International Journal of Environment and Bioenergy, 2014, 9(2): 76-94
International Journal of Environment and Bioenergy
ISSN: 2165-8951
Journal homepage:www.ModernScientificPress.com/Journals/IJEE.aspx
Florida, USA
Article
Challenges of Deforestation in Nigeria and the Millennium
Development Goals
Philip Mfon (Jr)1 , Oluyemi Ayorinde Akintoye2, Glory Mfon3, Tokunbo Olorundami2, Sammy
Uka Ukata2 and Taiwo AdesolaAkintoye4
1
2
Cross River State Ministry of Agriculture, Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria
Department of Geography and Environmental Science, University of Calabar, Calabar-Nigeria
3
4
Department of Environmental Education, University of Calabar, Calabar, Nigeria
Department of Estate Management, Moshood Abiola Polythechnic, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria
* Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail:[email protected]
Article history: Received 11 November 2013, Received in revised form 28 April 2014, Accepted 30
April 2014, Published 5 May 2014.
Abstract: Industrial growth in developing countries, often depend on the natural resources
endowment, as well as other factors including technology and power. Apart from petroleum
resources, Nigeria also has abundant forest resources. Given also the eco-tourism potentials
of tropical rain forests (TRFs), efforts toward their effective management, have in recent
times reached an unprecedented proportion in Nigeria. Invariably, this great concern is based
on the fact that TRFs (selvas) are also of very inestimable value, because of their complex
ecosystems and distinctively high biodiversity. Their inestimable values in promoting
sustainable livelihood, industrial raw materials availability, food security, medicine and
health care researches, cannot be over emphasized, especially in the march towards poverty
and hunger eradication, finding solutions to sexually transmitted diseases (STDs ) including
HIV/AIDS, and more effective Malaria drugs. These potentials are interwoven with most of
the stated Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Thus the objectives of this paper include
the provision of an integrated insight into the strategies viable for the effective management
of the wide varieties of Nigeria’s natural vegetations, especially the TRFs, and to identify the
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implications for the achievement of the MDGs. Consequently, this paper examined the causes
and consequences of deforestation in Nigeria. The paper also proffered solutions to identified
problems.
Keywords: Deforestation, Millennium Development Goals, Tropical Rain Forests, Selvas
1. Introduction
The main latitude and longitude of Nigeria is 10o North and 8o East. Most of the forests in Nigeria
are located in the southern axis of the country and these forests include: the Swamp forests, Tropical
Rainforests, as well as the Wooded Savannah. The total land area of Nigeria is 91,077,000 Ha (910,770
km2) with a total forest area of 11,089,000 Ha (110, 890 km2) representing 12.18% of forest cover.
There are about 1417 known species of amphibians, birds, mammals and reptiles in the country
(UNEP – WCMC, 2004). The forests are dominated by trees in a complex ecological system and the
crowns of these trees touch each other, as a result of the close growth. Trees are perennial woody plants
usually with stems which supports branches and leaves. In any given locality, a tree reaches the height
of at least 6 meters on maturity; however, some tree species get to the height of over 100 meters. Within
the forests are herbs, shrubs, climbers, lianas and other plant species as well as assorted wildlife. On the
forest floor are litter and soil microbes which render forest soils fertile for tropical farming .Park (1992)
has stated that at least 60 percent of all known species of plants (about 155,000 out of 250,000), about
90 percent of all the world's non-human primates such as monkeys, about 40 percent of all the birds of
prey and about 80 percent of all the insects live in the tropical rainforests of the world.
Within these species, about 1.2% are endemic, that is, they are found in no other country except
Nigeria, while 3.5% are threatened. Nigeria is a habitat to at least 4715 species of vascular plants of
which 4 are endemic. Also about 3.6% of Nigeria species is protected under IUCN category I-V. Many
fauna and flora species in the forests are threatened, endangered or extinct (Akachuwku, 2006).
Endangered plants include: Afrormosia elata (Afrormosia), Irvingia species (bush mango) and
Funtumia species (native rubber). Endangered animals include: the Drills (Papio leucophaeus), Gorillas
(gorilla
gorilla), Chimpanzee (pan troglodytes), Elephants (loxodonta africana), Hippopotamus
(hippopotamus
amphibious), Lions (panther leo), Leopard (panther pardus), Giraffe (Giraffa
camelopardalis), and Manatee (Trichecus senegalensis).
