The Industrial Landscape of the Northern Faiyum Desert as a World Heritage Site: Modelling
the 'Outstanding Universal Value' of Third Millennium BC Stone Quarrying in Egypt
Author(s): Elizabeth Bloxam and Tom Heldal
Reviewed work(s):
Source: World Archaeology, Vol. 39, No. 3, The Archaeology of World Heritage (Sep., 2007),
pp. 305-323
Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40026202 .
Accessed: 28/10/2011 00:24
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].
Taylor & Francis, Ltd. is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to World
Archaeology.
http://www.jstor.org
The industriallandscape of the Northern
Faiyum Desert as a World Heritage Site:
modelling the 'outstanding universal
value7 of thirdmillenniumbc stone
quarryingin Egypt
Elizabeth Bloxam and Tom Heldal
Abstract
and templesof the EgyptianOld Kingdom(early-mid-third
The pyramids
millennium
BC) are
intheevolution
to an epochofglobalsignificance
ofmonumental
testament
stonearchitecture.
The
ofWidanel-Farasandgypsum
basaltquarries
ofUmmes-Sawan,
locatedintheNorthern
quarries
werekeyproduction
sitesintheforeground
ofthistransformation
tolargeFaiyumDesertofEgypt,
and value of thesearchaeological
scale stonequarrying.
sitesin shaping
Yet, the significance
ofthecultural
elements
undernomination
for
FaiyumDesert,currently
landscapeoftheNorthern
remainslargelyin the background.
WorldHeritagelisting,
This paperattempts
to developa
to articulate
universal
value'and to raisethesignificance
ofthelargely
'outstanding
methodology
remainsof theseproduction
sites.By deploying
in
mundaneand non-monumental
formulations
and keyconceptsused in thenomination
of the Blaenavonindustrial
landscapearchaeologies
landscapein SouthWalesas a WorldHeritageSite,it arguesfortheculturallandscapeof the
oneoftheworld'soldest'industrial'
Northern
relatedto
FaiyumDesertauthenticating
landscapes
stonequarrying.
large-scale
Keywords
Old Kingdom;
basalt;industrial
Faiyum;Egypt.
Quarries;
landscape;Northern
Introduction
withitsmonumental
ofpharaonicEgyptis synonymous
Thecultural
heritage
buildings,
at Luxor,Abu Simbel
suchas thepyramids
alongtheGiza Plateauto Dahshur,temples
WorldArchaeologyVol. 39(3): 305-323 TheArchaeology
of WorldHeritage
Routledqe
II\ Tayior&Franciscroup
online
© 2007Taylor& FrancisISSN 0043-8243print/1470-1375
DOI: 10.1080/00438240701464905
306 ElizabethBloxam and Tom Heldal
and Philae, which, as outstanding constructionalachievements,are all World
was the product of a
Heritage Sites (Jokilehto2005: 126). Yet, this monumentality
'revolution'in large-scale stone quarryingand transport,commencingin the third
millenniumBC, the global significanceof which has largelygone unrecognized.The
ancientquarriesfromwhich the raw materialsfor these and otherconstructionswere
obtained are the 'forgotten'archaeologicalsites in Egypt,the majorityof which are
and unprotectedas culturalheritagesites.The basalt quarriesof Widan elunregistered
Faras and gypsumquarriesof Umm es-Sawan,located 70kmsouthwestof Cairo in the
NorthernFaiyum Desert, are no exception(Fig. 1). As key archaeologicalsites in the
foregroundof the earlyphases of this stone-quarrying
phenomenon,betweenthe early
and mid-thirdmillenniumBC, they are largely unknown. Recent extensionof the
Figure1 Map of Egyptshowingancientquarriesmentionedin the text.
The industrial
landscapeof theNorthern
FaiyumDesertas a WHS 307
boundariesof the Lake Qarun Protectoratemeans that Widan el-Faras and Umm esSawan are now includedin a currentnomination,underpreparationby UNESCO Egypt
MAB (Man and the Biosphere)Committee,fordesignationas a mixednatural/cultural
and value of quarryingat Widan elWorld HeritageSite (Fig. 2). Yet, the significance
Faras and Umm es-Sawan in shapingthe culturallandscape of the NorthernFaiyum
remainlargelyin the backgroundof the nomination.Rather,the main emphasisfor
of theProtectorate'sfossilrecord,as an extensionof the
inclusionlies on thesignificance
Wadi Hitan (Whale Valley)naturallandscapeinscribedas a World HeritageSite in 2005
(WH no. 1186).
If ancient quarries in general are to be recognizedand protectedas important
archaeological sites, this is contingenton how their significanceand values are
disseminatedat local, national and internationallevels. With 'outstandinguniversal
value' beingthe baselinecriterionforWorld Heritagelisting(UNESCO 1972), thereis
clearlya need to developa methodologyto articulatethevalues of thenon-monumental
and mundanearchaeologicalremainsof ancientquarriesin these terms.By deploying
in landscape archaeologies,togetherwithkeyconceptsused in
some recentformulations
the nominationof the Blaenavon industriallandscape in South Wales (UK) as a World
of Widan
HeritageSitein 2000 (WH no. 984), theobjectiveis to illustratethesignificance
the culturallandscape of the Northern
el-Faras and Umm es-Sawan in authenticating
one of theworld'soldest'industrial'landscapesrelatedto largeFaiyumas representing
scale stonequarrying.
Conceptualizing the 'outstandinguniversalvalue9 of industriallandscapes
The inclusionof 'culturallandscapes'as a categoryforWorldHeritagelistingsince 1992,
as entitiesthatdemonstrate'combinedworksof natureand man' of universalvalue, has
been a key advance for the recognitionand conservationof such places (Platcherand
theexistenceof thenatureRossler1995: 16; Titchen1996:238-9). Moreover,recognizing
culturecontinuumas a criterionforinscriptionon the World HeritageList (von Droste
to raisetheprofile
1995:21; Cleere 1996:231; Titchen1996:239) providestheopportunity
of and include 'industriallandscapes' as potentialsites for inclusion.As Platcherand
Rossler(1995: 17) pointout,drawingcomparisons,designingconceptsand methodologies
to conceptualize the value of cultural landscapes can provide baselines for their
identification
and assessmentglobally.
Withonlysixteenindustriallandscapes,all linkedto mining,listedas World Heritage
Sites (Jokilehto2005: 78), and only fivein a non-Europeancontext,the ancientquarry
landscape of the NorthernFaiyum presentsan enormouschallengein how it can be
of 'outstandinguniversalvalue' butas a quarry
modelled,notonlywithinthekeycriterion
The
context.
in
nonWestern
a
concept of 'outstandinguniversalvalue' and
landscape
of
for
criteria
as
inscription naturaland culturallandscapeson theWorld
authenticity key
(Cleere 1996: 227-33; Titchen1996: 235HeritageList has provokedsome controversy
can
be attributed
to culturallandscapes
how
'universal'
value
on
for
instance,
actually
42):
situatedacross a rangeof diversegeographicallocations,culturaltraditionsand concepts
that encompass a broad range of definitionsnot just focused on the
of authenticity
308 ElizabethBloxam and Tom Heldal
Figure2 Map oftheNorthernFaiyumDesert(above) showingpartofthecurrentborderoftheLake
Qarun Protectorateand extendedborderto includeall elementsof the industriallandscape (total
600km2).Below left,detailedmap of themainelementsof theWidan el-Farasbasalt quarries;below
right,detailedmap of themain elementsof the Umm es-Sawan gypsumquarries.
