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The Heights of Inspiration: The Cultural and Spiritual
Meaning of Mountains as a Basis for Interpretation
and Conservation1
Edwin Bernbaum
United States, pristine mountain environments within such parks as Mount Rainier
National Park and Yosemite National Park
enshrine cultural and spiritual values basic
Introduction
to American society. As the writings of the
early American conservationist John Muir
For assurance of long-term sustainability,
demonstrate, views of mountains as
conservation programs and messages
places of inspiration and renewal helped
need to be grounded in deeply held val-
give rise to the modern environmental
ues and beliefs. As the highest features of
movement and have played a key role in
the landscape, mountains have tended to
galvanizing public support for national
become associated with the highest and
parks and the protection of wilderness
deepest ideals and aspirations of soci-
(Bernbaum 1996, 1997).
eties around the world, making them ideal
places to initiate such programs and mes-
The Mountain Institute (TMI) is therefore
sages. The remote Himalayan peak of
working with the U.S. National Park
Mount Kailas, rising aloof above the
Service (USNPS) to develop interpretive
Tibetan Plateau, directs the minds of mil-
and educational materials and activities
lions of Hindus and Buddhists toward the
that draw upon diverse views of the cul-
utmost attainments of spiritual liberation.
tural and spiritual significance of features
Mount Sinai occupies a special place in
of mountain landscapes — from rivers
the Bible as the imposing site where
and mountains to forests and wildlife — in
Moses received the Ten Commandments,
mainstream American, Native American,
the basis of law and ethics in Western civ-
and other cultures around the world. The
ilization. For many in the modern world,
addition of these materials enriches visi-
Mount Everest symbolizes the highest
tors’ experiences of national parks and
goal they may strive to attain, whether
gives them deep-seated reasons for con-
their pursuit be material or spiritual. In the
serving the environment — both in the
1 Paper for Vth World Parks Congress Durban, Republic of South Africa, 2003
< Mount Rainier and wild flowers, Mount Rainier National Park, Washington, USA.
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parks and back home. Since mountains
Hispanics, that have not been coming to
include features of almost all other envi-
national parks.
ronments and ecosystems, ranging from
jungles and deserts to tundra and gla-
As a result of these meetings and our site
ciers, the project has applications beyond
visits, we selected three parks —Mount
mountainous areas and encourages peo-
Rainier National Park, Rocky Mountain
ple to value and protect wilderness and
National Park, and Great Smoky Moun-
nature in general.
tains National Park— rather than the one
initially envisaged, and began developing
model interpretive materials with interpre-
Project History and Methodology
tive staff. These three pilot sites represented three major regions of the USNPS that
The first, planning phase of the project
span the country from the East to West
was to make contacts, select a pilot site,
coasts with the Rockies in the middle.
and initiate sample interpretive products.
Their geographic distribution, high profiles
During this phase, from May 1999 to May
in the park system, proximity to urban
2000, we met with the directors and inter-
areas with culturally diverse populations,
pretive staffs of the Pacific West, the
local Native American tribes, and their dif-
Intermountain, and Southeast regions of
ferent mountain environments made them
the USNPS, the superintendents and staff
good places to develop interpretive prod-
of three major parks, the USNPS chief of
ucts that would serve as models with a
interpretation, and the manager of the
broad range of potential application to
USNPS Harpers Ferry Center. The
other parks and protected areas in suc-
response far exceeded our expectations.
ceeding phases of the project, both with-
We received strong interest and enthusi-
in the USNPS and elsewhere in the United
astic support from all of them and letters
States and abroad. Establishing these
of endorsement from the former and cur-
models at three sites rather than one also
rent directors of the USNPS. They saw the
helped ensure the success of this phase
project as an innovative way of connect-
and provided access to a wide and
ing with the interests of the general public
diverse audience.
