S4.D EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCES
On Level
S4.D.1 Describe Basic Landforms in Pennsylvania
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S4.D.1.1
Eligible Content
S4.D.1.1.1
S4.D.1.1.2
Pennsylvania
Landforms
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Pennsylvania Landforms
Pennsylvania’s Assessment Anchors Met
SCIENCE ASSESSMENT ANCHORS • GRADE 4
S4.D Physical Sciences
S4.D.1.1 Describe basic landforms in Pennsylvania.
ELIGIBLE CONTENT
S4.D.1.1.1 Describe how prominent Earth features in Pennsylvania (e.g., mountains, valleys, caves, sinkholes, lakes, rivers) were formed.
S4.D.1.1.2 Identify various Earth structures (e.g., mountains, watersheds, peninsulas, lakes, rivers, valleys) through the use of models.
READING ASSESSMENT ANCHORS • GRADE 4
R4.A Comprehension and Reading Skills
R4.A.2.2 Identify and apply word recognition skills.
ELIGIBLE CONTENT
R4.A.2.2.2 Define and/or apply how the meaning of words or phrases changes when using context clues given in explanatory sentences
R4.A.2.4 Identify and explain main ideas and relevant details
ELIGIBLE CONTENT
R4.A.2.4.1 Identify and/or explain stated or implied main ideas and relevant supporting details from the text.
R4.B Interpretation and Analysis of Fictional and Nonfictional Text
R4.B.1.2 Differentiate fact from opinion in nonfiction text.
ELIGIBLE CONTENT
R4.B.1.2.1 Identify, explain, interpret, compare, and/or describe connections between texts.
R4.B.3.3 Identify, compare, explain, and interpret how text organization clarifies meaning of nonfiction text
ELIGIBLE CONTENT
R4.B.3.3.1 Identify, explain, and/or interpret text organization, including sequence, question/answer, comparison/contrast, cause/effect, or
problem/solution..
S4.D EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCES
On Level
S4.C.1 Describe Basic Landforms in Pennsylvania
Assessment Anchor
Eligible Content
S4.D.1.1
S4.D.1.1.1
S4.D.1.1.2
Student
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Pennsylvania Landforms
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Pennsylvania Landforms
OL
S4.D.1 EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCES
Assessment Anchors Met
S4.D.1 Describe Basic Landforms in Pennsylvania
Assessment Anchor
S4.D.1.1
SCIENCE ASSESSMENT ANCHORS • GRADE 4
S4.D Physical Sciences
S4.D.1.1 Describe basic landforms in Pennsylvania.
ELIGIBLE CONTENT
S4.D.1.1.1 Describe how prominent Earth features in
Pennsylvania (e.g., mountains, valleys, caves, sinkholes, lakes,
rivers) were formed.
S4.D.1.1.2 Identify various Earth structures (e.g.,
mountains, watersheds, peninsulas, lakes, rivers, valleys)
through the use of models.
READING ASSESSMENT ANCHORS • GRADE 4
R4.A Understand Nonfiction Appropriate to Grade Level
R4.A.2.2 Identify and apply word recognition skills.
ELIGIBLE CONTENT
R4.A.2.2.2 Define and/or apply how the meaning of words
or phrases changes when using context clues given in
explanatory sentences
R4.A.2.4 Identify and apply word recognition skills.
ELIGIBLE CONTENT
R4.A.2.4.1 Identify and/or explain stated or implied main
ideas and relevant supporting details from the text.
R4.B Understand Concepts and Organization of Nonfictional Text
R4.B.1.2 Differentiate fact from opinion in nonfiction text.
ELIGIBLE CONTENT
R4.B.1.2.1 Identify, explain, interpret, compare, and/or
describe connections between texts.
R4.B.3.3 Identify, compare, explain, and interpret how text
organization clarifies meaning of nonfiction text
ELIGIBLE CONTENT
R4.B.3.3.1 Identify, explain, and/or interpret text
organization, including sequence, question/answer,
comparison/contrast, cause/effect, or problem/solution.
.
Eligible Content
S4.D.1.1.1
S4.D.1.1.2
Pennsylvania
Landforms
by Laura Portalupi
•
Erie
• Titusville
• New Castle
• Pittsburgh
POCONO MTS.