It should be noted that, Nigerians have always depended on the forest for their survival, economic
development, as well as environmental amelioration. Based on visible results, so far only half-hearted
efforts have been made to control deforestation, leading to the almost total destruction of Nigerian
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forests. Therefore, sustainable development is yet to be achieved. Nigeria has one of the world’s highest
rate of deforestation of primary forests, where more than 50% of such forests have been lost in the past
decades through unsustainable logging, agriculture, as well as fuel wood collection (FAO, 2004). Issues
on the encroachment of the logging industry on non-logged species and the socio-economic implications
has been examined by Akintoye (2003).
Notably, this paper discusses (i) The Millennium Development goals (MDGs) and itemized the
targets,(ii) The meaning of deforestation (iii) Theories of deforestation (iv) Causes of deforestation in
Nigeria (v) Trend of deforestation in Nigeria (vi) Consequences of deforestation (vii) Problems
associated with combating deforestation in Nigeria (viii) Efforts made to control deforestation in Nigeria
(ix) and it provides some conclusions and recommendations.
2.1. The Millennium Development Goals and the Forests
Wikipedia (2013) has explained that the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) are in totality
a number of eight mutually defined and agreed international development goals, which emerged
officially, as an outcome of the milestone Millennium Summit of the United Nations in the year 2000,
after the adoption of the United Nations Millennium Declaration.
A combination of the 189 United Nations member countries and around 23 international
organizations have become signatories to the projected achievement of the highlighted goals by the year
2015. These goals include : the eradication of extreme poverty and hunger , the achievement of universal
primary education, the promoting of gender equality and empowering women, the reduction of child
mortality rates, the improvement of maternal health, the combating of HIV/AIDS, malaria, as well as
other diseases, the ensuring of environmental sustainability , and the development of a global partnership
for development. Table 1 presents the MDGs along with the associated targets.
Three major efforts and challenges to achieving each of the specified goals include the following:
I.
Roles played by the G8 Finance Ministers in June 2005 aimed at providing adequate funds to the
World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and the African Development Bank
(AFDB) , aimed at canceling debts including the sum of $40 to $55 billion in debt owed by
members of the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC). The intent is to enable poor countries
to retain funds, which would have been used in forgiven debt servicing, and use same for socialeconomic development, including health and education, as well as alleviating poverty.
II.
The ambiguity and widespread debates over the prioritization and subsequent adoption of the
MDGs, as well as issues on the approach to measuring some of the set goals. Despite continuing
increase in funds provided by developed countries aimed at achieving the MDGs , the major areas
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of disbursement to developing countries , have been largely for debt relief , natural disaster relief
and military aids , aspects which shows no direct potentials for the highly desired rapid
development.
Table 1: The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
GOAL 1: ERADICATE EXTREME POVERTY AND HUNGER
Target 1A: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people living on less than $1.25 a day
Target 1B: Achieve Decent Employment for Women, Men, and Young People
Target 1C: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people who suffer from hunger
Goal 2: Achieve Universal Primary Education
Target 2A: By 2015, all children can complete a full course of primary schooling, girls and boys
Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women
Target 3A: Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education preferably by 2005, and
at all levels by 2015
Goal 4: Reduce child mortality rates
Target 4A: Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five mortality rate
GOAL 5: IMPROVE MATERNAL HEALTH
Target 5A: Reduce by three quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality ratio
Target 5B: Achieve, by 2015, universal access to reproductive health
Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
Target 6A: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS
Target 6B: Achieve, by 2010, universal access to treatment for HIV/AIDS for all those who need it
Target 6C: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of malaria and other major
diseases
GOAL 7: ENSURE ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY
Target 7A: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programs;
reverse loss of environmental resources
Target 7B: Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction in the rate of loss
Target 7C: Halve, by 2015, the proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe
drinking water and basic sanitation (for more information see the entry on water supply)
Target 7D: By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million
slum-dwellers
GOAL 8: DEVELOP A GLOBAL PARTNERSHIP FOR DEVELOPMENT
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Target 8A: Develop further an open, rule-based, predictable, non-discriminatory trading and
financial system
Target 8B: Address the Special Needs of the Least Developed Countries (LDCs)
Target 8C: Address the special needs of landlocked developing countries and small island developing
States
Target 8D: Deal comprehensively with the debt problems of developing countries through national
and international measures in order to make debt sustainable in the long term
Source:
Wikipedia
Target
8E: In (2013)
co-operation
with pharmaceutical companies, provide access to affordable, essential
drugs in developing countries
I I I.