—by providing multiple perspectives on
park resources— and the traditions and
The success of the planning phase
concerns of specific cultural and ethnic
enabled us to secure funding for the sec-
groups, such as Native Americans,
ond and third phases of the project — to
African Americans, Asian Americans, and
develop a variety of model products and
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activities at the three pilot parks and use
nous peoples who revere them, such as
them to spread the approach to other
Native Americans and Native Hawaiians,
parks in the national park system. In the
take first priority so that interpretive mate-
third phase we expanded our operations
rials present only what they want to reveal
to Hawai’i Volcanoes National Park, North
about these sites and the beliefs and
Cascades National Park, Yosemite Na-
practices connected with them. The
tional Park, and Santa Monica Mountains
involvement of representatives of these
National Recreation Area, while continuing
groups, as well as other stakeholders,
work at Mount Rainier and Great Smoky
from the beginning is key. A major pur-
Mountains. Our intent was not to replicate
pose of the project is to highlight the
the products and activities developed at
importance of park resources to indige-
the pilot parks, but to present them as
nous peoples today, engendering under-
examples to stimulate people elsewhere
standing
to come up with their own ideas for apply-
traditions.
ing this approach to the particular needs
ment of interpretive materials and activi-
and characteristics of their unique sites
ties that draw wherever possible on the
and environments. This methodology has
voices of living representatives of these
the added advantage of developing a
traditions. Too many waysides and exhi-
wider range of models for use in the fourth
bits in too many parks and protected
phase — expanding the project to parks
areas refer to indigenous peoples in the
and protected areas outside the USNPS
past tense, leading visitors to believe that
and the United States. We have recently
they no longer exist or have any connec-
begun work on this fourth phase with
tions with the land.
of
and
respect
for
their
We encourage the develop-
TMI’s Asian Program and other partners,
developing a Sacred Values and Biodiversity Conservation initiative that focuses on national parks and sacred sites in
Examples of Interpretive Products
and Activities
South Asia. During the second and third
phases of the project, we received a
The following is a sampling of the various
Partnership Achievement Award from the
products and activities completed or initiat-
USNPS for our work with Mount Rainier
ed so far in the project. We have prepared
National Park.
and distributed packets with descriptions
and illustrations of these samples as one
In dealing with traditional sacred sites on
means of spreading the approach to other
park lands, the preferences of the indige-
parks and protected areas. Other means
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have included presentations to various
Mountain,” “Mount Rainier National Park,”
audiences and more detailed workshops
and “Mountains of the World.” Each sec-
for interpreters and rangers.
tion employs images of a number of people with evocative quotes by them. “The
Offsite Traveling Exhibit:
Mountain” section, for example, has, as
one of its images, a picture of John Muir
The first finished product at Mount Rainier
with an evocative quote from him on
National Park was an 8x10-foot collapsi-
Mount Rainier:
ble display entitled “Mountain Views.”
Interpreters are taking this traveling dis-
“Out of the forest at last there
play to fairs, community centers, conven-
stood
tions,
the
unveiled, awful in bulk and
Seattle–Tacoma area in an effort to reach
majesty, filling all the view like a
a wider audience for the park. The exhibit
separate newborn world, Yet
has, superimposed on a large image of
withal so fair and so beautiful it
Mount Rainier, three sections: “The
might fire the dullest observer to
and
other
venues
in
the
Mountain
wholly
The goddess Pélé, painted by a contemporary Hawaiian artist, Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.
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desperate enthusiasm.”
The interpretive text adds: “Residents of
(Muir 1997, 110-111)
the Pacific Northwest can relate to similar
sentiments on “not seeing” Mount Rainier
The quotes in the “Mount Rainier National
in frequent mist and cloud.”
Park” section show how ‘The Mountain’,
as Rainier is known to people in the
A line at the bottom of the exhibit asks
Pacific Northwest, has inspired staff from
viewers to write down their comments on
different divisions of the park to work at
“What does the Mountain mean to you?”
Mount Rainier. For example, the following
Park staff plan to use these comments in
words of Chris Trotter, a park ranger:
future exhibits at Mount Rainier.
“It was never a question of if I
Additional Outreach Products:
would ever work here; growing
up, ‘The Mountain’ was in my
Mount Rainier asked us to design and
backyard. It was a place to play,
produce a bookmark for the park that
camp and hike. Always the nature
incorporates inspirational quotes and
lover, I knew that I wanted to be a
mountain images as a takeaway for peo-
park ranger and work at Mount
ple viewing the offsite traveling exhibit.
Rainier.”
