Online Education in Public Affairs:
Current State and Emerging Issues
Martha H. Ginn and Augustine Hammond
Augusta State University–Augusta, GA
ABSTRACT
The advances in, and diffusion of, technology have resulted in a growth of online
educational opportunities. While programs in public affairs are part of this
proliferation in online education, there is limited information on the current
state of online education in this area. Using data collected from a survey of 96
National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration (NASPAA)
affiliated institutions, this exploratory study provides an overview of the current
landscape of online education in the fields of Master of Public Administration
and Master of Public Policy (MPA/MPP). Areas studied include the rationales
for offering or not offering online education, concerns with technology, modes
of online instruction, student services, faculty and staff demands, and enrollment
patterns. The primary goal stated for offering courses and degrees online is to
reach more students. We found substantial diversity in teaching methods and
types of degrees and concentrations, which suggests students and instructors alike
are attracted to online education due to its flexibility. Surprisingly, we did not
find any significant problems with technological concerns. Apprehension about
the quality and effectiveness of online education persist in the field of public
affairs, as well concerns about faculty and staff workloads in online education.
Finally, this survey suggests that the most successful schools are those that offer
particularized degree concentrations that are able to recruit from a niche market.
The advancement in technology has resulted in a remarkable increase in the
number of postsecondary educational institutions offering online courses and
programs (Allen & Seaman, 2007; Vernon, Vakalahi, Pierce, Pittman-Munke,
& Adkins, 2009; Williams & Corkill, 2007). Williams and Corkill (2007)
have observed that about 66% of colleges and universities offering “face-to-face
courses also are providing graduate courses online” and that 44% of “schools
offering face-to-face master’s degree programs also offering master’s degrees
online” (p. 40). In a study of trends in the use of distance education in social
work education, Vernon et al. (2009) reported exponential growth in online
education in the discipline over a period of 10 years and indicated the possibility
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for online education to coexist with traditional classroom degree programs.
Allen and Seaman (2010) found that online enrollment rates are expanding at
much faster rates than traditional classroom enrollment growth. Specifically, since
2002, online enrollments have grown 21% whereas growth in overall higher
education is only two percent. Allen and Seaman estimate that over 5.6 million
students took at least one online course in the fall of 2009 which means that
approximately one third of all higher education students are taking courses online.
The reasons for the growth of online educational opportunities are varied
and include the desire to provide or expand educational access to underserved
individuals, effective management of classroom space and financial resources,
institutional changes, and the need to capture emerging market opportunities
presented by working adults and transient students (Allen & Seaman, 2007;
Austin, 2009). While the future of online education cannot be predicted, with
the prevalence of online education in the 21st century, it is reasonable to assume
that online education is here to stay.
Graduate programs in public administration, public policy, and public affairs
(MPA/MPP) have been affected by the proliferation of online courses and online
degree programs. In the 1995–1996 academic year, the National Association
of Schools and Public Affairs and Administration (NASPAA) was aware of
only eight member MPA/MPP programs that offered online courses, but the
number of programs offering online courses almost doubled to 15 by 2003. The
NASPAA website currently lists 51 member schools that provide online offerings.
In an attempt to assess the prevalence of online education within the discipline,
we surveyed all NASPAA members asking whether they offered courses with
online components. If they did, we asked members what type of courses were
offered and whether they offered their entire degree programs online. The intent
of the survey and following exploratory analysis is to provide an overview of the
current state of online education for Master of Public Administration and Master
of Public Policy degrees.
THE CHALLENGES OF ONLINE EDUCATION
The appeal of online education notwithstanding, online education has not
been without challenges, and the excitement and expansion in online education
has been accompanied by debate and concerns. A review of the literature reveals
several issues and problems that need to be addressed for an online educational
program to be successful. One debate is rooted in the quality of online education
and the effectiveness of the use of technology as a pedagogical tool. Aside from
the effectiveness debate, online education has been surrounded by other concerns
ranging from technological problems to institutional issues. Perreault, Waldman,
Alexander, and Zhao (2002) have identified three major categories of concerns
associated with online education: technology-related, instruction-related, and
student-related. These concerns are shared by other researchers, though they may
have used different vocabularies and categorizations (Bolliger & Wasilik, 2009;
Vernon et al., 2009).
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Effectiveness
The general view has been that online education is a complex process with
several challenges and that its effectiveness or success requires intensive preparation
(Allen & Seaman, 2007; Bates, 1997; Bolliger & Wasilik, 2009; Jones, 2008;
Perreault et al., 2002; Vernon et al., 2009). For instance, Bates has observed
that the effectiveness of technological changes cannot be realized unless it is
accompanied by major structural and organizational changes in teaching. Another
facet of this debate is the effectiveness of online education in promoting learning.
Despite the debate surrounding the effectiveness of online education, the general
view seems to suggest online education is as effective as traditional on-campus
education, if not better (Donavant, 2009; Fortune, Shifflett, & Sibley, 2006;
Williams, 2006). Examining the efficacy and feasibility of online education
as it relates to professional development of police officers, Donavant (2009)
found “no statistically significant difference in the effectiveness of ” online and
traditional classroom instructions “and indicated that learning was taking place
regardless of the delivery method” (p. 239). Fortune et al. (2006) share a similar
view when they conclude, from their study of business communications students
in Silicon Valley, that the practical significance of perceived higher learning by
on-campus students was minimal. Consequently, they argue that the two modes of
instruction can be considered equally effective with respect to skill development.