Wilkes-Barre •
• State College
Hazleton •
Bethlehem •
Allentown •
Reading •
• Johnstown
HARRISBURG •
Norristown •
Lancaster •
Philadelphia •
York
•
Gettysburg •
S4 .D EA RT H A N D SPACE SCIENCES
S4.D.1 Describe Basic Landforms in Pennsylvania
Assessment Anchor
Eligible Content
S4.D.1.1
S4.D.1.1.1
S4.D.1.1.2
Pennsylvania
Landforms
by Laura Portalupi
Table of Contents
Introduction:
What Are Landforms? . . . . . . . . 4
Chapter 1:
Creation of Landforms . . . . . . . 5
Chapter 2:
Types of Landforms . . . . . . . . . 8
Mountains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Valleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Lakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Sinkholes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Caves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Chapter 3:
Using Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
To Find Out More . . . . . . . . . . 23
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
F O C U S c ur ri culum
Curriculum materials for your content standards
Predict: What do you think you will
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I N T R O D U C T I O N
C H A P T E R
1
What Are Landforms?
Creation of Landforms
Have you ever hiked up a mountain? Have
you ever swum in a river or lake? Have you
ever ventured into a dark cave? If you so,
then you have explored a landform.
There are two main ways that landforms are
created: tectonic activity and erosion.
Tectonic activity is the shifting of the earth’s
surface due to changes below the surface.
Erosion is the wearing away of land by water,
ice, or wind.
A landform is a natural feature of Earth’s
surface. A landform can be as big as an
ocean or as small as a pond.
Imagine that a road needs to be built
between two towns. Landforms will
determine how the road will look. If there is
a mountain range between the towns, the
road may include several tunnels. If there is
a large lake between the towns, the road
may have to go around it.
landform: a natural feature of Earth’s surface
4
Tectonic Activity
The outer shell of Earth is broken into several
huge plates. These plates move very slowly—
less than one inch to four inches every year.
Usually the plate movement is so slow that
we do not notice any changes. But when two
plates collide or move away from each other,
an earthquake or volcano can occur. These
occurrences cause landforms such as
mountains and valleys to form over time.
tectonic activity: the shifting of Earth’s surface due to changes
below the surface
erosion: the wearing away of land by water, ice, or wind
plates: the hard layers of Earth’s surface
5
Erosion
Erosion is what happens when large things
are naturally broken down into smaller
things. Running water can create valleys.
As the water rushes along, it removes tiny
pieces of the land. Over time, this process
may make the river wider or deeper. The
wearing away of the rock over time creates a
V-shaped valley.
A glacier is a slowly moving mass of ice
that can carve the earth’s surface over time.
A glacier creates a U-shaped valley.
Erosion takes place over many years. A river carves a
V-shaped valley. A glacier carves a U-shaped valley.
V-shaped valley formed by a river
Wind erosion occurs when the wind
blows small particles of sand against larger
rocks, steadily chipping away at the surface.
U-shaped valley formed by a glacier
glacier: slowly moving mass of ice
6
Contrast: What is the difference between
erosion and tectonic activity?
7
C H A P T E R
2
Types of Landforms
Different types of landforms exist in different
parts of the world. Pennsylvania has a wide
range of landforms.
Mountains
When a large, flat piece of land rises
above the rest of the land it is called a
plateau.
Over the years, rivers or glaciers may
erode parts of the plateau until mountains
are formed. These are called residual
mountains. The Allegheny Mountains are
residual mountains.
Mountains are formed by the slow movement
of the earth’s plates. Folded mountains occur
when two plates push against each other. The
pressure causes one plate to fold over the
other plate and push upward.
Folded mountains
occur when two
plates push against
each other.
One of the country’s greatest mountain
ranges runs through Pennsylvania. The
Appalachian Mountains are folded mountains
that were once as high as 20,000 feet. Now
they reach to about 3,000 feet.
Rain, rivers, and glaciers eroded the
mountains over millions of years. The
Appalachian Mountains are approximately
480 million years old, making them the oldest
mountains in North America.
8
Predict and Explain: What do you think the
Appalachian Mountains will look like in another
million years? Will they be shorter or taller? Why?
plateau: a high, flat piece of land
9
Valleys
Valleys exist in one of these three stages.
Pennsylvania has many valleys, some as deep
as 1,000 feet. Some were formed when
mountains were formed. The space in
between the mountain peaks are valleys.