One side has images of and quotes on
‘The Mountain’; the other has more gen-
In an effort to provide multiple perspec-
eral images and quotes, such as a picture
tives and connect with the heritages and
of Yosemite and the following quote by
traditions of African and Asian Americans,
the late U.S. Supreme Court Justice
the left-hand section, “Mountains of the
William O. Douglas:
World,” focuses on three mountains that
stand out as cultural icons like Mount
“A people who climb the ridges
Rainier: Mount Kailas in Tibet, Kilimanjaro
and sleep under the stars in high
in Africa, and Mount Fuji in Japan. Along
mountain meadows, who enter the
with a painting of Fuji, it quotes a Haiku
forest and scale peaks, who
poem by the famous poet Basho:
explore glaciers and walk ridges
buried deep in snow — these peo-
“Delightful, in a way,
ple will give their country some of
to miss seeing Mount Fuji
the indomitable spirit of the moun-
In the misty rain.”
tains.”
(Bernbaum 1998, 220)
(Douglas 1951, 328)
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We also collaborated with the interpretive
in the national park system. The chief of
staff at the park to create a PowerPoint
interpretation, who initiated the collabora-
presentation for the superintendent to use
tive project, has since moved to Yosemite
on a trip to Japan to forge a sister moun-
and wants us to expand the Experience
tain relationship with Mount Fuji. The pres-
Your America exhibit there to include land-
entation
contrasts
scape photographs of all 57 designated
Japanese and American views of the two
National Parks with inspirational, spiritual,
mountains and of mountains and nature in
and cultural captions by TMI. The theme
general. We have used this presentation
of the exhibit will be the spirituality of
as one of a number of modules we have
nature; it will be housed at the Yosemite
developed for the park that integrate spir-
Museum — one of the most popular in all
itual and cultural perspectives into
of the national park system. Here is an
PowerPoint presentations for particular
example of the caption for Great Smoky
audiences, ranging from general to
Mountains:
African
compares
American
and
and
Japanese
American.
Great Smoky Mountains — 1934
Experience Your America Exhibits:
Here, in the grandest expression of the
Appalachians, sixteen mountain peaks
Based on the theme of the sacredness of
rise over 6,000 feet in elevation. The
mountains, the Experience Your America
largest federally protected mountain
exhibit at Sugarlands Visitor Center at
ecosystem east of the Rocky Mountains,
Great Smoky Mountains has photographs
Great Smoky Mountains National Park
of 24 mountainous national parks, ranging
preserves the greatest diversity of plant
from Acadia National Park in Maine to
and animal life in the temperate regions of
Haleakala National Park in Hawai’i and
the United States.
Denali National Park and Preserve in
grandeur stands an impressive collection
Alaska. Each panoramic photograph has
of 19th century log and frame buildings —
an extended caption with a description of
architectural remnants of southern moun-
the particular park and an inspirational
tain culture.
Amid this natural
quote, ranging from conservationists such
as John Muir to Native American elders.
The exhibit is on permanent display in the
“The Great Smoky Mountains are
foyer of a new theater built at the main vis-
a sanctuary for the Cherokee peo-
itor center of the most heavily visited park
ple. We have always believed the
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mountains and streams provide
the wider public through park interpretive
all that we need for survival. We
materials. Subsequent meetings have
hold these mountains sacred,
enabled the collaborating partners to raise
believing that the Cherokees were
funds and form a working group that has
chosen to take care of the moun-
selected and begun work on the following
tains as the mountains take care
themes for five waysides along the
of us”.
Oconaluftee River Trail:
Jerry Wolfe, Cherokee Elder, 2000.
1. The legend of a supernatural snake
with a jeweled eye on Rattlesnake
Oconaluftee River Trail:
Mountain, visible at the beginning of the
trail.
A meeting convened in February 2001 by
TMI and the Museum of the Cherokee
2. The story of the creation of the
Indian in Cherokee, North Carolina, initiat-
Cherokee mountains and valleys by the
ed a collaboration among Great Smoky
great buzzard (buzzards are often seen
Mountains National Park, Friends of Great
circling above this spot).
Smoky Mountain National Park, the
Eastern Band of the Cherokee, the
3. Traditions of the Long Man, the person-
Museum of the Cherokee Indian, and TMI
ification of the Oconaluftee River, with his
that will use wayside exhibits and a book-
head in the mountains and his feet in the
let to link Cherokee spiritual and cultural
sea, unifying the various features of the
traditions and stories to features of the
environment
natural landscape along the 1.5-mile
Oconaluftee River Trail that runs into the
4. The going to the water purification ritu-
Qualla Boundary (the tribal lands of the
al and its use in traditional stick ball
Eastern Band of Cherokee).
games played next to the river.