Available evidence suggests that the effectiveness of online education depends
on factors such as the academic level and the nature of delivery (Williams,
2006). In a meta-analysis of the effectiveness of allied health distance education
courses, Williams did not find differences in academic achievement between
online and traditional undergraduate and graduate students, but she did find
differences for working professionals. Specifically, working professionals in
online programs were found to outperform their counterparts in traditional
classrooms. Given that all online courses are not created equal, Williams found
that while professionals in traditional classroom models were outperformed by
their counterparts in “synchronous and open learning models of instruction,”
they (professionals in traditional classroom) outperformed their counterparts in
asynchronous learning models (p. 135).
The debate on effectiveness of online education has also focused on whether
online education is appropriate or effective in certain aspects of learning (Austin,
2009; Donavant, 2009; Vernon et al., 2009). For example, Austin (2009) has
argued that the requisite skills for current students and public administrators
are not supported by the current state of online education (current or emerging
technology). Similarly, respondents in Vernon et al.’s (2009) study were of the
view that though practice courses are regularly taught online, those courses
should not be taught online. This observation is contrary to findings from the
study by Donavant (2009), where the police officers indicated their preference
for the traditional classroom instructions but also viewed online education as an
appropriate mode of delivery for their professional development.
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In sum, while considerable disagreement still exists on the effectiveness of
online education for various fields of study as well as different types of students,
evidence does suggest that online instruction fares relatively well when compared
to traditional face-to-face classrooms. More research needs to be done of the
effectiveness, particularly in the long term, of online instruction; but the current
research suggests that this type of instruction offers educational benefits on par
with traditional classroom experiences.
Technology
The concerns with technology are wide-ranging, including limitations on
communication and interaction through technology (Austin, 2009; Williams,
2003). Communication has been observed to be quintessential to effective
online teaching (Young, 2006); most of the online faculty’s time is “spent
communicating with students, building and sustaining learning communities”
(Santilli & Beck, 2005, p. 159). Nonetheless, technology can hinder effective
communication in the online environment (Austin, 2009; Santilli & Beck,
2005). Austin identified broadband limitations and conversational delays as some
of the key technological concerns limiting interaction in the online environment.
If effective instruction depends on communication, these limitations and delays,
if they are widespread, are not trivial matters.
Other technological concerns include reliability of technology, technical
support, and levels of technological competence by students as well as instructor
(Jones, 2008; Perreault et al., 2002; Santilla & Beck 2005; Vernon et al.,
2009). For instance, Vernon et al. identified technological support as a major
challenge to online education, while Santilli and Beck found most faculty
identified students’ lack of technological skills as a major obstacle to effective
communication. All these factors affect smooth instructional delivery in the
online environment. Another aspect of technological concern, the digital divide,
seems to contradict the view that online education helps provide or expand
educational access to underserved individuals. According to Jones, directors of
postsecondary online education programs have expressed major concern about
the digital divide and “the varying degree of connectivity among their student
populations” (p. 52).
Instruction
The instruction-related issues and concerns include, but are not limited to,
access to resources, students’ communicating with the instructor and peers, and
assessment and testing (Perreault et al., 2002). There is also the issue of the time,
cost, and training involved in course creation and delivery (Allen & Seaman,
2007; Jones, 2008; Barth, 2004; Williams, 2003). Effective online teaching
is time consuming, and most faculty resources are spent on communication
(Santilli & Beck, 2005; Young, 2006). As observed by Young, the demands of
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communication in the online environment “can be overwhelming; the volume of
e-mail messages alone can quickly become a huge burden” (p. 73). Barth (2004)
notes that even once you control for the intensive preparation time required the
first time an online course is offered, an online course takes almost twice as much
time to deliver as a traditional class. Specifically, Barth estimates that a traditional
class with familiar material takes an average of 270 minutes a week, whereas the
same course online takes 480 minutes including time spent on e-mails, composing
and entering notes, taping announcements, and moderating chat rooms.
Young (2006) noted further that effective online teaching requires constant
visibility and more active involvement of the instructor in the process than may
be required in the traditional classroom environment. She noted that effective
online teaching involves, among other things, the instructor giving “considerable
attention to facilitating the course … fully absorbed with communication” and
working “hard to meet the varied needs and demands of the students” (p. 74).
These demands not only make effective online teaching a complex process,
requiring more time, but also require special competencies and skills training
(Santilli & Beck, 2005) beyond the normal training of faculty. Williams (2003)
has identified 13 roles and 30 general competencies essential for the successful
implementation and management of online education. He noted that the roles
of instructional designer, instructor/facilitator, trainer, and leader/change agent
were ranked as very important role-specific competencies.
Apart from the complex nature of online teaching, it can also be cost
intensive (Allen & Seaman, 2007; Jones, 2008). Allen and Seaman (2007) have
noted the high costs involved in the development and delivery of online courses
as a major concern to the success of online education. Jones took a similar
view when he observed that cost with respect to money, time and manpower,
and support of the technology are the frequently cited concern by directors of
postsecondary distance learning programs. Citing Carr (2001), he noted that
cost is minimized only in situations of large courses with many sections. The
role of program size in cost minimization makes recruitment and retention a
challenge to online education. This view seems confirmed by the finding that
respondents from schools that have issues with lower student enrollments and
retention were concerned that efforts at minimizing cost might undermine
the quality of online education. Directors of postsecondary distance learning
programs with lower student enrollments and retention concerns indicated
that “effort to maximize return on investment could have a negative impact on
instructional quality, course deliver flexibility, or student/ instructor attitudes
toward the selected online mechanism” (Jones, 2008, p. 51).