Most were formed by erosion due to rivers,
so they are called V-shaped valleys.
As a river flows, it erodes the rock. At
first, it can carry those bits of rock easily.
The rapid flow of the river creates steep
sides to the valley. Over time, the sides of
the valley are worn down, making the valley
wider. When a valley reaches old age, its
floor is at its widest and its sides are
smooth.
Most of the valleys in Pennsylvania are in
the middle stage.
Young Stage
Middle Stage
Old Stage
10
11
Rivers
The beginning of a river is called a source.
A source occurs when underground water
breaks through to the surface or when snow
on a mountaintop melts.
Rivers can be divided into three
categories: youthful rivers, mature rivers,
and old age rivers. A youthful river moves
quickly and cuts deeply into the rock. You
can see the water foaming and splashing. A
mature river flows more slowly and widens
because other streams have joined it. The
river is carrying a heavier load, and some of
the stones and pebbles settle on the river
bed. A river is usually widest when it
reaches old age. At this stage, the river bed
is thick with sand.
source: beginning of a river
12
More than 3,500 rivers and streams flow
through Pennsylvania. Three great rivers stand
out among these: the Susquehanna, the Ohio,
and the Delaware.
Pennsylvania Rivers
NAME
Ohio
LENGTH (Miles)
981
Susquehanna
444
Delaware
360
Allegheny
325
Youghiogheny
135
Schuylkill
130
Monongahela
128
Clarion
110
Lehigh
103
Juniata
90
Conemaugh
70
Connect and Analyze: Can you think of a river
near your town? Is it a youthful river,
a mature river, or an old age river?
13
Lakes
While there are more than 2,500 lakes in
Pennsylvania, only 50 formed naturally.
Natural lakes form due to erosion by a
glacier, river, or wind. The formation of a
mountain range can create a hollow that
collects water to become a lake.
All lakes are temporary. Most shrink over
time as erosion wears down the sides and
the lake begins to fill with stones and soil.
Pennsylvania borders Lake Erie, one of
the Great Lakes. During the Ice Age,
glaciers covered the central part of the
country. As the glaciers began to melt, the
water gathered in an area where ancient
rivers had once run. This was the beginning
of the formation of the Great Lakes.
These lakes were formed by the collection
of water in the hollows of mountains.
Recall: What are some ways we use lakes?
14
15
Sinkholes
A sinkhole is formed when soil and rock
move downward. It can occur naturally due
to erosion. It can also occur due to human
activities such as pumping groundwater and
mining.
Usually, this downward movement occurs
over a very long period of time. When the
support is taken away, the surface of the
land sags. Then, the land collapses quickly,
leaving a hole.
Sinkholes only exist in the eastern and
central areas of Pennsylvania. The average
sinkhole in Pennsylvania ranges from 4 to
20 feet across and 4 to 20 feet deep.
Sometimes a group of sinkholes join
to form a large sinkhole.
A sinkhole destroyed this road.
Infer: Do you think it would be safe
to build a house near a sinkhole?
16
17
Caves
Most caves are formed in a soft rock called
limestone. Rain slips through small cracks in
the rock and erodes the limestone. The
process takes thousands of years. Eventually
it carves out tunnels and open spaces below
Earth’s surface.
The water that drips into a cave contains
a mineral called calcite. This mineral creates
rock formations inside of caves. Stalactites
hang down from the ceiling. Stalagmites
grow up from the floor. When a stalactite and
stalagmite join together, they form a column.
Some caves are open to the public. In
Pennsylvania you can visit nine different caves.
Pennsylvania Caves
CAVE
COUNTY
Coral Caverns
Bedford
Crystal Cave
Berks
Indian Caverns
Huntingdon
Indian Echo Caverns
Dauphin
Laurel Caverns
Fayette
Lincoln Caverns
Huntingdon
Lost River Caverns
Northampton
Penn’s Cave
Centre
Woodward Cave
Centre
A cave is formed as water trickles through cracks
in the rock.
stalactites: rock formations that hang down from the ceiling
stalagmites: rock formations that grow up from the floor
18
19
C H A P T E R
3
Pennsylvania Landforms
Using Models
•
Erie
A model is a smaller representation of
something else. If you wanted to create a
model of a piece of land how would you do
it? First, you might want to look at a map.