One major problem is also that progress towards the achievement of the stipulated goals has not
Target 8F: In co-operation with the private sector, make available the benefits of new technologies,
been at the same rate, among developed and developing countries. In some countries, these goals
especially information and communications
have already been achieved. Consequently the UN conference of September 2010, was imminent,
and assisted in reviewing progress towards the achievement of the eight anti-poverty goals by the
year 2015 (Wikipedia, 2013).
If there are problems in the achievement of MDGs in urban areas of the developing world, the
challenges in the rural areas, for instance in Nigeria, as in many other developing nations are
compounded. Over 60 percent of Nigerian population lives in rural communities and depend largely on
agriculture, cottage industries and other forms of informal and small scale natural resources exploitation
activities, for rural household income. These activities are often unsustainably carried out, given the
paramount motivation to increase household income. Deforestation is the most common outcome of
indiscriminate anthropogenic activities in the Tropical Rain Forest (TRF) communities. Hemming
(1972); Ridgeway (1987) Gouldie (1984); Hecht and Cockburn (1990); Moore (1990) ; Park (1992),
Balogun (1994), Akintoye (2003) and Akintoye et al (2013) have discussed the values of the rainforests
and the problems caused by large scale forest losses. The cultural heritage, economies, aesthetics, health
and environmental stability, of areas within and far beyond the perimeters of forest areas often depend
largely on the tropical rain forests.
The future of newer pharmaceutical preparations with potentials for managing or totally
eliminating the HIV disease, depend largely on the inadequately documented flora and fauna biodiversity,
for which the forests are store houses. Rural women are more dependent on the collection and sales of
non- timber forest products (NTFPs) for income. This has great significance for poverty alleviation and
gender equality for rural women. Notably, in most rural Nigerian societies, based on prevailing culture,
women don’t normally inherit lands.
Also potentials for eco-tourism, educational development and researches, exist in the forests.
Housing and industrial raw materials, have over the centuries been, and can still be sustainably obtained
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from forests. In fact there is a very wide potential for industrial development, given the vast resources
domiciled in the tropical rain forests of the world.
These about sums up the significance of forests in assisting , either directly or indirectly, in the
realization of most of the eight , if not all the stipulated MDGs , with potentials for urban areas , and on
a wider perspective , the entire nation. The greatest threat, to this natural endowment, which is the forest,
has so far been identified as deforestation, which simply put is the large scale clearance of the forest...
Deforestation invariably is a major setback to achieving the MDGs in rural communities within
forest regions in Nigeria, and in other parts of the forested and developing world. Forest people are
invariably an integral part of the complex forest ecosystem, perfectly adapted to it (Rapapport, 1976 and
Sioli, 1985 in Park, 1992: 106).They depend on the forests for medicine, food, building materials,
clothing, household income and so on. It’s a major part of their lives.
2.2. The Meaning of Deforestation
Deforestation results from the removal of trees without sufficient replacement, which leads to
reduction in habitat, biodiversity as well as wood and quality of life . The use of the term “Deforestation”
at times is associated with distortion of forestry issues. It is used to denote activities that use the forest,
for instance, felling of wood for fuel, commercial logging and activities associated with temporary
removal of forest cover such as slash and burn technique, which is a major component of shifting
cultivation agricultural systems or clear cutting. It is equally used to describe clearing of forest for
grazing or ranching. Also, an activity such as the establishment of industrial plantations may be
considered as deforestation by some people while others will view it as afforestation. Accordingly, it is
imperative for one to specify what is meant by deforestation in order to reduce all forms of ambiguity.