The industrial
landscapeof theNorthern
FaiyumDesertas a WHS
309
monumental(von Droste 1995:22-3; Cleere 1996:228-9; Titchen1996:236-7). Moreover,
is theimportanceof evaluating'universalvalue' in moreabstracttermssuchas a themeor
has global significance
innovationthathistorically
(see Fowler 2003: 56-8, 2004: 130-1).
The Nara Conferenceon authenticity
(UNESCO 1994) introduceda more open and
whichin the
flexibleapproachto thecross-cultural
problemsin determining
authenticity,
contextof culturallandscapes means theirdistinctivecharacterand components(von
Droste 1995: 22-3; Mitchell 1995: 245; McBryde 1997; Fowler 2004: 5). A concept of
authenticitythat considers multi-layeredimpacts on the landscape as significantis
important,particularlyin ancientindustriallandscapes that have evolved over several
thousand millennia.The social constructionof the landscape thus becomes a crucial
of the transformed
landscape across time,
componentin conceptualizingthe significance
an issue that has recentlyproduced a range of theoreticalapproaches in landscape
archaeologies(see Ingold 1993; Ucko and Layton 1999; Ashmore and Knapp 1999;
Barrett1999; Thomas 2001).
Contributionsfromlandscape archaeologiesare importantfor conceptualizingthe
authenticityof multi-layeredcultural landscapes, which by their very nature are
with multiplemeaningsacross time (Ingold 1993: 152-3, 171-2; Barrett
fragmented,
1999; Knapp 1999; Thomas 2001: 166, 181). In the contextof stone quarries,certain
sources may be places in the landscape that hold a specificresonance across many
generationsof kin. As Edmonds (1999: 47-8) points out, these places may be key to
ties
maintainingsocial relationsthroughstoneworkingtraditions,as well as confirming
with past generationswho exploitedthe resource.Moreover, that the raw materials
and place is important
in bringingout the
themselves
have historiesconnectedto identities
nature-culturecontinuum,not only between stone sources and places of artefact
deposition,but betweenpeople and places (Barrett1999: 27; Cooney 1999: 51-6, 59-61;
Bradley2000: 81-6). For instance,non-localexotic stonesused as tools in production
not onlyextendedsocial networkslinkedto kin-groups
sitescan be keyto understanding
the
in
but
importanceof specificstone sources (Bradley and
quarrying,
engaged
Edmonds 1993: 96; Cooney 1998: 108-18, 1999: 49-51; Bradley 2000: 86-7; Boivin
2004: 10-16).
Recognitionof Blaenavonin SouthWales,an industriallandscapeof therecentpast,as
a World Heritageculturallandscape in 2000 provides some key concepts in how to
articulatethe 'outstandinguniversalvalue' of a landscape transformed
by raw material
procurementin the eighteenthand nineteenthcenturies.Characterizedby production
'a
waste and mundaneelements,the culturallandscape was put forwardas representing
combinedworkof natureand man . . . one of thebestexamplesin theworldof a landscape
in thelateeighteenth
createdbycoal miningand iron-making
centuryand earlynineteenth
century'(Torfaen County Borough Council 1999: 7). Importantto the nomination
of theBlaenavonindustriallandscapewas how mundane
documentthatled to inscription
transformed
within
a
features,
landscape, were articulatedas having 'outstanding
characterof theBlaenavon
universalvalue'. The componentsthatmake up thedistinctive
industriallandscape were shown to have been shaped by large-scaleraw material
exploitationlinkedto the IndustrialRevolution,whichcreatedan arena of the 'human
experienceof industrialization'.The human dimension and social implicationsare
foregroundedas demonstratingthe 'co-existencewithin it of heroic and mundane
310 ElizabethBloxam and Tom Heldal
structures
as the settingforprofounddevelopmentsin human culturalvalues' (Torfaen
of Blaenavon is made
County Borough Council 1999: 16, 19). The global significance
accessible
in
some
'world
firsts'
broadly
by claiming
technologicalinnovationlinked
to
infrastructure
and as the firstproducerof 'mild steel' (Torfaen
especially transport
CountyBoroughCouncil 1999: 8; also see Fowler 2004: 102).
An overviewof thenaturaland culturallandscapeof theNorthern
FaiyumDesert
Bounded to the south by Lake Qarun and to the northby the escarpmentof Gebel
Qatrani,the naturaland culturallandscape of the NorthernFaiyum Desert (withinthe
Lake Qarun Protectorate)comprisesan area of approximately
600km2of largelyhyperariddesert(Fig. 2). The naturalenvironment
includesEocene and Oligocenefossilsitesof
as theyconstitutean almostcompleterecordof vertebrate
evolutionin
global significance
Africa(Bown and Kraus 1988; Simons and Rasmussen 1990; Dolson et al. 2002). The
fossilrhizolithsthereare some of thebestpreservedin theworld,and, along withmajor
forestsof petrified
wood, constitutea unique evolutionaryrecordof climate,plant and
animallife.
The culturallandscape representsa multi-layered
historyof human activitylinkedto
utilizationof thewatersof ancientLake Moeris (modernLake Qarun) and exploitationof
the surrounding
naturalresources,such as chert,gypsum,basalt,silicifiedsandstoneand
fossilizedwood. Since the earliestknown archaeologicalremains,a seriesof Neolithic
(fifthmillenniumBC) settlements
along the ancientlake's extinctshorelines,therewas
almost continuousoccupation in the area into the fourthcenturyAD Coptic period
(Caton-Thompsonand Gardner 1934). Monumental structurescharacterizethe later
at Qasr el-Sagha
phases of activity,such as the Middle Kingdomtempleand settlement
and those of the Graeco-Roman period at Dimai and Karanis (Caton-Thompsonand
Garner 1934; Arnold and Arnold 1979; Gazda 1983; Kozlowski 1983). Despite the
continuous occupation of this landscape, the authenticityand integrityof these
archaeological sites has been maintainedlargelydue to natural fluctuationsin the
level of the lake necessitatingperiodic settlementmovements(Caton-Thompsonand
Garner1934: 89; Ball 1939;Wendorfand Schild 1976;Wenkeand Lane 1983:25; Hassan
1986; Brewer 1989: 129-30; Kozlowski and Ginter 1993; Wetterstrom1993: 204).
theseconstituterareevidenceof ancientsettlements
in
Hence,withlittlelaterdisturbance,
Egypt.