While it seems obvious that schools and programs seeking to maximize the
benefit of online investment must make recruitment and retention a priority,
studies suggest that online education is not for everyone. The view that online
education is not for everyone tends to limit the market potential for recruitment
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and retention. Fortune et al. (2006) gives credence to the notion that online
courses are not for everyone by finding that online students valued face-toface interaction less than their counterparts in traditional on-campus courses.
They attributed this result to the fact that students opting for online courses
are typically more independent than their counterparts opting for on-campus
courses. Not surprisingly, Dupin-Bryant (2004) has found that pre-entry
characteristics are related to retention in online programs. She found “prior
educational experience, including cumulative grade point average, class rank, and
number of previous courses completed online were related to retention” (p. 204).
Interestingly, Barth (2004) found certain students were attracted to online classes
due to the perceived equal learning opportunity. These students embraced the
ability to interpret the material independently and felt they had more freedom
to challenge both the instructor and fellow students in the online environment.
In this study, students acknowledged that this independence came with a price,
particularly development of effective time management skills.
Echoing the view that online education is not for everyone (students and
faculty alike), Bocchi, Eastman, and Swift (2004) noted that attracting motivated
online learners goes beyond program accessibility, convenience, accreditation,
and fit with student’s growth plans. It involves the profile and selection of both
students and faculty most adept at online learning, and the active involvement
of faculty in all facets of student learning from shaping student expectations to
equipping students to better work as teams in the virtual environment. In effect,
recruiting and retaining students for an online program is different and may be
more demanding than doing so for on-campus programs.
The notion that online programs are not suited for everyone is also
demonstrated in the area of effectiveness. Williams (2006) has observed that
students “with prior work experience and more professional knowledge”
performed better in the online environment than their counterparts in the
classroom (p. 135). Explaining the possible reason why allied health science
students in online programs outperform their counterparts in traditional
classroom, Williams further argued that the online students are mostly “older,
highly motivated, and self-disciplined” and “most often voluntarily seek further
education in hopes of career advancement” (p. 135). She added that online
education provides “self-paced instruction in a convenient/comfortable location”
for working professionals (p. 135).
Students, Faculty, and Institution
The success of any teaching-learning experience depends on the studentinstructor interaction. Bolliger and Wasilik (2009) found that students are the
most important factor in online education, an observation leading them to
“believe that many online instructors are student centered” (p. 112). However,
they added that other factors, particularly faculty and institution, are related
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to student outcome. Considering that effective learning involves interaction
between students and instructors, Allen and Seaman (2007) suggested that
faculty acceptance and disciplined students are key concerns to quality of online
education. Bolliger and Wasilik (2009) share similar views and highlighted the
need for continued assessment of faculty and student satisfaction with online
education to help enhance its success. Emphasizing the critical role of faculty
acceptance to the success of online education, they noted that “online teaching
is a complex task that requires commitment from faculty and can be time
consuming and demanding” (p. 114). An important factor in faculty acceptance
is their satisfaction with online education that ranged from self-gratification to
intellectual challenges and from interest in technology to belief in their ability to
promote student outcomes (Bolliger & Wasilik, 2009).
In an examination of faculty attitudes toward online education, Gibson,
Harris, and Colaric (2008) found that while perceived usefulness of technology
was a strong predictor of faculty acceptance of online education, perceived ease of
use was not a significant predictor. They surmise that ease of use was not a predictor,
because faculty tends “to be pragmatic in their acceptance of technology and
place more emphasis on the compatibility of the technology with their duties”
(p. 538). Thus they encouraged the emphasizing of perceived usefulness of
technology in the early stages of the adoption process of online education.
Bolliger and Wasilik (2009) also found student-related and institutionrelated factors to influence faculty satisfaction with online education. With
respect to student-related factors, flexibility and convenient access to courses
were found to be the most important factors on faculty satisfaction with online
education. Both students and faculty most often cite flexibility and convenience
as factors that make online education advantageous and appealing to them
(Donavant, 2009; Perreault et al., 2002; Young, 2006). Donavant, in a study
of online education in the professional development of police officers, found
that online education was appealing to the police officers due to factors such as
convenience, flexible schedule, the ability to access educational opportunities
without being physically present, and working at one’s own rate. Similarly, Young
has noted that “students appreciated the flexibility that online courses offered for
their own time management. They liked the freedom of doing their work when
and where they wanted” (p. 74).
These issues and concerns of online education are institution based, making
the institutional environment important. Williams (2003) observed that the roles
and competencies essential for the successful implementation and management
of online education vary according to institutional environment. Further,
Bolliger and Wasilik (2009) noted that faculty satisfaction with online education
is influenced by institution-related factors. They found that faculty satisfaction
was higher when the institution values and supports online teaching, recognizes
the higher workload involved, and provides release time, adequate compensation,
and an “equitable reward system for promotion and tenure” (pp. 106–107).