Therefore, much specific terms such as forest decline, forest fragmentation and degradation, loss of forest
cover and land- use conversions, should be used (Wikipedia,2008). The consequences of deforestation
is so massive, that between 1990 and 2005, Nigeria has lost a staggering 79% of its old-growth forests
(Rainforests Mangabay, 2007)
2.3. Theories of Deforestation
There are three major schools of thought associated with the causes of deforestation. The first is
the Impoverishment school which is of the opinion that, the major cause of deforestation is the increase
in the number of poor people; that is small holders are the principal agents of deforestation. The second
school is the neoclassical group which believes that, deforestation is caused by open access property
rights. That is, there are various agents with respect to deforestation. The third school is the politicalCopyright © 2014 by Modern Scientific Press Company, Florida, USA
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ecology group which believes that, deforestation is caused by capitalist entrepreneurs. ( W i k i p e di a ,
2008).
2.4. Causes of Deforestation in Nigeria
These may be divided into three broad groups:
2.4.1. Climatic agents
These agents represent the average weather conditions of the country over a very long period of
about 50 years. They include sunlight, water and wind:
2.4.1.1.Sunlight
Sunlight is very essential during photosynthesis, however, high intensity of sunlight has been
known to kill plants especially the young ones. Nigeria, being in the tropics has a lot of sunlight.
2.4.1.2. Water
Water is equally essential for the growth of plants. However, during long periods of drought and
flood in the northern and southern parts of the country respectively, most plants die.
2.4.1.3. Wind
Wind is the air in motion and is very essential for plant pollination as well as seed dispersal.
However, it is equally associated with deforestation, breaking of tree branches as well as uprooting of
trees.
2.4.2. Biotic agents
These include microbes, animals and other plants.
2.4.2.1.Microbes
Fungi, bacteria and viruses are in this group. They attack all parts of plants thereby killing these
plants.
2.4.2.2. Other plants
Some tall trees provide shade which retards the growth of their own seedlings as well as the
seedlings of other plant species. Some other plants produce toxic chemical substances which are
poisonous to other species (Nwoboshi, 1982).
2.4.2.3. Animals
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These include insects, rodents, worms and large herbivores which feed on trees. At times a lot of
damage is done such as the devastating impact of locust, elephants and large antelopes.
2.4.2.4. Man
Of all agents of deforestation, the impact of man is the greatest and without the interference of
man, the forest would have been intact. The impact of man may be subdivided into agriculture, logging,
grazing, urbanization and industrialization, fire, mining petroleum extraction, fuel wood.
2.4.2.5. Agriculture
During agriculture, the site is prepared through under brushing and felling leading to
deforestation. The slash and burn activity in tropical forests including Nigeria which is utilized during
shifting cultivation has led to the permanent destruction of the rainforests (Wikipedia, 2008; Nwoboshi,
1982). In some cases, species distribution is highly affected leading to a change in vegetation to derived
savannah. Also in high terrain, floods may ravage low lands and silts can clog dams and irrigation canals.
Also, some weeds and diseases which has now become nuisances in the forests have been introduced by
man in his agricultural practices e.g. the introduction of Eupatorium adoratum (Siam weeds) from south
East Asia to west Africa including Nigeria.
2.4.2.6. Urbanization and industrialization
Increase in population has led to several houses and infrastructure springing up everywhere,
thereby threatening the forests (NEST, 1992). For instance, Nigeria had a forest area of about 60 million
hectares in 1897, but after 100 years the country had only about 9.6 million hectares which represent a
loss of 50 million hectares in 100 years (Carty, 1992). The sites for the University of Calabar as well as
the sites of other first and second generation universities in Nigeria were highly forested areas. Similarly,
the Army School of Artillery, the Nigerian Defence Academy and the Mobile Police Training School
together used approximately 7420 hectares of forest reserves of Kaduna state while 18, 390 hectares of
Ajaokuta forest reserve in old Kwara state was used by the steel plant.
The federal capital territory claimed approximately 27, 330 hectares of forest reserves (Carty,
1992, Aderounmu et al, 1992). Also, the construction of road networks, railways, ports complex, airports
have led to considerable deforestation, and invariably the loss of vast fauna population. Akintoye (2014)
has also identified the consequences of the Nigeria Liquefied Natural Gas (NLNG) Project on
biodiversity losses, although in a mangrove ecosystem in Bonny local government area of Rivers state
in Nigeria. The present site of the NLNG, at old Finima, is believed to be the breeding area for some
marine species like turtles. Also Akintoye and Utang (2012) identified that where industries are created
and there are negative consequences on the immediate local environment and invariably the host
communities, there is no guarantee that significant benefits will accrue to the indigenous population.