Physical Maps
A physical map can show the natural and
manmade features of an area. A map always
has a legend, which is a guide explaining
what the map’s different symbols, colors,
patterns, and shapes mean.
Look at the physical map on the next
page. Symbols, colors, or patterns may be
used to show different things on a map.
What can you say about Pennsylvania based
on this map?
• Titusville
• New Castle
• Pittsburgh
Landforms
POCONO MTS.
Wilkes-Barre •
• State College
Hazleton •
Bethlehem •
Allentown •
Reading •
• Johnstown
HARRISBURG •
Norristown •
Lancaster •
Philadelphia •
York
•
Gettysburg •
Allegheny Plateaus
Ridge and Valley
Piedmont
Coastal Plain
See if you can identify a mountain range,
a river, and a lake on this map.
legend: a guide explaining what the map’s different symbols,
colors, and shapes mean
20
21
Glossary
erosion—the wearing away of land by water, ice,
or wind
glacier—slowly moving mass of ice
landform—a natural feature of the earth’s surface
legend—a guide explaining what the map’s
different symbols, colors, and shapes mean
plateau—high, flat piece of land
plates—the hard layers of the earth’s surface
source—beginning of a river
stalactites—rock formations that hang down from
the ceiling
stalagmites—rock formations that grow up from
the floor
tectonic activity—the shifting of Earth’s surface
due to changes below the surface
22
To Find Out More . . .
Want to learn more about landforms?
Try these books
Plates: Restless Earth by Roy A. Gallant.
Benchmark Books, 2003.
Rivers and Oceans by Barbara Taylor. Kingfisher
Books, 1993.
Access these Web sites
Geology for Kids
http://www.kidsgeo.com/geology-for-kids/
BrainPOP
http://www.brainpop.com/science/earthsystem/
Write for more information
Department of Conservation and Natural
Resources
Rachel Carson State Office Building 30
P.O. Box 8767
400 Market Street
Harrisburg, PA 17105-8767
23
Index
Published by FOCUScurriculum
33 Milford Drive, Suite 1
Hudson, OH 44236
tectonic activity, 5
866-315-7880
erosion, 5, 6
www.focuscurriculum.com
mountains, 8–9
valleys, 10–11
Copyright © 2009 FOCUScurriculum
Order Number: PASC-ESS1OL
rivers, 12–13
lakes, 14–15
sinkholes, 16–17
Created by Kent Publishing Services, Inc.
Designed by Signature Design Group, Inc.
caves, 18–19
No part of the book may be reproduced without purchasing a license
maps, 20–21
from the publisher. To purchase a license to reproduce this book, contact
FOCUScurriculum. The publisher takes no responsibility for the
use of any of the materials or methods described in this book, nor for the
products thereof.
24
S4.D EARTH AND SPACE SCIENCES
On Level
S4.D.1 Describe Basic Landforms in Pennsylvania
Assessment Anchor
S4.D.1.1
Eligible Content
S4.D.1.1.1
S4.D.1.1.2
Assessments
Pennsylvania Landforms
Print pages 20–22 of this PDF for the assessments .
Pennsylvania Landforms
Check Understanding
Shade the circle next to the correct answer.
1. What statement is a correct conclusion about landforms?
훽 Most landforms develop in less than one year.
훾 Landforms affect the way that people plan their lives.
훿 All types of landforms can be found in every part of
the world.
 Landforms start small but always become bigger
over time.
PENNSYLVANIA LANDFORMS OL
2. Which statement best describes how the Allegheny
Mountains formed?
훽 Rivers eroded parts of a large, flat piece of land called
a plateau.
훾 Two plates pushed against each other until one folded
over the other plate.
훿 Soil and rock moved downward over time due to the
pumping of groundwater.
 A glacier carved valleys in the land until the sides
were steep.
Pennsylvania Landforms
Check Understanding
3. Valleys usually form in one of two ways. Look at the pictures below.
Part A: Describe how Valley A formed.
Valley A
PENNSYLVANIA LANDFORMS OL
Part B: Describe how Valley B formed.
Valley B
Pennsylvania Landforms
Assessment Scoring Guidelines
1. S4.D.1.1.1 Describe how prominent Earth features in
Pennsylvania (e.g., mountains, valleys, caves, sinkholes,
lakes, rivers) were formed.
훽 Most landforms develop over hundreds, thousands, or
millions of years.