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The literature on online education is extensive and expanding with the
increasing trend in online education. This brief assessment of the literature
suggests that online education is a complex and cost-intensive process with
several challenges; but with proper development and delivery, it can be as
effective as traditional on-campus education. A systematic study of online
offerings is necessary for any program to optimize the benefits from online
education. This exploratory study sets the stage for a more systematic analysis
of online education in public affairs education by investigating the current
landscape of online education in MPA/MPP programs. After administering a
survey to a NASPAA affiliated schools, we review the responses to assess any
patterns in the motivations for offering or not offering online education. Next,
we discuss the concerns programs raised in terms of technology. Then we review
other instructional concerns of online instruction, such as methods of delivery,
student services provided, and demands on faculty and staff. We also discuss
patterns in enrollment with regard to online courses and programs as well as the
types of degree concentrations currently available in online degrees. We conclude
with some insights from the surveys for schools contemplating entering the
online education arena.
METHODOLOGY
The survey instrument used for the current study was developed by the
researchers in collaboration with NASPAA. The survey used filter and contingency
questions to explore programs in different stages of online education. The first
question asked of all respondents was whether their MPA/MPP program currently
offers any courses with online components; the response options were (a) Yes,
offer fully online courses; (b) Yes, offer hybrid courses: some content/classes
meetings held online but class meets physically on campus at times as well; (c)
Yes, offer both fully online and hybrid courses; and (d) No, do not offer any
courses with online components. If the schools chose option d, the survey asked
several follow-up questions about why the school was not offering courses with an
online component as well as if they were considering offering courses with online
components and why. If schools chose any of the Yes options, they were asked a
follow-up question to describe their current online offerings. For this question,
the options included (a) An MPA/MPP degree can be obtained entirely online;
(b) An MPA/MPP certificate can be obtained entirely online; (c) Only certain
courses available online or with online components, remainder of courses must be
completed in classroom on campus. From this filter question, we grouped together
schools offering online degree programs or certificates and analyzed schools
offering degrees or certificates separately from schools offering only online courses.
The survey included a series of questions for schools that offer either online
courses or entire degree programs online. These questions explored areas such
as motivations for offering online courses and programs, estimated enrollments,
methods of delivery, and technological issues encountered.
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The survey was administered in January 2011 using Survey Monkey, a webbased survey program, to all 270 principal representatives of NASPAA affiliated
institutions. Several follow-up reminder e-mails were sent out to help increase the
response rate. Of the 270 NASPAA-affiliated institutions invited to participate, 63
completed the survey at the close of the survey administration period (representing
23.3% response rate). The low response rate compelled the researchers and
NASPAA to extend the survey deadline and encourage nonrespondents to
complete the survey. This step resulted in an increase in responses from 63 to 96
NASPAA-affiliated institutions, representing an overall response rate of 35.8%.
The sample appears to be representative of the general NASPAA membership
programs in terms of type of institution. While 76% of NASPAA members
are affiliated with public institutions, 81% (n = 78) of our respondents were
affiliated with public institutions. NASPAA membership is 23% private nonprofit
institutions, and our survey included 19% (16) private institutions. As a result, our
sample included both small and large programs and reflected significant geographic
diversity. Of the 51 schools listed on NASPAA’s website as offering online courses
or programs, 18 (35.3%) completed the survey. Through the survey, we were to
identify 44 additional schools that offer online courses or programs. Therefore,
our admittedly incomplete list of schools with online offerings includes 95 schools,
and 62 (65.2%) of those schools completed the survey.
FINDINGS
Sample Characteristics
Of the 96 schools that completed the survey, 34 (35.4%) indicated that
all of their coursework is provided completely on campus without any online
components, 17 (17.7%) offered hybrid or blended courses in the programs
on campus with some content/class meetings held on online, 22 (22.9%) had
programs that offered both fully online and hybrid courses, and the remaining
23 schools (23.9%) had programs offering fully online courses. It is important
to note that this survey question asked about current online course offerings,
not whether the courses were offered exclusively online. Therefore, schools
with fully online courses may also offer traditional on-campus classes. We did,
however, ask the follow-up question of whether the entire degree or certificate
could be attained online. A total of 19 schools offered programs that could be
completed fully online: 15 offered the entire MPA/MPP degree online, and
an additional 4 schools offered an MPA/MPP certificate online. Thus, of the
schools participating, almost a fifth offer fully online programs, and almost
half offer courses completely online. On the other end of the spectrum, over a
third of responding schools offer no online courses or courses with any online
components. Note that this figure may underestimate the schools without online
programs; such schools may have elected not to complete the survey in the first
place, since it was about online education.
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Rationales for Not Going Online
Because the primary intent of the survey was to assess the current availability
of online courses and online programs, those schools that indicated they did
not offer any courses with online components were prompted to answer only a
couple of other questions. The responses to these questions highlight the debate
and concerns over the proliferation of online education. We asked schools to
indicate all applicable reasons for not currently offering courses with online
components, and the figures appear in Table 1. The most common response,
58% of the sample, was skepticism about the quality of online courses.
Table 1.
Reasons for Not Currently Offering Courses With Online Components or for
Not Considering Offering Program/Certificate Fully Online*
No Online
Components
(% of sample
n = 33)
Online
Courses Only
(% of sample
n = 30)
Offered in the past unsuccessfully
6
3
Faculty unwilling to teach online courses
33
33
Skeptical about the quality of online courses
58
63
Limited demand in our program for online courses
30
17
Technology resources not adequate on campus
12
3
Other (please specify)
33
30
Response Options
* Percentage of sample for each response category, rounded to the nearest whole number
However, the literature suggests that there is no real difference in the
quality of online versus traditional classrooms in other disciplines such as
criminal justice (Donavant, 2009) business communications (Fortune et al.,
2006), and allied health (Williams, 2006). Williams’ findings that working
professionals actually perform better in online environments than their
traditional classroom counterparts is especially relevant to those pursuing MPA/
MPP degrees, particularly since schools surveyed indicated the most commonly
recruited population for programs include individuals with 3 to 5 years of work
experience. However, contrary to Donavant’s findings, there is work specifically
related to our discipline that suggests that the online format may not be well
suited to the needs of the MPA/MPP degree (Austin, 2009; Vernon et al, 2009).