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2.4.2.7. Logging
Sawn timber is imperative in construction activities for residential, recreational and industrial
development. In many cases in Nigeria, trees are felled and sawn without any commensurate effort to
replant them, for instance, Ekinta forest reserve (104km2) in Cross River State, south-south geo-political
zone of Nigeria has been transformed from tropical high forests into grassland as a result of unsustainable
agriculture and logging.
2.4.2.8. Grazing
It is a well established fact that over grazing leads to a gradual change in vegetation from derived
savannah to Sudan savannah as these animals feed on tree seedlings especially in the dry season when
there is little grass to sustain them. These animals also feed on tree seedlings and branches of mature
trees, thereby leading to deforestation (NEST, 1992).
2.4.2.9. Fire
Although lightening and volcanoes have been associated with naturally occur in forest fire,
however, man is the major cause of forest fire (NEST, 1992). The rainforest is relatively more immune
to fire than the savannah, because the rainforest is wet most of the year. However, in the dry season, the
rain forest is very much prone to fire. Continuous burning of the rain forest leads to grasslands as most
of the trees including their seedlings are destroyed.
However the savannah shorter trees can tolerate fire due to their very thick bark. Fire is an
instrument of site preparation for agricultural and forestry operations. It is used in reducing the debris of
under brushed plants and felled trees. Herdsmen do set fire in order to have fresh shoots for their animals.
Hunters also set fire in order to drive out wild animals. It should be noted that the tropical rainforests
which harbour a vast variety of trees take a long time to replenish itself, therefore, the impact of fire can
be quite devastating.
2.4.2.10. Mining and petroleum extraction
The swamp forest of Southern Nigeria were previously protected from destruction or over
exploitation due to their relative inaccessibility as a result of the swampy nature of the environment.
However, today, these forests are being destroyed as a result of petroleum exploration, exploitation and
spillage (Akachuku, 2006). Mining of several minerals in Nigeria such as bayrite, tin, coal etc has led to
the destruction of the forests and scarification of the landscape.
2.4.2.11. Fuel wood collection
In Nigeria as in most third world countries, firewood constitutes the major source of fuel. This
scenario is aggravated by the rampant, unusual and high cost of kerosene leading to a lot of pressure on
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the forests. It becomes difficult to prevent people from cutting down the forest for firewood when there
is no cheap and available alternative. The country has a lot of gas reserve, but instead of the government
to bottle the gas and sell at reduced prices, the gas is flared leading to serious economic and
environmental consequences such as excessive heat production and acid rain.
3. Deforestation Trends in Nigeria
Information from British colonial forest in Nigeria indicates that, the southern part of the country
with the exception of towns such as Benin, Ibadan and Calabar was densely covered by rainforest by the
year 1500 AD (Akachuku, 2006). Between 1500 and 1900, the rain forest was seriously reduced as a
result of the demand for wood by the colonial masters. Also, between 1900 and 1960 – the year of
Nigerian independence from Britain, the remaining rainforest was reduced into two large blocks with
scattered fragments. Between 1960 and 1981, the remaining blocks were tremendously degraded such
that, by 1991, very few considerable patches of the rainforest were left in some forest reserves and
national parks for protection. In the year 2013, the damage to forests in Nigeria invariably has become
tremendous.
Nigeria has eight national parks (Kainji Lake – 5341km2, Cross River – 3720km2, Gashaka
Gumpti – 6670km2, Yankari – 2244.1km2, Chad Basin – 2258km2, old Oyo – 2512km2, Okomu – 112km2
and Kamuku – 1127 km2). There are 1,160 constituted forest reserves in Nigeria covering an area of 107,
527.02km2 (Formecu, 1996). This figure represents about 11% of the total land area of the country. These
forest reserves vary in sizes and are located in 362 local government areas in the 36 states of the country.
Borgu forest reserve in new Bussa Local Government Area of Niger state, north central Nigeria is the
largest with an area of 3,786.58km2 while Lewechi forest reserve in Okigwe, Imo state, south eastern
Nigeria is the smallest with an area of 0..047km2.