With the focus of archaeologicalresearchlargelyinvestedin those materialremains
situatedalong theextinctshorelineof Lake Moeris,thehinterland,
threerising
comprising
at the Gebel Qatrani escarpment,has been of less interestto
escarpmentsterminating
researchers.The quarriesand associatedinfrastructure
of Widan el-Faras and Umm esSawan that make up the materialremainsof the industriallandscape of the Northern
Faiyum (Fig. 2) have remainedlargelyintactand littleinvestigatedsince the work of
Caton-Thompsonand Gardner(1934) in the 1920s. Both siteswere ignoredforalmost
at Widan el-Faras by Harrelland Bown
seventyyearsuntilthe geologicalinvestigations
in
the
1990s
and
that
of
the
authors
since
2001 (Bloxam and Storemyr2002;
(1995)
Bloxam 2003, 2007; Heldal et al. in press; Bloxam et al. in press). Currentwork has
The industrial
landscapeof theNorthern
FaiyumDesertas a WHS
311
undertakendetailed documentationand surveyof the archaeological and geological
landscape,withtheaim of visualizingtheindustrialcomponentsof theNorthernFaiyum
Desert.
and significance
of mundaneproduction
sites
Visualizingtheauthenticity
The existenceof ancientbasalt quarrieswithinthe Gebel Qatrani escarpmenthad been
knownfora century(Beadnell 1905), althoughthe actual extractionsitesalong the rim
(350m above sea level) behindthe two highlyvisiblepeaks of Widan el-Faras (translated
as 'horse's ears') werenot recognizeduntilthe work of Harrelland Bown (1995) in the
mid-1990s(Plate 1). The basalt occurs as an 8-15-metrethicklayerof Oligocenebasalt
flowswhichcap thesedimentary
rocksof theGebel Qatraniescarpmentthatextendseast
to Abu Roash, close to thepyramidfields(Simonsand Rasmussen1990:627; Heikal et al.
1983; Klemmand Klemm 1993: 413-15; Harrelland Bown 1995: 76).
Faiyumbasalt has a long historyof consumptionthatebbed and flowedfromat least
theFaiyumNeolithic(fifth
millennium
BC),whenit was used foraxes (Lucas 1930:203-5;
and
Gardner
1934: 25-6), intothe Roman periodwhenit was used for
Caton-Thompson
small statuettes(Harrelland Bown 1995: 73; Empereur2000: 11; Bloxam and Storemyr
2002: 28). The consumptionrecordsuggeststhatalmostcontinuousexploitationof basalt
occurredbetweenthe fifthand thirdmillenniaBC. By the Predynasticperiod (fourth
millennium
BC Naqada I) basalt had become an importantmaterialused in an emerging
stone vessel industry(Lucas 1930: 205; Debono and Mortensen 1988; Aston 1994;
Plate1 Widanel-Farasbasaltquarries:
thepeaksof
onemainextraction;
foreground,
background,
Widanel-Faras.
312 ElizabethBloxam and Tom Heldal
Mallory-Greenoughet al. 2000: 326; Wengrow 2006: 34). Yet the zenith of basalt
and concomitantly
thegreatestimpactofquarryingalongtheGebel Qatrani
consumption,
is
that
to
the
millenniumBC whenit was used for
escarpment,
dating
earlyto mid-third
monumentalconstructions(Hoffmeier1993; Harrell and Bown 1995: 74-5; MalloryGreenoughet al. 2000: 326). The quarries,visualizedas a seriesof shallow bench-like
as the sourceof thebasalt used mainlyfor
depressionsin thedeposit,wereauthenticated
floorsand wallsin theOld Kingdom(fourthand fifth
Dynasty)mortuary
templesof king's
Sahure
and
and
1995:
Bown
Khufu,Userkaf,
74-5; Mallory-Greenough
Nyuserra(Harrell
et al. 2000). Ceramicevidencein thequarriesalso confirmed
thatthemainextractions
dated
to exploitationbetweenthe fourthand fifthDynastiesof the Old Kingdom(Bloxam and
2002: 26). Althoughmodernquarrying
since2002 has impactedto someextenton
Storemyr
thesequarries,almostobliterating
somelaterRoman periodquarrying,
theintegrity
of the
Old Kingdomquarriesas significant
archaeologicalmonumentsstillremains.
The gypsumdepositsof Umm es-Sawan occur as low-lyingterraceswithinthe upper
part of the Eocene Qasr el Sagha Formation(Dir Abu Lifa Member;Bown and Kraus
1988: 37), 25kmnorth-eastof Widan el-Faras. Characterizedby a seriesof shallowsandfilled sub-surfaceextractions,the quarry landscape can be visualized more by the
secondaryworkings,which forma series of workshopmounds situated200m above
the quarries.Even thoughthereis evidenceof some laterworkingin the Roman period,
the authenticity
of theseworkingsattests(fromdatingceramicevidenceacross the site)
to the transformed
landscape being largelycharacterizedby Old Kingdom quarrying
betweenthethirdand fourthDynasties(Caton-Thompsonand Gardner1934: 110-13; El
Senussi2006) (Plate 2).
Procurementstrategies,
such as whichpartsof the depositweretargetedand how the
stone was extracted,may be significantin articulatingconnections,over several
betweenspecificsourcesand thosewho inhabitedthelandscape.Whybasalt
generations,
was specificallysought after from Widan el-Faras for monumental construction
of the flowextendedmuch closer to the pyramid
projects,when the easternextremity
fieldsat Abu Roash, is significantto such questions. Althoughit could be argued
that Widan el-Faras basalt was particularlysoughtafterdue to betterquality,this is
difficult
to attestcomparatively
becausetheeasternextremity
of theflowis now destroyed.
From a purelyresourceperspective,however,the evidencepresentedat Widan el-Faras
can only suggestthat areas of the deposit here may have been selecteddue to the
of thepyramidfloors
probabilityof obtainingsufficiently
largeblocksfortheconstruction
2002: 26). But,as severalcommentators
have pointedout (Cooney
(Bloxam and Storemyr
theselection
1998, 1999; Bradley2000; also see Boivin2004), thecomplexitysurrounding
of some stonesourcesoverothersmaynotnecessarily
that
was
alwaysa key
imply
quality
factor.
The importanceof sourceover stonequalityis similarlydifficult
to attestin relationto
at
Umm
as
there
are
several
es-Sawan,particularly
gypsumquarrying
gypsumterracesin
the area wheretracesof quarryingare yet to be fullyinvestigated.Yet, it appears that
Umm es-Sawanwas wherethemain gypsumproductionwas concentrated
in theearlyto
mid-thirdmillennium
BC and wherethereseemto have been therichestdeposits(Plate 3).
Local deposits of fossilizedwood, chert,sandstoneand silicifiedsandstoneare all
knownto have been exploitedsincethe Neolithic(Caton-Thompsonand Gardner1934:
The industrial
landscapeof theNorthern
FaiyumDesertas a WHS 313
Plate 2 Workshopmoundsat Umm es-Sawan: foreground,
clustersof vesselblanksor rough-outs;
background,workshopdebrisabove whichis a naturalrock shelterin the overhang.