Clearly, further research needs to be done in evaluating the quality of online
education in MPA/MPP programs exclusively, since many schools remain
skeptical about its applicability.
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The next most common response for not offering online courses concerned
faculty being unwilling to teach online courses. Allen and Seaman’s (2007)
work also found that some faculty members were reluctant to enter the virtual
classroom. With the exception of only one school, those that indicated faculty
were unwilling to teach were also skeptical about the quality of online education,
which suggests a clear relationship between the two rationales. While some of
the hesitation may be attributed to the previous point concerning skepticism
about quality, other factors could be at work here as well. First, instructors may
have technological concerns or feel they lack the appropriate training to run an
online course. Furthermore, instructors may be keenly aware of the additional
time commitment to run an online course, both in course preparation and
in facilitation. As noted previously, effective communication with students
and successful building of learning communities are critical in effective online
teaching (Santilli & Beck, 2005; Young, 2006). These components require
extensive time commitments by the instructors and could possibly play a factor
in preferring to teach in the traditional classroom where communication and
learning communities are more easily facilitated. As further evidence for these
points, in the open-ended responses, some schools indicated a willingness
to explore online options but raised concerns about start-up costs, faculty
workloads, and resources. Both Allen and Seaman (2007) and Jones (2008)
acknowledge that starting online courses or degrees are cost intensive, and Allen
and Seaman also address the quagmire of issues that arise in determining faculty
workloads for online course preparation and teaching.
Interestingly, a third of respondents that do not offer online options
suggested that there was limited demand in their programs for online courses;
this response contradicts national trends. However, since online programs
can compete for students nationally, as the number of programs increase, it is
possible the market is getting saturated and those schools not already in the
online business are carefully evaluating whether they want to join with so many
other options out there. It does appear that an effective strategy to increase
demand for a program is to offer a degree specialization to create a niche market
of students. Ultimately, growth in online offerings is more likely to come from
existing online providers rather than new schools entering the mix. According
to Allen and Seaman (2007), “approximately one-third of higher education
institutions account for three-quarters of all online enrollments. Future growth
will come predominantly from these and similar institutions as they add new
programs or grow existing ones” (p. 2). Still, of the schools not currently offering
online classes, 14 indicated that they are currently considering offering courses
with online components in their MPA/MPP in the future. However, 19 schools
indicated they had no plans to explore online formats and preferred the face-toface format instead.
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Rationales for Not Offering Entire Program Online
In a related question, we asked those schools that offered online courses if
they were considering transitioning from online courses to a fully online MPA/
MPP program and/or certificate. The responses to this question also appear in
Table 1. Of the 39 schools offering online courses, 30 (76%) indicated that
they do not want to take the entire program online. The responses as to why
they are not interested in offering an entire program online are quite similar to
those provided for not offering online classes altogether. Again, the most popular
response is skepticism about the quality, and the next most popular response
is faculty unwilling to teach. The argument that online education is time
consuming is bolstered by the fact that schools already offering online courses
indicate they are having trouble getting faculty to teach online. Perhaps these
faculty realize firsthand, or from their colleagues, how taxing the communication
demands can be in an online teaching environment, as demonstrated by multiple
studies (Santilli & Beck, 2005; Young, 2006). The relative frequency of the
“other” option suggests that some schools have idiosyncratic motivations for not
offering courses and/or programs online.
Although the most popular response for not taking a program completely
online was skepticism about the quality, the schools with online programs felt
their programs had overwhelmingly positive reputations when asked how their
programs were perceived in general. Schools indicated that their programs
were seen as rigorous, challenging, and well regarded. Schools that had online
programs with NASPAA accreditation emphasized how the accreditation
increased their prestige. Consistent with Bollinger and Wasilik (2009), Donavant
(2009), and Perreault et al. (2002), several schools commented on how the
students and the faculty both enjoyed the flexibility that an online environment
provided. Furthermore, consistent with Allen and Seaman (2007), multiple
schools acknowledged that the online format allowed them to reach students
they might not reach otherwise. Collectively, these comments suggest that
skepticism about online courses/programs is not an insurmountable barrier for
online programs.
Rationales for Going Online
Online courses and programs are proliferating across academia, and it
appears that MPA/MPP programs are not immune from this phenomenon. The
survey sought to identify the motivating factors in offering courses online. The
results appear in Table 2. The first column displays the motivations for taking an
entire program online, the second column displays the motivations for offering
online coursework, and the final column includes the motivations behind
schools that are currently considering offering online courses.
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Table 2.
