baby was a b____, while half thought it was a girl. The child was seen reacting
to a jack-in-the-box, which popped out several times. The first time the child was startled,
the second time it became agitated and the third time, began to cry. Those participants who
thought it was a girl tended to describe “her” as fe______________l whereas when the
infant was regarded as a boy the tears were seen as a sign of a_______r. So the simple
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knowledge of whether a child is a girl or boy leads to different inte_________________s on
behaviour.
Gender stereotypes can also affect our memory of achievement. Chatard, Guimond, and
Selimbegovic (2007) found that girls who strongly believed the stereotype that boys are
better at maths than girls tended to unde__________________e their previous performance
in maths. Similarly, boys who strongly believed in the stereotype that girls are better at arts
underestimated their previous scores in art exams.
FIND OUT FOR YOURSELF: Research suggests that fathers are more punitive towards
boys playing with “girls’ toys” than are mothers. Conduct a survey using a photo of a boy
playing with a “girls’ toy” and see if there is a gender difference in opinions on whether
this should be discouraged.
Cross-cultural Studies of Gender Role
Fill in the blanks.
One of the greatest values of cross-cultural research is that it indicates whether or not
patterns of behaviour are un_________________l. If they are consistent across cultures it
implies that biology is an important influence. If, on the other hand, it varies significantly,
then it indicates it is culturally determined and l________________d.
Mead (1935), an anthropologist, looked at three cultural groups in New Guinea, each of
which showed very different gender roles, demonstrating that members of each of these
cu____________s developed in accordance with the sex roles prescribed by their culture,
demonstrating that so______l forces contributed heavily to sex typing.
RESEARCH EVIDENCE FOR GENDER DIFFERENCES
Summarise the research evidence below.
Ψ Mead’s New Guinea research. What gender differences were found in the three
cultures studied by Mead?
• Mundugumor
• Arapesh
• Tchambuli
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Ψ Barry, Bacon, and Child’s (1957) research. What gender differences did this reveal?
Ψ Williams and Best’s (1982) cross-cultural research. What universal gender differences
were found and what is the significance of the differences being universal?
Ψ Environmental conditions. How do Wood and Eagly’s (2002) cross-cultural findings
support learning over biology?
Ψ Cultural differences. How do the Mbuti pygmies compare to the Mundurucu Indians?
EVALUATION OF CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH
Summarise the evaluation point below.
Ψ Sample bias. Why is this an issue?
FIND OUT FOR YOURSELF: Imagine you were the leader of a cultural group that lives on
a remote island far away from the influence of other cultures. How would you draw up
gender role?
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CONCLUSIONS—SO WHAT DOES THIS MEAN?
Answer the following question in your conclusions.
• Why is it difficult to resolve the nature–nurture debate in terms of gender development?
• Which approach can offer the fullest explanation of gender development?
Using this in the exam
Discuss cross-cultural research on gender roles.
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Example Essay Plan
1(a) Describe the role of biological factors in gender development. (9 marks)
1(b) Evaluate the biosocial approach to gender roles. (16 marks)
The marking is broken down into three sets of criteria, AO1, AO2, and AO3. In this question,
part (a) is AO1 and part (b) is AO2/AO3.
AO1 (9 marks)
Describe biological factors. Include the role of genetic factors, biochemicals, and evolution to
achieve both breadth and depth.
AO2 (12 marks)
Explain how the biosocial approach is an improvement on a solely biological approach. Include
research evidence for the respective influences of biology and social factors. Include
commentary on the studies. for example how they are often ambiguous in whether they
support social or biological factors and use examples to illustrate.
AO3 (4 marks)
Evaluation and/or interpretation of the research could include the difficulty of knowing the relative
contributions of nature and nurture in the interaction of the biosocial approach; how a biosocial
approach is less reductionist and can account for both universals and the many variations in
gender behaviour. Discuss the ethical issues surrounding Money and Ehrhardt’s (1972) research.
So the essay could be structured in the following way.
Part (a)
Start with the fact that males are XY and females are XX (you need to start with this in order to
describe the effect of hormones). Then discuss the influence of these chromosomes, including
the effect on pre-natal development. Go through the prenatal events that lead to males and
females developing in different ways.
Now discuss the influence of hormones after the child has been born. Start with the pre-natal
effects and then describe hormonal effects as girls and boys are growing up.
Describe some of the research studies, e.g. Young, Goy, and Phoenix’s (1964) research on
pregnant monkeys; Dalton’s (1969) research on the effect of sex hormones on the menstrual
cycle; the consistent effects of male hormones. But do keep this fairly limited as remember there
are only 9 marks available for AO1.
Part (b)
As this part is entirely evaluation you must NOT spend time on describing the theory. You need
to assume that the examiner is familiar with it! Start with research evidence that supports the
theory, mainly Goldwyn (1979) and the case of Mrs DW. Comment fully on how this initially
seems to support the role of nurture but explain why the influence of biology cannot be
rejected.
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Now move on to contradictory evidence, for example, Imperato-McGinley et al. (1974).
Comment fully on how this study seems to support the influence of biology over biosocial
factors. But counter this with the fact that the “girls” who became boys in this study lived in a
society that valued the male role.
Explain how Money and Erhardt’s (1972) study of David Reimer seems to support biological over
biosocial factors. Use Money’s defence as commentary. For example, he argued this case was
biased by the fact that David had a male twin. Why might this have acted as a bias? The mental
health issues in the family may explain why the gender re-assignment did not work. He claimed
that he was no longer studying the twins when the problems developed. David was not an
intersex child but a castration that had failed, and so reassignment may be more successful with
an intersex child such as the case of Mrs DW. Comment on the fact that these many issues
make it difficult to establish the validity of the biosocial approach because the findings are
contradictory and so it is difficult to know the true effects of biosocial factors.
Include methodological criticisms such as the strengths and weaknesses of case studies such as
Mrs DW and the case of David Reimer. Discuss the ethical issues with Money’s research, such as
the social sensitivity of the research and the questionable validity of his findings, and how he
defrauded the scientific community.
Now cover other criticisms. There is lack of support in specific aspects of the theory. It appears,
at least in the case of David Reimer, to seriously underestimate the role of biology. It is based
mainly on case studies of intersex children and the findings from these cannot necessarily be
generalised to those with more typical biological development. But then gender reassignment
does not happen in children with typical biological development. Consider the difficulty of
knowing the relative contributions of nature and nurture in the interaction of the biosocial
approach.
Discuss potential applications. An understanding of the biosocial factors could be used to help
support gender reassignment in adults in the cases of gender dysphoria.
Use evolution as evidence of the greater role of biological factors. Include some of the evidence
to support this approach.
Restrict yourself on the evidence so that you have time for the many evaluation points you can
make of evolutionary explanations. Use the many weaknesses to show evolution does not
invalidate the biosocial approach.
Conclude that the interactionst biosocial approach has more validity. It is less reductionist and
can account for both universals and the many variations in gender behaviour. It helps to resolve
the nature–nurture debate.
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