Plate 3 Ummes-Sawangypsumquarries:foreground,
theextractions;
background,escarpmentwith
one of theworkshopsshownas whitearea top left.
workedinto
25-6). At Ummes-Sawanfossilizedwood was a keylocal resource,minimally
These
of
chert.
and
with
stone
hammers
found
associated
rod-shapedpieces
largely
as
tools.
materialsoccur in significant
in
their
use
the
quarries,suggesting
quantities
314 ElizabethBloxam and Tom Heldal
However, large concentrationsof chert are not found in natural occurrencesin the
quarryarea, and are assumed to have been broughtto the place eitherfrombedrock
depositsin more distantparts of the Gebel Qatrani Formationor (more likely)from
concentratedalluvial depositsof chertcobbles in the easternpart of the Faiyum.Other
stonehammersfromlocal and semi-localsourcesincludea silicified
gravelconglomerate,
basalt (nearestsourceis approximately
4kmaway) and a characteristic
silicified
sandstone,
whichis believedto come froma quarrydiscoveredduringthe 2006 survey,4km to the
northwest.
Despitethisuse of somelocal and semi-localresourcesin theextraction
processat Umm
featuresof thestone-toolassemblagesare thosemade from
es-Sawan,themostsignificant
non-localexoticstones,especiallyat Widan el-Faraswhereall thestonetools come from
distantsources (Harrell 2002: 235). Significantly,
some are fromsourcesup to 800km
away, such as the blue and visuallydistinctiveChephrenGneiss thathas one source at
Chephren'sQuarrynearAbu Simbel(Engelbach1938;Harrelland Brown1994;Storemyr
et al. 2002) and granodioritefromtheAswan region.These stonesare foundshapedinto
tools,but also as smallunworkedblocks,and possiblevessel'blanks' or rough-outs.This
evidenceraises the significance
of the NorthernFaiyum industriallandscape to another
levelas constituting
thehighestconcentrations
of importedstonesknownin any ancient
of thismaterialwillbe partof
quarryin Egypt.The broaderimplicationsand significance
a laterdiscussion.
Dating large-scalebasalt productionat Widan el-Faras to the Old Kingdom, as
mentionedabove, was possiblefromrelatively
of architectural
elements
good preservation
made fromthe stone in the mortuarytemples.With gypsum,this change to intensive
to ascertaingivenits consumptionas
productionby the Old Kingdom is more difficult
mortarand fragilestonevessels(Caton-Thompsonand Gardner1934: 108-9;Aston 1994:
47-53). Yet, the productiondata at Umm es-Sawan, in particularthose recordedby
Caton-Thompsonand Gardner(1934: 105), referto over 3,000 vessel'blanks' or roughouts associated with the workshopmounds. Althoughconsiderablyfewerare visible
today, quantitiesof vessel blanks in formsparticularto the Early Dynastic and Old
Kingdom(Aston 1994:47-53) can stillbe observedbesidetheworkshopmounds(Plate 2).
Thousands of crescent-shaped
drillsmade of chertrecordedby Caton-Thompsonand
Gardner(1934: 129-31) further
attestto intensiveproduction,perhapsfinishing
of vessels
in the quarries.At Widan el-Faras thereseemsto have been a minimalamountof block
to reducethetransport
workingbeyondrudimentary
trimming
weight(Bloxam2003: 186).
However,at Khufu'smortuarytemplethereis evidenceof cuttingthebasalt blockswith
theworld'sfirstappearanceof such technologyapplied on hard
largesaws, representing
rocks(Petrie1883: 174-5; Moores 1991).
in creating
Technologicalinnovationas a consequenceof large-scalestoneprocurement
the industriallandscape is most visually accessible in the constructionof transport
An engineering
infrastructure.
BC,the 11kmquarry
phenomenonof thethirdmillennium
road thatlinksWidan el-FaraswithLake Moerisis one oftheworld'soldestpurpose-built
a major achievement
paved roads (see Harrelland Bown 1995: 79) (Plate 4). It represents
in road buildingusinga rangeof locallyavailable raw materials,such as fossilizedwood,
basalt, mudstoneand sandstone(Harrelland Bown 1995: 78-83; Bloxam and Storemyr
2002: 29-31). In shapingtheindustriallandscapetheroad createsa uniform2.1mcorridor
The industrial
landscapeof theNorthern
FaiyumDesertas a WHS
315
Plate 4 Segmentof theancientquarryroad leadingfromWidan el-Faras (backgroundupperright)
to Qasr el-Sagha;foregroundsegmentcomprisesfossilisedwood and silicifiedsandstone.
theshortestrouteto water.The road terminates
at
on an elevatedpromontory
delineating
theshorelineof ancientLake Moeris,on whichweatheredremainsof largebasalt blocks
forma sharpcontrastof black dots againstan otherwiseyellowlandscape(Wendorfand
Schild1976:220; Arnoldand Arnold 1979:25; Harrelland Bown 1995: 86). A connection
betweenhighNile floodsduringthe fourthand fifthDynasties(Hassan 1997; Said 1993:
134) coincidingwiththepeak in large-scalestoneprocurement
pointsto Lake Moeris as
thecrucialinterfacein the stonetransportation
process(Shafei 1960: 192-3; Harrelland
Bown 1995: 83; Bloxam and Storemyr2002: 34-5). From Umm es-Sawan,accordingto
observationsmade by Caton-Thompsonand Gardner(1934: 103),a 20km'caravan' route
heads south west in the directionof the Old Kingdom settlement
of Kom IV at Lake
Moeris. Althoughtraces of anotherancienttrack were recorded(Petrie 1887; Catona linkbetweenUmm es-Sawanand the
Thompsonand Gardner1934: 109-10),suggesting
easternFaiyumwithDahshur,datingof thisroad to eitherthe Old Kingdomor Roman
Periodis uncertain.
The social constructionof the industriallandscape
with hierarchicalelements,typicallyassociated with
Purpose-builtenclosed settlements
Roman period quarryingat Mons Claudianus (Peacock and Maxfield1997) and Mons
Porphyrites
(Maxfieldand Peacock 2001) in theEasternDesert,are not attestedat either
Widan el-Faras or Umm es-Sawan. Rather,a smallephemeralencampmentat Widan elFaras and utilizationof some naturalrock sheltersat Umm es-Sawan characterizethe
to thequarries.Along withsmallamountsof ceramics,
dwellingsin immediateproximity
316 ElizabethBloxam and Tom Heldal
datinglargelyto the period of most intensiveexploitationbetweenthe fourthand fifth
at the quarries
Dynasties,theseconstitutethe onlyvisibleremainsof human settlement
and
Gardner
1934:
Bloxam
and
117-20;
(Caton-Thompson
Storemyr2002: 33-4;
El Senussi 2006). Yet at Lake Moeris two contemporary
at
Old Kingdom settlements,
Qasr el-Saghaand Kom IV, weredescribedby Caton-Thompsonand Gardner(1934: 978, 134) as beingassociatedwithstone-working.