Primary Motivations for Taking a Program and/or Certificate Online, Offering
Courses Online, or Considering Offering Courses Online*
Online Degree
Programs or
Certificates
(% of sample n = 19)
Online
Courses Only
(% of sample
n = 41)
No Online
Components
(% of sample
n = 12)
Increase enrollment/reach more
students
79
66
67
Increase revenue
16
32
42
Compete with other
similar schools
10
37
58
Physical space concerns on
campus
16
10
8
Other (please specify)
42
51
33
* Percentage of sample for each response category, rounded to the nearest whole number
While the survey questions were worded slightly differently for each category
of schools, there are clearly commonalities in motivations to offer online
educational opportunities. The questions included “check all that apply” in order
to accurately capture all potential motivations, therefore the cells display the
percentage of schools in each sample that indicated the response category was a
motivation for considering (or offering) online courses/programs.
The most popular motivation for entering the field of online education is to
increase enrollments and reach more students. This same theme appears frequently
in open-ended responses throughout the survey. Many schools suggest that an
online format allows them to reach students who would otherwise be unable to
take coursework due to geographic limitations, work/home constraints, and even
physical impairments. To further support the idea that the decision to move to an
online format is student driven, the primary reasons provided in the open-ended
“other (please specify)” category were to reach more students and to accommodate
students with varying needs. The second most popular theme in the “other”
response field was the need for flexibility for both the students and the faculty.
Interestingly, the motivation of competition with other schools was not
very prevalent for those with online programs but was cited as an influential
motivation for those offering online courses and for those considering online
courses. This response may be due to the fact that those schools with online
programs or certificates are typically more established in providing online courses
and have most likely already established a client base through the establishment
of one or more degree specializations. In other words, they have potentially
distinguished themselves from other schools by offering a somewhat unique
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product: a specialized degree concentration online. The creation of a niche market
may insulate the school from the competitive pressure less established schools
experience. In support of this theory, the two schools with online programs that
indicated that competition was a motivator indicated that they did not offer any
degree specializations. In general, these findings suggest that those not offering
online components are feeling the pressure and perhaps sense that they are losing
students to other schools with online programs. Furthermore, increasing revenue
appears to be a motivating factor in those without online programs but appears to
have been less important for those with already established programs. Again, the
few schools motivated by increasing revenue with degree programs or certificates
were not currently offering degree specializations.
Technology
As discussed in the literature review, a primary concern in online instruction
involves technology. The survey explored the prevalence of technology problems
in both online courses and online programs. The responses to this question
appear in Table 3. While other scholars (Jones, 2008; Perreault et al., 2002;
Vernon et al., 2009) have raised concerns including reliability of technology,
technological competence by students and instructors, and technical support,
overall, the responses here suggest that technological resources and technological
problems are not as prevalent as one might have assumed they would be for
schools offering online instruction in MPA/MPP programs.
Table 3.
Percentage of Schools Indicating Problems With Information Technology Resources in
Online Courses or Program/Certificate*
Online Courses Only
IT support for students
IT support for faculty
Infrastructural development
System upgrade
Maintenance
Online Programs/Certificates
IT support for students
IT support for faculty
Infrastructural development
System upgrade
Maintenance
Not a
Problem
Slight
Problem
Major
Problem
57
62
61
64
64
43
38
31
31
36
0
0
8
5
0
58
58
42
53
58
42
37
47
42
42
0
5
11
5
0
* Percentage of sample for each response category, rounded to the nearest whole number
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The modal category for all but infrastructural development in online
programs is not a problem. Percentagewise, online programs do have more
“slight problem” responses than online courses only, but that is most likely a
function of frequency of use. The largest concern, although admittedly slight, is
infrastructural development, followed by system upgrades. These concerns are
most likely artifacts of recent budgetary restrictions in higher education that are
probably forestalling both infrastructure development and system upgrades in
order to meet more pressing budgetary needs.
Another relevant point is that the data provide insight on these problems
from the MPA/MPP director’s standpoint only. The problems with IT support
for students may be much more widespread for students than faculty realize.
Regardless, technology does not appear to be a significant barrier in online
instruction within the discipline.
With regard to technology and instruction, there appears to be relative
uniformity in the course management systems used at the schools who
participated in the survey. Over 75% of schools offering online courses or online
programs indicated that they used Blackboard or a Blackboard owned product
(WebCt) for their course management platform. Five schools indicated they used
university-specific platforms, and two schools used E-College. We did include
an “other” category in the survey, and the most commonly named product was
Desire to Learn, followed by Moodle. Regardless of the other products available,
Blackboard seems to be overwhelmingly the favored product in online platforms
for our sample. Using instructional platforms such as Blackboard should keep
start-up costs lower for schools offering online instruction.
Instruction
Instructors can pursue multiple instruction formats in providing a course
online. In our survey, we gauged the frequency of the use of various methods
of instruction currently available. For schools offering online courses as well as
schools offering online programs, we asked them to indicate how often they
used the differing methods of delivery. Table 4 presents the frequency of use
for each method, divided by whether the school had online courses only or
entire programs online. The distribution of responses clearly shows the wide
range of instructional methods used in virtual classrooms. The lack of a clearly
predominant method of instruction reinforces the idea that many schools are
adopting online formats at least partially due to the flexibility it provides for the
instructor. As mentioned previously, students and faculty alike cite flexibility and
convenience as factors that make online education advantageous and appealing
to them (Donavant, 2009; Perreault et al., 2002; Young, 2006).
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Table 4.