The way-
sides will be in English and Cherokee and
will make use of artwork by local
5. The story of how certain trees, such as
Cherokee artists. Since many Cherokees,
the spruce and the laurel, came to stay
both adults and school children, walk this
green all year round.
trail for exercise, the signs will provide an
opportunity to strengthen and pass on
In addition, two orientation panels will pro-
their traditions to the younger generation.
vide a trail map and introduction at both
The project will also help them to reach
ends of the trail, pointing out the impor-
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tance of Cherokee stories and traditions for
result of collaboration with TMI, a call for
encouraging people to respect and care for
proposals went out for a major work of
nature. Two additional waysides on Cling-
sculpture depicting the important Native
man’s Dome, the highest mountain in the
Hawaiian concept of wahi kapu — sacred
park, will present the following themes:
places — as it relates to Mauna Loa and
Kïlauea, as did a call for submissions of
1. The creation of the mountains and val-
traditional Hawaiian paintings of Pele. The
ley story with a panoramic view over the
Kupuna Committee is selecting the works
Smokies.
for installation in the Kilauea Visitor Center,
and the Volcano Art Center had a month-
2. Clingman’s Dome as a sacred place of
long exhibit of 62 of the paintings submit-
healing and a sanctuary for the Che-
ed (as many as could be accommodated).
rokees, relating traditions of a magic lake
The sculpture will be placed in a promi-
that heals wounded animals and historical
nent place just outside the entrance to the
stories of Cherokee refugees finding
visitor center and the painting will be hung
refuge on the mountain when others were
in a special alcove inside next to a panel
forcibly removed to Oklahoma on the Trail
with quotes from Kupuna Committee eld-
of Tears.
ers on the importance of Pele in Native
Hawaiian culture.
Traditional Hawaiian Artwork for
Kilauea Visitor Center:
Interest from artists throughout the
Hawaiian Islands was very high and the
This broad-ranging collaboration inte-
submissions greater than originally antici-
grates indigenous Hawaiian perspectives
pated. In fact, the Park was overwhelmed
of the volcanoes Kilauea and Mauna Loa
with a ‘tsunami’ of Pele paintings – 140 in
and the volcano goddess Pele into tradi-
all – and the Kupuna Committee selected
tional artworks commissioned for the
one by a local artist. The main newspa-
newly renovated Kilauea Visitor Center at
pers in Hawai’i, based in Honolulu, ran
Hawai’i Volcanoes National Park. The
front-page articles on the project. TMI
project comes out of park meetings with
played a key role in raising funds for the
the Kupuna Committee of Native Hawaiian
artwork and consulting on the process.
elders advising the park on cultural mat-
The participants in the project include:
ters and advances a mutual interest in
Hawai’i Volcanoes National Park, the
emphasizing the importance of Native
Kupuna Committee, Volcano Art Center,
Hawaiian views of park resources. As a
County of Hawai’i Department of Re-
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search and Development, and TMI. An
up with a wayside exhibit that presents
important byproduct of the project has
traditional Chumash views of Boney
been the formation of a committee of
Mountain and encourages the general vis-
Native Hawaiian members of the interpre-
itor to experience the mountain in a deep-
tive staff to act as a liaison with the
er, more spiritual way. In order to connect
Kupuna Committee and to work closely
the wayside with a living tradition, they
with the park and make sure that Native
consulted with the Chumash and put a
Hawaiians have input from the beginning
picture of Charlie Cooke, a current hered-
in all future interpretive projects.
itary chief, in the upper right-hand corner
with the following quote by him:
Spirit of the Mountains Wayside:
“Boney Mountain is a sacred spirAs a result of talking with us and seeing
itual area, a shaman’s retreat, and
examples of products at other parks,
a place for vision quests. It is a
interpretive
place for meditation.
staff
at
Santa
Monica
Mountains National Recreation Area came
From up
there, you can see everything.”
Panel in Santa Monica Sacred Mountains, California.