These forest reserves have over the decades been the major theatre of large scale anthropogenic
activities, with dire consequences on flora and fauna, despite efforts by governments, to tackle emerging
problems.
4. Consequences of Deforestation in Nigeria
Deforestation in Nigeria has tremendously threatened, depleted or endangered biodiversity of the
forest ecosystem. It also has negative ecological, genetic and socio-economic impact on the environment.
Details of these consequences are as follows:
4.1. Loss of biodiversity
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Many trees, shrubs, herbs and assorted animals have been depleted while some are endangered.
For instance, several plant species have been over exploited especially those with edible seeds, nuts and
kernels are now endangered. Most primates such as guenons, mangabeys, drills, chimpanzees and
gorillas are now endangered (Akachuku, 2006). In fact, the lowland gorilla which is endemic to the Cross
River National Park at Mbe Mountain is seriously endangered through hunting and habitat destruction.
Numerous elephants that were found in our ecosystems have disappeared while the number of other
mammals such as hippopotamus, manatees and leopards has decreased tremendously. Reptiles such as
crocodiles, monitor lizards, alligators, royal python and boar constrictor are very few. Also, several
species of amphibians, fruit bats, fishes, snails, birds e.t.c are threatened, endangered or extinct. Several
crops have been “lost” as the younger generations of Nigerians may not know them. These “lost” plants
are of serious economic importance (food, medicine, etc). They include algae, mushrooms, roots,
vegetables, tubers, fruit trees, culinary plants, medicinal plants e.t.c (Okojie, 1993).For instance,
Akintoye (2003) , Akintoye et al (2013) and Mfon (2003) in studies carried out in Cross River state, have
confirmed that losses of biodiversity, from logging and unsustainable NTFPs collection are serious
threats to forests conservation in Nigeria .
4.2. Depletion of Soil and Water Resources
It has been established that most fishes and other aquatic animals breed under the root of some
aquatic trees. With deforestation, these trees are few, therefore the population of these animals is reduced.
Deforestation equally triggers the loss of several tones of soil from soil erosion leading to reduced food
production, creation of gullies and forced migration.
4.3. Atmospheric Pollution
Deforestation is one of the major causes of enhanced green house effect. Trees and other plants
remove carbon in form of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during the process of photosynthesis.
Carbon dioxide is injurious to animals including man and as deforestation takes place, the few trees left
cannot make use of the carbon dioxide, therefore, the excess carbon dioxide gets into the atmosphere
causing global warming. Deforestation is estimated to contribute up to one third of all carbon dioxide.
The water cycle is equally affected by deforestation as trees extract groundwater through their roots and
release it into the atmosphere. When deforestation takes place, the region may not hold as much water
which can lead to a much drier climate. (Wikipedia,2008)
4.3. Environmental Calamities (Acid rain, Desertification and Flood)
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With deforestation, most of the carbon dioxide produced by industries especially in the Niger
delta cannot be absorbed by trees, therefore, acid rain is produced which damage roof tops and speeds
up the weathering of buildings as well as chemically attacking plants and other living things. The Sahara
desert is encroaching into the southern parts of Nigeria and the encroachment is accelerated by
deforestation. Also there are incessant flood along the coastal areas of Nigeria and even in the north after
torrential rainfall as the root of the trees which would have reduced the velocity of water runoff cannot
serve the purpose because of deforestation.
5. Problems Associated with Combating Deforestation in Nigeria
It should be noted that, environmental problems are never localized as a problem caused in one
part of the nation may adversely affect the other part. Accordingly, all hands should be on deck to combat
problems associated with deforestation, some of these problems include;
5.1. Several Opposing Demands on Trees
Finding a unified approach to protecting the forest at any level is disturbed by diametrically
opposed demands on trees. For instance, tribal people may want their forest untouched to permit their
traditional ways of life whereas landless agriculturists, miners, road builders, loggers etc will want trees
cut to further their economic gains.
5.2. Disagreement with Respect to the Accounting System on Forest Value
This is a contentious issue as the economic value on deforestation matters is debatable; for
instance, it is difficult to put economic cost on soil erosion, loss of biodiversity and siltation of rivers as
a result of deforestation.