Qasr el-Sagha and Kom IV lie directlysouth of Widan el-Faras and Umm es-Sawan
respectively
(Fig. 2). Connected to the quarriesvia theirtransportroutes,these sites
can also be linked by typologicalsimilaritiesbetweensome ceramics,potters'marks
the distinctivefabricof locally made pottery(containingdark
and, more specifically,
attested
at
both
Widan el-Faras and Umm es-Sawan (Caton-Thompsonand
particles)
Gardner 1934: 99-100, 110-16, pl. lxvi.30; Bloxam 2003: 267; El Senussi 2006). Nonlocal exotic stones are foundacross all these sitesusually as tools. Notably,Chephren
Gneiss was found at Kom IV in the form of partial and complete vessels (CatonThompson and Gardner 1934: 97-8). Althoughthe presentstructuralelementsof the
templeat Qasr el-Sagha date to the Middle Kingdom,whetherthese were placed on
earlierOld Kingdom foundationsremainsunresolved(Caton-Thompsonand Gardner
1934: 132; Arnold and Arnold 1979). In essence, the componentsthat make up the
industriallandscape of the NorthernFaiyum extend fromthe hinterlandquarries to
these once lakeside settlements.
Moreover,this connectednesscan be visualizedacross
the landscape via the natural landmarksof the Widan el-Faras peaks, the pyramidal
hill of Garet el-Gindi and the Qasr el-Sagha escarpment,which all share significant
inter-visibility.
Even withtheadventofintensiveresourceexploitationin theNorthernFaiyum,thereis
no evidencefromeitherthelakesidesettlements
or theephemeralcamps at thequarriesto
social stratification
occurredin the transformation
to intensive
suggestthat significant
of the sociallyconstructedlandscapemay be related
production.Rather,the significance
to thesourcesthemselvesas keyplaces whichconnectedlocal kin groupswiththosewho
had workedtheresourceovermanygenerations.Arguably,thiswas thesociallycohesive
forcethatmaintainedthe 160-yearlongevityof exploitationof theseresources,associated
withthepeaks of pyramidconstruction.
Similarargumentswerealso raisedin thecontext
of Middle Kingdom (second millenniumBC) gemstoneminingin Egypt's marginal
territories
(Bloxam 2006).
Yet, these relationshipswere fluid. For instance, recentlydocumented silicified
sandstonequarries,in the nearbyenvironsof both Widan el-Faras and Umm es-Sawan,
attestto thislargelyOld Kingdomextractionactivitybeingforutilitariangrindingstones
of objects,
(see Fig. 2). These quarriesmightindirectly
suggestthenecessaryprovisioning
relatedto food processing,needed by an expandingresidentpopulation.The concentrations of exotic non-local stones across the industriallandscape are also significant
in
the
social
linked
to
intensive
As
understanding underlying
dynamics
production. pointed
out by Bradley and Edmonds (1993: 96) and Cooney (1999: 49-51), these social
transformations
may have led to the extensionof existingsocial networkslinkedto kinare placed in theirhistorical
groupsengagedin quarrying.If such social transformations
context,thensuch changesmay have been entangledwithina backdropof macro-level
and the quest for stone from
ideologiesand power strategiesrelatedto monumentality
The industrial
landscapeof theNorthern
FaiyumDesertas a WHS
317
distantsources.Chephren'sQuarryin Lower Nubia, thesourceof ChephrenGneiss,was
witnessto a simultaneousexplosionin exploitationfor life-sizedroyal statuaryin the
fourthDynasty (Engelbach 1938; Harrell and Brown 1994; Shaw and Bloxam 1999;
et al. 2002). Hence, depositionof exoticblue ChephrenGneiss in theNorthern
Storemyr
in formulating
argumentsthatsuggestlinksbetweenthesesites
Faiyummaybe significant
social
networks
extended
(Bloxam 2007: 26).
through
The authenticity
of therelictindustriallandscapeof theNorthernFaiyum,as a product
setwithintheearlyto mid-third
millennium
of large-scalestoneprocurement
BC,is due to
itscessationbytheend ofthefifth
Dynastyas attestedfromtheceramicevidence(Bloxam
and Storemyr2002: 26; El Senussi 2006). Moreover, the consumptionrecord also
Dynastymortuarytempleof Nyuserraat Abu
correspondsto thiscessation,withthefifth
monument
to
have
used
basaltin anysignificant
amounts(Bloxam
thelast
Sirconstituting
2002: 28). Withlarge-scaletransport
and Storemyr
beingrelianton highNile floods,which
it is suggestedwereconsiderablylowerbytheend of Old Kingdom(Butzer1984: 107; Said
1993: 134; Hassan 1997: 5-6; Stanleyet al. 2003: 395-402), this may have severedthe
connectionbetweenLake Moeris and the Nile. Consequently,the quarryroad withits
directionto thelake becameobsolete.Apartfromsuchfunctionalexplanations,
southerly
down'
historicalinferenceswould suggesta confluenceof eventssituatedaround
'top
shiftsin political influenceand dispersal of resourcesaway fromroyal monumental
projects (Cruz-Uribe 1994: 49; Seidlmayer 2000: 122). Hence, it was no longer
economicallyviable to transportstone fromdistant sources; notably exploitationof
ChephrenGneiss fromChephren'sQuarryalso ended at the same time.
Yet, such explanationslargelyoverlookmicro-levelsocial dynamicsas also congruent
and significant
to cessation.If longevityof productionis linkedto kinship,ancestryand a
connectednesswith place, then the social transformations
that were set in motion,as
in a discontinuity
or changein meaningattachedto
described,may have been significant
theresource.As Barrett(1999: 27-8) argues,archaeologicaldiscontinuities
mayrepresent
thereworking
of theideologicallandscapethatshiftedemphasisto a diverseset of places.
Large-scalestone exploitationdid not end, but ratherit shiftedby the sixthDynasty
and became centredlargelyinside the Nile Valley and EasternDesert,into the Roman
period. Even withthe substantialMiddle Kingdom and Roman period presencein the
at Qasr el-Sagha and Dimai respectively,
NorthernFaiyum,attestedby the settlements
therewas no returnto large-scalequarryingof basalt or gypsum(Bloxam and Storemyr
2002: 28).
Discussion
ShapingoftheindustriallandscapeoftheNorthernFaiyumcan be visualizedas a seriesof
transformations
contingenton a 'revolution'to large-scaleexploitationof basalt and
gypsum deposits, associated with pyramid construction,in the early to mid-third
ofthisrevolutionin transforming
millennium
BC.The significance
thenaturallandscapeof
NorthernFaiyum is how these primaryindustriesset in motion a series of other
interactionsthat produced the distinctivecharacterand componentsof the cultural
landscapethatare visibletoday.Exploitationof subsidiaryraw materialsneededeitherin
318 Elizabeth
Bloxamand TomHeldal
theproduction
suchas roads,
ofinfrastructure,
process,suchas fortools,orforelements
the industrial
and utilitarian
stones,characterizes
dwellings
objectssuch as grinding
of
the
Northern
landscape
Faiyum.