훾 Key: Landforms affect the way that people live their lives
beause we must build around them.
훿 Some landforms can be found around the world; other
landforms only exist in certain places.
 Landforms such as mountains erode, or get smaller, over
time.
2. S4.D.1.1.1 Describe how prominent Earth features in
Pennsylvania (e.g., mountains, valleys, caves, sinkholes,
lakes, rivers) were formed.
훽 Key: The Allegheny Mountains are residual mountains,
which means rivers eroded parts of a plateau.
훾 This is how folded mountains form.
훿 This is how sinkholes form.
 A glacier carving valleys in the land would simply
produce valleys, not mountains.
PENNSYLVANIA LANDFORMS OL
3. S4.D.1.1.1 Describe how prominent Earth features in
Pennsylvania (e.g., mountains, valleys, caves, sinkholes,
lakes, rivers) were formed.
Score 2 if the student demonstrates a thorough
understanding of valleys by explaining that Valley A was
formed by rushing water while Valley B was formed by
glaciers.
Score 1 if the student demonstrates a partial
understanding of valleys by explaining that Valley A was
formed by rushing water while Valley B was formed by
glaciers.
Score 0 if the student provides insufficient evidence to
demonstrate understanding of the content being tested.
READING • GRADE 4
Assessment Anchors
Eligible Content
R4.A.2.5
R4.A.2.5.1
R4.B.1.2
R4.B.1.2.1
R4.B.3.1
R4.B.3.1.1
R4.B.3.3
R4.B.3.3.3
On Level
Reading Activities
Pennsylvania Landforms
Print pages 24–28 of this PDF for the r eading activities.
Context Clues
T R Y
You can often figure out the meaning of an unfamiliar
word by the way it is used in a sentence or paragraph.
For example, read the sentence below. You can figure out
what the word mature means, even if you’ve never seen it
before, by understanding what the other two words
describing rivers mean.
Rivers can be divided into three categories:
youthful rivers, mature rivers, and old age rivers.
T H E
S K I L L
2. Which words or phrases tell you that residual means
“what remains”?
When a large, flat piece of land rises above the rest of
the land it is called a plateau. Over the years, rivers or
glaciers may erode parts of the plateau until mountains
are formed. These are called residual mountains.
3. Which words or phrases tell you to venture requires
courage?
The word mature means “fully developed, or middleaged.”
Have you ever ventured into a dark cave? If you so,
then you have explored a landform.
Underline words or phrases from the paragraphs to
answer each question.
4. Which words or phrases tell you that a riverbed is the
bottom of the river?
1. Which words or phrases tell you that a hollow is a
type of hole?
While there are more than 2,500 lakes in
Pennsylvania, only 50 formed naturally. Natural lakes
form due to erosion by a glacier, river, or wind. The
formation of a mountain range can create a hollow that
collects water to become a lake.
PENNSYLVANIA LANDFORMS OL
The river is carrying a heavier load, and some of the
stones and pebbles settle on the riverbed. A river is
usually widest when it reaches old age. At this stage, the
riverbed is thick with sand.
ELIGIBLE CONTENT: R4.A.2.2.2
Main Idea and Supporting Details
T R Y
Sometimes, the main idea of a paragraph is stated in one
of its sentences. In this example from Pennsylvania
Landforms, the main idea is stated in the first sentence.
The other sentences are details.
T H E
S K I L L
A sinkhole is formed when soil and rock move
downward. It can occur naturally due to erosion.
It can also occur due to human activities such as
pumping groundwater and mining.
2. __________________________________________
There are two main ways that landforms are
created: tectonic activity and erosion. Tectonic
activity is the shifting of the earth’s surface due to
changes below the surface. Erosion is the wearing
away of land by water, ice, or wind.
Read each paragraph from Pennsylvania Landforms.
Underline the sentence that tells the main idea. On the
lines below the paragraph, list one or two details that
support the main idea.
All lakes are temporary. Most shrink over time as
erosion wears down the sides and the lake begins to fill
with stones and soil.
1. __________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
As a river flows, it erodes the rock. At first, it can
carry those bits of rock easily. The rapid flow of the river
creates steep sides to the valley. Over time, the sides of
the valley are worn down, making the valley wider.
When a valley reaches old age, its floor is at its widest
and its sides are smooth.