5.3. Inadequate Funding of Afforestation Programmes by Developed Countries
Most developed countries want the tropical forests including those of Nigeria to be preserved as
a garden of biodiversity. However, they do not commit enough funds for forest preservation in Nigeria.
5.4. Long Period of Maturity
Most tropical hardwoods take approximately 70 years to reach maturity and be ripped for
harvesting. There is hardly any bank that would lend money for seventy years in Nigeria. Most farmers
equally will prefer to cultivate crops that will mature in a short period of time than those that will take
about 70 years to mature.
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5.5. Insufficient Care for Planted Seedlings
Millions of seedlings are planted in Nigeria yearly only to perish as a result of lack of proper care.
They are nibbled to death by cattle, destroyed by fire, chocked to death by weeds as a result of lack or
non release of funds for maintenance as and when due. Some are even cut down for firewood long before
their prime.
5.6. Lack of Substitute for Trees
In Nigeria, environmentalists preach against deforestation without necessarily providing
substitutes. For instance, hungry people will always clear the forest, and fell trees to plant crops. Lack or
high cost of kerosene will lead to the pressure on wood for fuel. Wood has no cheap substitute for
construction as well as paper manufacturing; therefore, it becomes an uphill task to convince the masses
especially the poor people to conserve trees.
5.7. Uses of Loans by Government
International bodies including the World Bank do make loans available for developmental
projects. These projects in most cases will lead to the opening up of the forest area leading to massive
deforestation. In some cases, loans earmarked for deforestation are misappropriated by government
agents.
6. Efforts Made to Control Deforestation in Nigeria
Efforts made to Control Deforestation in Nigeria, include:
6.1. Creation of Forest Reserves
These are areas delineated and gazetted by government and activities, such as taking and selling
of forest produce without license, destruction of forest estate, destruction of water ways as well as
kindling of fire without consent are prohibited.
6.2.Commencement of in-situ conservation processes
For biodiversity through the creation of strict nature reserves, National Parks, Biosphere
Reserves, Investigation plots for natural regeneration, some sanctuaries, fish parks, wetland conservation
areas etc.
6.3. Legislation
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From 1897 till date, many laws and edicts have been enacted to control and enhance forest
conservation. The problem is that, these laws have not been properly enforced to serve as a deterrent to
defaulters.
6.4. Rainforest Management
Many techniques have been utilized to manage the rainforest. These methods include; enrichment
planting, tropical shelterwood system, taungya system, plantation establishment, malayan uniform
system etc. it is unfortunate that these management techniques have not been able to save the rainforest
in Nigeria.
6.5. Afforestation Programmes
Many afforestation programmes have been carried out in Nigeria over the years. However, there
are very few mature forest plantations to provide fuel wood and sawn timber. Also, very few wood based
companies have plantations of their own. Even the annual tree planting campaign, which was started by
the Forestry Association of Nigeria in order to create awareness for tree planting has been hijacked by
politicians. Of recent, politicians created fanfare out of the tree planting with the president and state
governors planting ceremonial trees followed by other dignitaries. After the planting, funds are not
released as and when due in order to tend to the planted seedlings, thereby many of these seedlings do
not survive after the first year of planting.
7. Conclusions and Recommendations
Conclusively , it could be stated that most forest destructions in Nigeria is carried out by poor
people, who are denied access to land and these people depend on the forest for their existence. Other
causes include settlement expansion, large scale agricultural and development projects. The Nigerian
rainforest has been seriously encroached upon and afforestation programmes in the country is inadequate.
Also most Nigerians are not aware of the consequences of deforestation; accordingly, awareness should
be created. The achievement of the MDGs in the rural areas depend largely on the potentials of the flora
and fauna species, some of which have not yet been discovered and documented by researchers. Women
and their households’ dependence on NTFPs, medicinal preparations, indigenous knowledge, building
materials, good soils for agriculture, fresh water, industrial raw materials, erosion control, new crops for
domestication and so on, which in turn depends on the preservation of the forests.
In view of the importance of forests and the consequences of deforestation, the under listed
recommendations, which undeniably will help in the realization of the MDGs are made:
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(1) Agricultural science subject in secondary schools should be expanded to include relevant aspects of
forestry, indigenous knowledge, rural development, agro-forestry and environmental sciences.