In theabsenceofwritten
thehumanexperience
ofthisexponential
records,
changeto
intensive
which,as Fowler
production
maybe drawnonlyfromitsmundanestructures,
expressesit, are the 'memorialto the unknownlabourer'(2004: 31). The social
construction
of thelandscapeimpliesthatthetransformation
to intensive
exploitation
oflocalresources
waslargely
social
conducted
within
lowlevelsof
perhaps
organization,
relatedto localkingroups.Theselection
andextraction
ofcertain
stonedepositsarealso
withtechnological
of the paved
the construction
innovation,
congruent
particularly
road.
with
basalt
in
the
attested
beforethe
Moreover,
quarry
exploitation
regionbeing
thirdmillennium
BC(Mallory-Greenough
et al. 2000:326),knowledge
oftheseresources
andtheenvironment
connected
to
ofthenature-culture
continuum
maybe representative
resource
sincetheearliestFaiyumNeolithic
habitations.
exploitation
Although
requiring
moreextensive
thesignificance
of longculturaland
environs,
surveyof theimmediate
historical
in
antecedents
attachedto theseNorthern
sources
maybe important
Faiyum
stoneselection.
formulating
arguments
surrounding
thelandscapeis ina continual
such
stateoftransformation
Although
bynaturalforces,
as winderosionand occasionalflashfloods,and humaninfluences,
suchas tourism,
modernbasalt quarrying
and agricultural
of the industrial
projects,the authenticity
remains.
As a cultural
'relict'and
landscapestilllargely
landscapethat'hovers'between
transformation
'continuing'
(seeFowler2004:102),itmaybe arguedthatthiscontinuous
in theNorthern
theauthenticity
of the
and integrity
Faiyum,ratherthandiminishing
industrial
has
acted
to
and
isolate
the
Old
landscape, largely
emphasize
Kingdomepochas
theperiodwhenitwascentre-stage
inan exponential
thatwas
questforbasaltandgypsum
neverrepeated.
Theglobalsignificance
oftheancient
industrial
landscapeoftheNorthern
ofhow
workofnatureandman'is itsprojection
ofthenarrative
Faiyumas a 'combined
stonewas extracted,
the
world's
and
crafted
to
elements
of
transported finally
produce
mostoutstanding
monuments.
funerary
Conclusion
This paper has arguedthatthe industrial
landscapeof the NorthernFaiyumis of
universalvalue' in authenticating
a transformation
to large-scalestone
'outstanding
in the
in
the
third
millennium
an
that
has
BC,
quarrying
epoch
global significance
evolutionof monumental
stonearchitecture.
Furthermethodological
by
development
in socialand landscapearchaeologies
and extending
additionalformulations
deploying
Widan
andgeological
intothelargely
undocumented
areasbetween
archaeological
survey
research.
el-Faras,Ummes-Sawanand Kom IV is clearlydesirableforfuture
However,
theintention
the
ofthispaperhasbeentoconstruct
a preliminary
framework
to articulate
andvaluesoflargely
mundane
data,as applicablefornomination
significance
production
as a WorldHeritagesite.Although
it is beyondthescopeofthispaperto discussissues
theconservation,
andpresentation
ofancientstonequarriesin
surrounding
management
an Egyptiancontext,the perspectives
raised are intendedto open up discussion
The industrial
landscapeof theNorthern
FaiyumDesertas a WHS
319
on how ancientstone quarriesin generalcan be made more visibleto nationalcultural
heritageauthorities.
Acknowledgements
We extendmuch appreciationto our team membersof the 2006 surveyof Widan elFaras and Umm es-Sawan: Per Storemyr,Adel Kelany, Patrick Degreyse, Ashraf
El Senussi and Mohamed Hamed Mohamed Ad. Also, much appreciationis extended
to the firstreviewersof this paper whose commentswere extremelyuseful. We
gratefullyacknowledge the help and assistance from the Supreme Council of
Antiquities(SCA) in providingus with the opportunityto carry out this work as
partnersin the EU-fundedQuarryScapesproject.Special thanksto Ahmed Abdel Al,
Director of SCA Faiyum, and Magdy el-Ghandour,Director of Foreign Missions,
SCA Cairo, fortheirassistancein all aspects of the surveyand to Samir Ghabbour of
the UNESCO MAB Committee.Thanks also to our fourtraineesfromSCA and EAIS
for all their help during the survey of Widan el-Faras. It is also importantto
acknowledgethe work of JimHarrell at Widan el-Faras in the 1990s which initially
raised the importanceof this forgottenquarry site. Thanks also to the Leverhulme
Trust for fundingpart of this fieldworkas part of an 'Early Career Fellowship'
(Bloxam) and the EU Commissionfor fundingall other elementsof this work (6th
FrameworkProgramme,contractNo 015416).
ElizabethBloxam
Instituteof Archaeology
, University
CollegeLondon
Tom Heldal
GeologicalSurveyof Norway
References
Arnold, D. and Arnold, D. 1979. Der Temple Qasr el-Sagha. Mainz: German Archaeological
Institute.
Ashmore,W and Knapp, A. B. (eds) 1999.ArchaeologiesofLandscape: Contemporary
Perspectives.
Oxford:Blackwell.
Aston,B. G. 1994.AncientEgyptianStone Vessels:Materialsand Forms.Heidelberg:Heidelberger
Orientverl.
to theGeographyof Egypt.Cairo: Surveyand Mines.
Ball, J. 1939. Contributions
and Anthropology
Barrett,J.C. 1999.Chronologiesof landscape.In TheArchaeology
ofLandscape:
ShapingyourLandscape(eds P. Ucko and R. Layton).One WorldArchaeology.London: Routledge,
pp. 21-30.
and Geologyof theFayumProvinceofEgypt.Cairo: Survey
Beadnell,H. J.L. 1905. The Topography
Department.
and logisticsof hard stonequarryingin the
Bloxam,E. G. 2003. The organisation,transportation
EgyptianOld Kingdom: a comparativestudy.Doctoral dissertation,Instituteof Archaeology,
University
College London.
320 ElizabethBloxam and Tom Heldal
Middle Kingdomminingon themargins.JournalofSocial
Bloxam,E. 2006. Minersand mistresses:
Archaeology,
6(2): 277-303.
9: 23-7.
Bloxam,E. 2007. Who werethepharaohs' quarrymen?
ArchaeologyInternational,
P. 2002. Old Kingdombasalt quarryingactivitiesat Widan el-Faras,
Bloxam,E. G. and Storemyr,
NorthernFaiyumDesert.Journalof EgyptianArchaeology,
88: 23-36.
P. and Heldal, T. (in press).Hard stonequarryingin the EgyptianOld
Bloxam,E. G., Storemyr,
the social organisation.In ASMOSIA VII: Proceedings
Kingdom(3rd MillenniumBC): rethinking
on Interdisciplinary
Studieson AncientStone,Greece: 15-20
of theSeventhInternational
Conference
2003
Y.
September
Maniatis).
(ed
Boivin,N. 2004. From venerationto exploitation:humanengagementwiththe mineralworld.In
Soils, Stones and Symbols: Cultural Perceptionsof the Mineral World (eds N. Boivin and
M. A. Owoc). London: UCL Press,pp. 1-29.
of theOligoceneJebelQatrani
Bown,T. M. and Kraus, M. J. 1988.Geologyand paleoenvironment
formation
and adjacentrocks,FayumDepression,Egypt.U.S. GeologicalSurveyProfessional
Paper,
1452: 1-59.