How Often Methods of Delivery Are Used for Online Classes*
Never
Occasionally
Frequently
Very
Frequently
Always
Simultaneous broadcast with
interactive features
48
38
11
3
0
Taped lecture broadcast
51
32
11
5
0
Narrated PowerPoint lectures
35
24
24
11
5
Written lectures posted or
e-mailed
17
14
34
20
14
Simultaneous broadcast with
interactive features
20
55
10
5
10
Taped lecture broadcast
18
41
23
18
0
Narrated PowerPoint lectures
0
30
40
20
10
Written lectures posted or
e-mailed
10
31
10
21
26
Response Options
Online Courses Only
(n = 37)
Online Programs/Certificates
(n = 19)
*Percentage of sample for each response category, rounded to the nearest whole number
Clearly, there is no one-size-fits-all for instructional methods. It does
appear that simultaneous broadcast and taped lectures are the least popular, and
narrated PowerPoint lectures and written lectures are the preferred method. The
preference for these self-paced methods does suggest, as evidenced in previous
literature, that online education is not for everyone and that independent
students with self-motivation are more likely to succeed in this environment than
others. The preference for narrated PowerPoint lectures and written lectures feed
into Austin’s (2009) perceived limitation of technology to MPA/MPP education.
The use of narrated PowerPoint lectures and written lectures does not “support
real-time or synchronous interaction” (p. 164) and, by extension, the kind of
educational practices necessary for the development of the requisite skills for
current students and public administrators.
This question regarding methods of delivery also provided an open-ended
“other, please specify” option that many schools chose to provide further
information regarding their instructional methods. Several other methods of
instruction were discussed in the open-ended responses, and the most common
was the use of discussion boards or online discussions to reinforce material.
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Multiple responses emphasized the importance of interactive assignments
with the instructor and other classmates. Schools also indicated that online
assignments, either turned in within the platform or e-mailed to the professor,
were critical to the instructional methods. Finally, two schools indicated that
they used some variant of a real classroom setting that required weekly checkins for students to assess progress. The common theme in these open-ended
responses was the necessity of persistent student and instructor interaction. As
emphasized in Bollinger and Wasilik (2009), schools appear to embrace the idea
that continued interaction and assessment by dedicated faculty members leads to
more successful online courses.
Student Services
It is clear that effective online instruction is dependent on effectively
communicating with and engaging the students. Instructors must go to extensive
lengths within the virtual classroom to make sure the students feel connected.
Furthermore, schools must provide a variety of administrative student services
for these students as they navigate through their educational pursuits, sometimes
at an extended distance from campus. Schools that offer entire degree programs
or certificates online are increasingly offering these types of student services
online as well. Of the 19 programs with online degrees or certificates, 13 provide
academic advising online. Five of the 19 schools provide financial advising
online. Academic support, such as tutoring, is offered by 5 out of the 19 schools.
Six of the schools provide career placement and career support services online.
Faculty and Staff
Given all of the added services that need to be provided with an online
program, it might be assumed that the administrative burden created would
necessitate the hiring of additional administrative staff. However, only two of
the schools with online programs indicated that they employed administrative
staff dedicated exclusively to their online programs. In addition, only five schools
indicated that they had to hire additional faculty or staff to accommodate their
online program. Furthermore, these additional positions included from 1 to
4 full-time positions, and one school indicated it had to hire an additional 10
part-time instructors. The lack of additional staffing is somewhat surprising
given the acknowledgement or the recognition, both in the literature and in the
survey results, that effective online teaching is time consuming for the instructor.
We expected the increased workload would lead to additional faculty and staff
hires. The relative absence of increased personnel may be more a function of
current economic times than a true lack of need to hire additional instructors.
The other possibility is that offering online courses has not created the increased
enrollment schools may have anticipated and so justifying additional hires to
upper administration might be difficult.
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We also asked each school to provide the number of tenured or tenure track
faculty and part-time or adjunct faculty/practitioners. While it might be assumed
that online programs would require more faculty, we found the opposite.
Specifically, we found that schools with online courses had an average of only 9.6
tenured or tenure track faculty and 7.6 adjuncts, whereas online degree programs
had an average of 7.1 tenured or tenure track and 6.5 adjuncts. However, when
we did difference-of-means tests for both tenured/tenure track and part-time
faculty by type of school, the difference was not significant. Obviously, the
number of faculty members would be dependent on total enrollment in the
program; and while we found that schools with online degree programs did have
slightly higher enrollments than those with online courses only, the differences
were not significant. Specifically, schools with online programs average 89 fulltime students and 107 part-time, whereas schools with online courses average
only 71 full-time students and 94 part-time students in their programs. We
also asked schools that offered online coursework, but not full degree programs
online, how many courses with online components they offered; the mean
number of courses per semester was 3.7, and average enrollment was 15 students
per course.
Enrollment Patterns
On the topic of enrollment, given that the most common motivation for
offering online courses and programs was to reach more students, it is useful to
evaluate whether schools feel they successfully met that goal. Table 5 includes an
exploration of the patterns in enrollment since the school began offering online
courses (or programs).
Table 5.
Patterns Seen With Regard to Enrollment Since Began Offering Online Courses
or Programs*
Online Courses
Only
(% of sample
n = 39)
Dramatic increase in enrollment
Modest increase in enrollment
No increase in enrollment
Modest decrease in enrollment
Dramatic decrease in enrollment
* Percentage of sample for each response category, rounded to the nearest whole num
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5
51
44
0
0
Online Degree
Programs or
Certificates
(% of sample
n = 19)
26
63
11
0
0
Online Education in Public Affairs
It appears that offering online courses is helping to reach more students
because the modal category for both courses and programs is a modest increase
in enrollment. Additionally, 26% of the online programs saw a dramatic increase
in enrollment, while only 5% of online courses did. This finding would suggest
that in order to achieve dramatic increases in enrollment, the schools may need
to consider taking their entire program online. The table also clearly shows that
no schools experienced a decline in enrollment when offering classes online.