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The interpretive staff titled the wayside
Mountains and People, People and
“Spirit of the Mountain” and added the fol-
Mountains:
lowing text in the lower left-hand corner,
superimposed on a large image of the
TMI has begun work on the design and
mountain itself:
production of a publication for interpreters, teachers, naturalists, environ-
“Boney Mountain stands as a
mental educators, and the general public.
majestic beacon filling the day
Titled “Mountains and People, People and
and night sky. The mountain’s
Mountains,” the handbook complements
spirit pervades the plants, animals
natural history information by bringing
and sense of place around you. It
evocative quotes, beliefs, folktales, and
is in the cycle of the seasons, and
cultural practices from American, Native
the past and present generations
American, and other cultures around the
of people. Whether alone or with
world to bear on various features of
others, this place anchored by the
mountain environments, such as peaks,
mountain invites you to pause,
forests, eagles, and bears. It is based on
reflect, and look inward. Taste the
the seasonal interpreters’ handbook at
salt rolling in on the morning sea
Rocky Mountain National Park used by
breeze. Smell the pungent sage
staff to prepare evening campfire talks,
warmed by the afternoon sun.
guided walks, and other visitor-related
Witness the magical interplay of
activities. It is organized around the same
dark and light shadows.
What
categories of flora, fauna, and natural fea-
insights, ideas and feelings does
tures, and for each category it provides
the spirit of the mountain evoke
quotes, stories, and traditions arranged
for you?”
for easy reference in the following groupings:
TMI played a minimal role in the concept
and design of the wayside, which was done
- Native American, Hawaiian, and
almost entirely by park staff in collaboration
Alaskan
with the Chumash Tribe. The genesis of the
- Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
exhibit shows how this approach to inter-
- European and European American
pretation can be spread through examples
- African and African American
that stimulate people to come up with their
- Latino and Chicano
own products and activities.
- Asian and Asian American
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The content can be adapted to various
one of the important outcomes of the
teaching environments from classroom to
project has been the personal inspira-
trail to home. Quotes, ideas, and stories
tion and renewal that interpreters get
can be easily selected to help relate to
from working on it. The strategy of using
particular audiences and provide multiple
products and activities developed at
perspectives on features of the natural
pilot sites as evocative examples works
environment.
well to inspire people to come up with
their own ideas on how to implement
this approach in their parks. Encourag-
Conclusion
ing creativity and innovation, rather than
straight replication, has had the addi-
We have learned a number of valuable
tional benefit of creating even more
lessons from work on various phases of
models to stimulate thinking at other
the project. One of the quickest and
parks and protected areas.
most effective ways of implementing this
approach is to integrate inspirational
and cultural themes into products and
Acknowledgements
activities that parks are already planning
or have in production. For example,
The Mountain Institute and its Sacred
Great Smoky Mountains already had
Mountains
funding and plans in place to mount a
acknowledge with great appreciation
major photographic exhibit on 22 moun-
the support and partnerships of the
tainous national parks in their main visi-
Ford
tor center. As a result of discussions
Cummings Foundation, the Compton
Program
Foundation,
would
the
like
Nathan
to
B.
with us, they decided to shift the theme
Foundation, the Cherokee Preservation
of this exhibit to the sacredness of
Foundation, the County of Hawai’i
mountains and wilderness and had us
Department of Research and Develop-
work with them to prepare panels and
ment, the Museum of the Cherokee
select quotes. We have found it advis-
Indian, the Cultural Resources Office of
able to initiate a variety of different prod-
the Eastern Band of the Cherokee,
ucts and activities at a number of parks
Friends of the Great Smoky Mountains
and let each one mature at its own
National Park, the Volcano Art Center,
pace, not burdening the already busy
and the various National Parks with
interpretive staffs. It is important to keep
which we have worked.
people excited and energized; in fact,
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References
■
Bernbaum, E. (1996) Sacred Mountains:
Implications for Protected Area Management. Parks 6(1): 41-48.
■
Bernbaum, E. (1997) The Spiritual and
Cultural Significance of Mountains.
In
Mountains of the World - A Global Priority,
ed. J. Ives and B. Messerli, 39-60.
Oxford: Parthenon.
■
Bernbaum, E. (1998) Sacred Mountains
of the World, Berkeley and Los Angeles,
University of California Press.
■
Douglas, W. O. (1951) Of Men and
Mountains, London, Victor Gollancz.
■
Muir, J. (1997) Mountaineering Essays,
ed. R. F. Fleck, Salt Lake City, The
University of Utah Press.
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Mount Rainier National Park, offsite travelling exhibition, Washington.
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