Bradley,R. 2000. An Archaeologyof NaturalPlaces. London: Routledge.
theAxe Trade.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity
Bradley,R. and Edmonds,M. 1993.Interpreting
Press.
Brewer,D. J. 1989.A modelforresourceexploitationin thePrehistoric
Fayum.In Late Prehistory
of
theNile Basin and theSahara (eds L. Krzyzaniakand M. Kobusiewicz).Poznan: PolishAcademyof
Sciences,pp. 127-37.
in Pharaonic
Butzer,K. W. 1984. Long-termNile Flood variationand political discontinuities
Egypt.In From Huntersto Farmers(eds J. D. Clark and S. A. Brandt). Berkeley:Universityof
CaliforniaPress,pp. 102-12.
Caton-Thompson,G. and Gardner,E. W. 1934. The Desert Fayum,Vols 1 and 2. London: The
Royal AnthropologicalInstitute.
Cleere,H. 1996. The conceptof 'outstandinguniversalvalue' in the World HeritageConvention.
Conservation
and Managementof ArchaeologicalSites, 1: 227-33.
Cooney,G. 1998. Breakingstones,makingplaces: the social landscape of axe productionsites.In
Prehistoric
Ritualand Religion(eds A. Gibson and D. Simpson).PhoenixMill: Sutton,pp. 108-18.
In The Archaeologyand Anthropology
Cooney, G. 1999. Social landscapes in Irish prehistory.
of
P.
R. Layton). One World Archaeology.
Ucko
and
Landscape: Shapingyour Landscape (eds
London: Routledge,pp. 46-64.
Cruz-Uribe,E. 1994. A model forthe politicalstructureof AncientEgypt.In For his Ka: Essays
inMemoryofKlaus Baer (ed. D. P. Silverman).Chicago,IL: University
ofChicago,Oriental
Offered
Institute,pp. 45-53.
Debono, F. and Mortensen,B. 1988. The PredynasticCemeteryat Heliopolis.Mainz: Philippvon
Zabarn.
Dolson, J.,El-Barkooky,A., Wehr,F., Gingerich,P. D., Prochazka,N. and Shann,M. 2002. The
Eocene and OligocenePalaeo-Ecologyand Palaeo-Geographyof Whale Valleyand FayoumBasins.
AAPG/EPEX/SEG/EGS/EAGEField Trip No. 7. Egypt:RisingStar EnergyPublication.
Edmonds,M. 1999. AncestralGeographiesof theNeolithic:Landscapes,Monumentsand Memory.
London: Routledge.
El Senussi,A. 2006. PotterysherdscollectedfromUmmes-Sawan,Season 2006. Unpublishedreport
fromthe 'QuarryScapes' Archaeologicaland Geological Surveyof the NorthernFaiyum Desert,
March.
The industrial
landscapeof theNorthern
FaiyumDesertas a WHS
321
Empereur,J-Y. 2000. A Short Guide to the Graeco-RomanMuseum Alexandria.Alexandria:
HarpocratesPublishing.
Engelbach,R. 1938. The quarriesof the WesternNubian Desert and the ancientroad to Tushka.
de VEgypt,38: 369-90.
Annalesdu Servicedes Antiquities
Fowler,P. J.2003. WorldHeritageCulturalLandscapes1992-2002.WorldHeritagePapers 6. Paris:
UNESCO World HeritageCentre.
a GlobalHeritage.Macclesfield:Windgather
Fowler,P. 2004. Landscapesfor theWorld:Conserving
Press.
Gazda, E. K. (ed.) 1983.Karanis:An EgyptianTowninRomanTimes:DiscoveriesoftheUniversity
of
MichiganExpeditionto Egypt(1924-1935). Michigan:Kelsey Museum of Archaeology.
Harrell,J.A. 2002. Pharaonicstonequarriesin theEgyptiandeserts.In EgyptandNubia: Giftsofthe
Desert(ed. R. Friedman).London: BritishMuseum Press,pp. 232-43.
Harrell,J.A. and Brown,V. M. 1994. Chephren'sQuarryin theNubian Desert of Egypt.Nubica,
3(1): 43-57.
Harrell,J.A. and Bown,T. M. 1995.An Old Kingdombasaltquarryat Widanel-Farasand thequarry
road to Lake Moerisin theFaiyum.JournaloftheAmericanResearchCenterinEgypt,32: 71-91.
of the WesternFaiyum, Egypt.
Hassan, F. A. 1986. Holocene lakes and Prehistoricsettlements
Journalof ArchaeologicalScience,13: 483-501.
Hassan, F. A. 1997. Nile floods and politicaldisorderin early Egypt. In ThirdMillenniumBC
ClimateChangeand Old WorldCollapse (eds H. Nuzhet Dalfes, G. Kukla and H. Weiss). NATO
ASI SeriesVol. II 49. Berlin:SpringerVerlag,pp. 1-23.
Y. 1983. The Cenozoic basalt of Gebel Qatrani,
Heikal, M. A., Hassan, M. A. and el-Sheshtawi,
WesternDesert,Egypt- as an exampleof continentalTholeiiticbasalt. Annalsof the Geological
Surveyof Egypt,13: 193-209.
P. (in press).Unravellingancientstonequarrylandscapesin
Heldal, T., Bloxam,E. and Storemyr,
the EasternMediterranean:threeEgyptiancase studies.BroadeningHorizons, Congress,Ghent,
February2006. Cambridge:CambridgeScholarsPress.
J. K. 1993.The use of basalt in floorsof Old Kingdompyramidtemples.Journalof the
Hoffmeier,
AmericanResearchCenterin Egypt,30: 117-23.
of thelandscape. WorldArchaeology,
25(2): 152-74.
Ingold,T. 1993. The temporality
mondial:comblerles lacunes:unplan d'actionpourlefutur
J.2005. La Liste dupatrimoine
Jokilehto,
(The WorldHeritageList: Fillingthe Gaps: An ActionPlan for theFuture). An ICOMOS study
fromHenryCleere,Susan Denyerand Michael Petzet.
compiledby J.Jokilehtowithcontributions
Paris: ICOMOS (Monumentsand SitesXII).
im Alien Agypten.Berlin:SpringerKlemm,D. D. and Klemm,R. 1993. Steine und Steinbruche
Verlag.
Cyprus.In Archaeologiesof
Knapp, A. B. 1999.Ideationaland industriallandscapeson Prehistoric
(eds W. Ashmoreand A. B. Knapp). Oxford:Blackwell,pp.
Perspectives
Landscape: Contemporary
229-52.
to theHoloceneGeology,thePredynastic
Kozlowski,J. K. 1983. Qasr el-Sagha 1980: Contributions
in theNorthern
Settlements
FayumDesert.Warsaw: PanstwoweWydawnictoNaukowe.