3. __________________________________________
__________________________________________
Mountains are formed by the slow movement of
Earth’s plates. Folded mountains occur when two plates
push against each other. The pressure causes one plate to
fold over the other plate and push upward.
4. __________________________________________
__________________________________________
PENNSYLVANIA LANDFORMS OL
ELIGIBLE CONTENT: R4.A.2.4.1
Make Connections
T R Y
A text can be a piece of writing, a film, a picture,
another object, or even an experience.
Below are two texts. What connections do you see
between them? Read the passage from Pennsylvania
Landforms and the second passage about volcanic caves.
Then answer the questions.
T H E
S K I L L
1. What do limestone caves and lava tubes have in
common?
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
Most caves are formed in a soft rock called
limestone. Rain slips through small cracks in the
rock and erodes the limestone. The process takes
thousands of years. Eventually, it carves out tunnels
and open spaces below the earth’s surface. Water may
flow through these passages as underground rivers.
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
2. How are limestone caves and lava tubes different?
__________________________________________
Some caves are formed quickly as a result of a
volcano’s eruption. Hot lava flows across the earth’s
surface. Sometimes the lava hardens on the outside
while the lava inside is still flowing. The liquid lava
flows away until there is an empty hollow under the
hardened lava. These are called lava tubes.
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
__________________________________________
PENNSYLVANIA LANDFORMS OL
ELIGIBLE CONTENT: R4.B.1.2.1
Text Organization
T R Y
Thinking about how text is organized as you read can
help you understand it better. Here are some examples
of different ways writers organize text.
Sequence
As the water rushes along, it removes tiny pieces of the
land. Over time, this process may make the river wider
or deeper. The wearing away of the rock over time creates
a V-shaped valley.
Problem/solution
A model is a smaller representation of something else. If
you wanted to create a model of a piece of land how
would you do it? First, you might want to look at a map.
Comparison/contrast
This mineral creates rock formations inside of caves.
Stalactites hang down from the ceiling. Stalagmites grow
up from the floor. When a stalactite and stalagmite join
together, they form a column.
Cause/effect
When the support is taken away, the surface of the land
sags. Then, the land collapses quickly, leaving a hole.
PENNSYLVANIA LANDFORMS OL
T H E
S K I L L
On the line following each paragraph, indicate whether it
explains a sequence, problem and solution, comparison
or contrast, or cause and effect.
1. A youthful river moves quickly and cuts deeply into
the rock. You can see the water foaming and splashing.
A mature river flows more slowly and widens because
other streams have joined it. The river is carrying a
heavier load, and some of the stones and pebbles settle
on the riverbed.
__________________________________________
2. During the Ice Age, glaciers covered the central part of
the country. As the glaciers began to melt, the water
gathered in an area where rivers had once run.
__________________________________________
3. A glacier is a slowly moving mass of ice that can carve
the earth’s surface over time. A glacier creates a Ushaped valley.
__________________________________________
4. If there is a mountain range between the towns, the
road may include several tunnels. If there is a large
lake between the towns, the road may have to go
around it.
__________________________________________
ELIGIBLE CONTENT: R4.B.3.3.1
Answer Key
Context Clues
Make Connections
1. erosion; collects water; become a lake
1. They are formed naturally. They are shaped by rivers
(water and lava).
2. erode parts of the plateau
3. dark cave; explored
4. settle; thick with sand
2. Limestone caves take a long time to form. Lava tubes
form quickly. Limestone caves are shaped by water. Lava
tubes are shaped by lava.
Main Ideas and Supporting Details
1. Main idea: All lakes are temporary. Supporting details:
Erosion wears down the sides. The lake begins to fill with
stones and soil.
Text Organization
2. Main idea: A sinkhole is formed when soil and rock
move downward. Supporting details: It can occur
naturally. It can occur due to manmade activities.
2. Sequence
3. Main idea: As a river flows, it erodes the rock.
Supporting details: The rapid flow of the river creates
steep sides. The sides of the valley are worn down. When
a valley reaches old age, its sides are smooth.
4. Main idea: Mountains are formed by the slow movement
of the earth’s plates. Supporting details: Two plates push
against each other. The pressure causes one plate to fold
over the other plate.
PENNSYLVANIA LANDFORMS OL
1. Comparison/contrast
3. Cause/effect
4. Problem/solution