(2) Budgetary allocations to all the three tiers of government should be increased and released promptly
for forestry operations.
(3) The private sector and NGO’s should be encouraged to participate in biodiversity conservation
through grants and tax rebates.
(4) Forest reserves should be established in mangrove ecosystem for in-situ conservation.
(5) Researches should be embarked upon by foresters with the view to developing fast growing tree
species as well as those resistant to fires and pathogenic attacks.
(6) Rich and developed countries should fund afforestation programmes in Nigeria. Nigeria should stop
gas flaring, rather the gas should be bottled and the cost subsided for rural people in order to reduce
the pressure on fuel wood.
(7) Environmental laws should be fully enforced and implemented in order to serve as deterrent to
defaulters.
(8) Efforts should be made to domesticate some wild animals in order to reduce bush burning and
hunting
(9) Intensive agriculture whereby droppings of animals are used to fertilize the soil, thereby, utilizing a
particular area for a long period should be encouraged. This will reduce the practice of shifting
cultivation. Also, agro forestry and mixed cropping leading to the multiple use of the land should
be encouraged.
(10) Bush burning should be discouraged and where it is unavoidable, fire tracing should be embarked
upon to prevent the fire from spreading beyond the proposed area. Appropriate sanctions should be
applied to defaulters.
(11) More forestry personnel should be employed and properly trained to police the forest in order to
reduce deforestation
(12) Efforts should be made by the necessary institutions to encourage participatory forest management
strategies merging the ideas and priorities of government, non-governmental organizations, foreign
donors, forest communities and other stakeholders.
(13) Forest communities should be allowed to retain a major portion of the revenues and royalties from
forest exploitation. The current sharing formulae (as In Cross River state, Nigeria) between forest
communities and government is 50 percent / 50 percent on fees for collection and extraction from
state forest reserves; 70 percent / 30 percent fees for collection and extraction from community
forests; and 20 percent / 80 percent fees for collection, extraction from state plantations.
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(14) Rather than upholding the Federal Land Use Decree of 1978, which became unpopular because it
seeks to remove the ownership of lands, and invariably forest lands from forest communities,
concerned governments should encourage better land tenure and land use acts. These would
encourage forest people to perceive the Tropical High Forests as their important and irreplaceable
heritage. This would also result in greater efforts to conserve these forests.
(15) The demand for and uncontrolled international trading on tropical trees should also be manipulated
to discourage logs extraction for foreign markets.
(16) The “Debt-For-Nature Swap” strategy could be used to reduce the international debts of developing
countries having vast tropical forests. This would serve as an impetus to strong commitments to
strict forest management, since the pressure to engage in indiscriminate forest resources exploitation
to service external debts is diffused.
(17) Also more efforts should be made to promote the domestication of non-timber forest products
(NTFPs) of various species. The techniques and methods should be researched and taught to farmers.
This would increase the availability of such important non-timber forest products species. The
pressures on NTFPs found in the forest will also be reduced to enhance regeneration.
(18) Logging plans should not only be aimed at ecologically sound tree felling practices, It is also very
vital that the economic, social, aesthetic, religious and to pophillic benefits of the tropical forests
accruing to forest people should be preserved. The forest people should be consulted as regards the
specific socio-economic developments required and not what the forest resources exploiters and/or
government agencies assume are their needs
(19) Reforestation exercises should be carried out by the State Government and logging companies to
replace extracted tree species in the forests.
(20) Training courses on appropriate methods of timber harvesting and conveyance out of forest sites
should be taught to loggers. Road construction and drag trails should be established in ways, which
reduces the opening of the forest to other users and also makes little or no contribution to induced
erosion.
(21) Forest areas, which are known to be sensitive to erosion, especially around slopes and stream edges,
should be considered for zero or light logging only.
(22) Areas with scientific, recreational, religious and cultural attributes should be avoided in logging
operations.
(23) Known feeding and breeding sites of animals should not be logged, while species requiring large
areas should be protected by creating large protected areas. Forest areas, which represent a cross
section of each habitat, should be preserved along with identified centers of endemism
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(24) The interrelationships between the forests and the requirements for the achievement of the MDGs
should be further identified and harnessed
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