Kozlowski, J. K. and Ginter,B. 1993. Holocene changes in the Fayum: Lake Moeris and the
Africa.In Environmental
evolutionofclimatein Northeastern
Changeand HumanCulturein theNile
Millennium
BC
until
the
Second
Basin and Northern
(eds L. Krzyzaniak,M. Kobusiewiczand
Africa
J. Alexander).Poznan: Poznan ArchaeologicalMuseum,pp. 327-36.
Lucas, A. 1930. EgyptianPredynasticstonevessels.Journalof EgyptianArchaeology,16: 200-12.
322 ElizabethBloxam and Tom Heldal
L. M., Greenough,J.D. and Owen,J.V. 2000. The originand use of basaltin
Mallory-Greenough,
Old Kingdomfunerary
temples.Geoarchaeology,
15(4): 315-30.
Maxfield,V. A. and Peacock, D. P. S. 2001. The RomanImperialQuarriesSurveyand Excavationat
Mons Porphyrites
and Quarries.Sixty-Seventh
Memoir(ed Anthony
1994-1998,Vol. I, Topography
Leahy). London: EgyptExplorationSociety.
rockof faithor shifting
and
sands?Conservation
McBryde,I. 1997.The ambiguitiesof authenticity:
Managementof ArchaeologicalSites,2(2): 93-100.
Mitchell,N. 1995. Culturallandscapesin the United States. In CulturalLandscapes of Universal
Value: Components
ofa GlobalStrategy(eds B. von Droste,H. Platcherand M. Rossler).New York:
Gustav FischerVerlag,pp. 234-51.
Moores,R. G. 1991.Evidenceforuse of a stone-cutting
dragsaw by theFourthDynastyEgyptians.
Journalof theAmericanResearchCenterin Egypt,28: 139^48.
Peacock, D. P. S. and Maxfield,V. A. 1997. Mons ClaudianusSurveyand Excavation1987-1993,
Vol. I, Topographyand Quarries.Fouilles de 1TFAO 37. Cairo: InstitutFrancais d'Archeologie
Orientale.
Petrie,W. M. F. 1883. The Pyramidsand Templesof Gizeh.London: Field & Tuer.
Petrie,W. M. F. 1887. A Season in Egypt.London: Field & Tuer/TheLeadenhallPress.
cultureand nature.In Cultural
Platcher,H. and Rossler,M. 1995.Culturallandscapes:reconnecting
Landscapesof UniversalValue: Components
ofa GlobalStrategy(eds B. von Droste,H. Platcherand
M. Rossler).New York: Gustav FischerVerlag,pp. 15-18.
Said, R. 1993. The RiverNile: Geology,Hydrologyand Utilization.Oxford:Pergamon.
Period.In The OxfordHistoryof AncientEgypt(ed.
Seidlmayer,S. J. 2000. The FirstIntermediate
I. Shaw). Oxford:OxfordUniversity
Press,pp. 118^47.
Shafei,A. 1960. Lake Moeris and Lahun Mi-Wer and Ro-Hun: the great Nile controlproject
executedby theAncientEgyptians.BulletinSocietede GeographiedEgypte,33: 187-217.
Shaw, I. M. E. and Bloxam, E. G. 1999. Surveyand excavationat the AncientPharaonicGneiss
quarryingsiteof Gebel el-Asr,Lower Nubia. Sudan and Nubia, 3: 13-20.
Simons,E. L. and Rasmussen,D. T. 1990.Vertebratepalaeontologyof Fayum:historyof research,
faunalreviewand futureprospects.In Geologyof Egypt(ed. R. Said). Rotterdam:A. A. Balkema,
pp. 627-38.
Nile flow
Stanley,J., Krom, M. D., Cliff,R. A. and Woodward,J. C. 2003. Shortcontribution:
failure at the end of the Old Kingdom, Egypt: strontiumisotopic and petrologicevidence.
An International
Journal,18(3): 395-402.
Geoarchaeology:
P., Bloxam,E. G., Heldal, T. and Salem,A. 2002. Surveyat Chephren'sQuarry,Gebel elStoremyr,
Asr, Lower Nubia: 2002. Sudan and Nubia, 6: 25-9.
Thomas, J. 2001. Archaeologiesof place and landscape. In ArchaeologicalTheoryToday (ed.
I. Hodder). Cambridge:PolityPress,pp. 165-86.
of 'outstandinguniversalvalue': some commentson the
Titchen,S. M. 1996. On the construction
of the 1972 UNESCO World HeritageConvention.Conservation
and Management
implementation
of ArchaeologicalSites, 1: 235-42.
Torfaen County Borough Council 1999. Nominationof the BlaenavonIndustrialLandscapefor
Inclusionin the WorldHeritageList. Withcontributions
by Cadw: WelshHistoricMonuments,the
Royal Commissionon the Ancient and Historical Monumentsand B. Trinder,Universityof
Northampton.Available at: <www.world-heritage-blaenavon.org.uk>.
and Anthropology
Ucko, P. and Layton,R. (eds) 1999. TheArchaeology
ofLandscape:Shapingyour
Landscape.One World Archaeology.London: Routledge.
The industrial
landscapeof theNorthern
FaiyumDesertas a WHS 323
theProtectionof the WorldCulturaland NaturalHeritage.
UNESCO 1972. Convention
Concerning
November.
UNESCO 1994. OperationalGuidelines
for theImplementation
of the WorldHeritageConvention.
February.
von Droste, B. 1995. Cultural landscapes in a Global World Heritage strategy.In Cultural
ofa GlobalStrategy(eds B. von Droste,H. Platcherand
Landscapesof UniversalValue: Components
M. Rossler).New York: Gustav FischerVerlag,pp. 20-4.
Wendorf,F. and Schild,R. (eds) 1976. Prehistory
of theNile Valley.New York: AcademicPress.
in NorthEast Africa,
Wengrow,D. 2006. The Archaeologyof Early Egypt:Social Transformations
Press.
10,000-2,650BC. CambridgeWorld ArchaeologySeries.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversity
Wenke,R. and Lane, M. E. 1983. The FayyumArchaeologicalProject:preliminary
reportof the
1981 season. Newsletter
of theAmericanResearchCenterin Egypt,122: 25^0.
in Egypt:thetransition
fromhuntingand gathering
to
W. 1993.Foragingand farming
Wetterstrom,
in theNile Valley.In TheArchaeology
horticulture
ofAfrica:Food, Metals and Towns(eds T. Shaw,
P. Sinclair,B. Andah and A. Okpoko). London: Routledge,pp. 165-226.
Elizabeth Bloxam is currentlya post-doctoralresearch fellow at the Instituteof
Archaeology, UniversityCollege London (UCL). Having completed a two-year
a principalinvestigator
and
LeverhulmeTrust'Early Career Fellowship'she is currently
in
the
EU-funded
research
'QuarryScapes'
project.
work-packageleaderforUCL
TomHeldal is a geologistworkingat theGeologicalSurveyofNorwayand is co-ordinator
of the 'QuarryScapes'project.He has participatedin severalmulti-disciplinary
projects
of ancientquarriesin Egyptand elsewhere.
concerninginvestigation