Still, the absence of dramatic increases in enrollment for either online courses
or programs does support our supposition that the lack of additional hiring
may be related to fact that offering online courses has not created the increased
enrollment schools may have anticipated.
Exactly how many students are enrolled in online MPA/MPP degree or
certificate programs? Only 13 of the 19 schools in our survey that offer online
programs provided an estimated enrollment in their online degree or certificate
programs for fall 2010. The range of enrollment figures was 10 to 140 with an
average of 56 students. These numbers suggest a demand for such programs.
Given that these programs do not require students to be located near the
institution, schools considering offering an online program may want to consider
catering to a niche market by providing a degree specialty that is not now readily
available in the current marketplace. We asked the question, “What percentage
of your students enrolled in your online program and/or certificate reside outside
of your state?” While most schools (11 out of 19) indicated that 20% or less
lived out of state, two schools indicated that 80% or more did live out of state.
The other five schools fell in between these two extremes. Ultimately, this result
demonstrates that online programs are competing regionally or nationally for
students.
Degree Concentrations
What types of degree concentrations are currently available in completely
online degrees or certificates? Table 6 provides a breakdown of concentrations
offered as well as the number of schools providing each concentration as
an online degree. The most popular degree concentrations are nonprofit
management and public management, followed closely by administration
justice and health care administration/management. The remaining degree
concentrations are offered by only one school each in our sample. The wide array
of degree concentrations available suggests that many schools have opted for
the specialization route to attract more students in the ever-expanding pool of
potential students nationwide.
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Table 6.
Degree Concentrations Currently Being Offered in Fully Online Programs
Nonprofit Management
Public Management
Administration Justice
Health Care Administration/Management
Criminology and Criminal Justice
Aviation
Budgeting and Financial Management
City Management
Economics and Global Strategy
Environmental Science and Public Policy
Human Resource Management/Leadership
Information Resource Management
International Public Management
Organizational Leadership
Policy Studies
Public Personnel Management
Public Safety and Justice Management
Public Works
State and Local Government
Number of Schools Offering
Degree or Certificate
6
6
5
4
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
In general, the current landscape of online educational offerings in MPA/
MPP programs reflects both uniformity and diversity. The existence of diversity
in teaching methods and types of degrees and concentrations offered validate the
idea that many students and instructors alike are attracted to online education
due to its flexibility. While only 19 of the schools surveyed provide fully online
degrees or certificates, other schools are considering taking their entire programs
online. Schools moving in that direction would be wise to consider the degree
concentration route and carefully assess their program’s strengths along with
the current supply of concentrations offered online. This survey represents the
starting point for this type of careful analysis, so that schools can be competitive
and offer a unique product. Continuing to expand the diversity in degree
concentrations will also serve the often mentioned goal of reaching more students,
a primary motivation for offering online courses and degrees in the first place.
CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION
This study represents an initial exploration of the current landscape of
online education in public affairs. A review of the literature suggested that
many obstacles exist in offering a successful online educational program, and we
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found that MPA/MPP programs were not immune to these problems. Concerns
about the quality and effectiveness of online education persist in the field of
public affairs. These concerns have the ripple effect that institutions experience
difficulties in recruiting instructors to teach online. Another factor that may
potentially influence hesitation in teaching online is the reality that teaching in
that environment is very labor intensive.
While our analysis, particularly the open-ended responses, and other
research discussed here suggests that the quality of online instruction is on par
with traditional face-to-face classrooms, clearly more research needs to be done
on effectiveness, especially in the long term, of online instruction. A few of the
schools surveyed indicated that they offered the same courses in both residential
and online courses. By assessing student performance as well as student and
faculty experiences at these schools offering dual format, it is possible to have
an empirical evaluation of the difference, if any, in these methods of course
delivery. Current research includes mainly anecdotal accounts about the quality
of online education, whereas this proposed design would address the issue more
systematically. If the systematic approach mirrors the existing findings that
online education is roughly equivalent to the traditional format, it should help
assuage concerns about the value of online education in the field of public affairs.
The concerns about faculty and staff workloads in online education are
ubiquitous among the schools surveyed and will require more extensive planning
to address. The logical solution would be to hire more faculty and staff to
offset the increased workload generated by online courses. However, this route
was rarely taken within the sample studied here, perhaps due to budgetary
constraints as well as the lack of dramatic increases in enrollment. Of course,
this situation presents a conundrum in causality because it is impossible to
determine if lack of resources and faculty is one of the causes of only modest
increases in enrollment. Again, the open-ended responses in the survey provide
further insight into this issue. One of the final questions of the survey for online
programs was whether the schools encountered any problems when taking their
programs online. Several schools raised the issue that university administrators
were not providing the support necessary in the online education environment,
particularly citing the reluctance to authorize new faculty necessary to meet the
demand generated for online courses. Other schools noted the lack of additional
resources to provide course releases or overload pay for instructors to adequately
develop online courses. Together, these findings suggest that schools considering
offering online courses or taking entire programs online should do a thorough
review of resources available beforehand. Given that the survey responses suggest
that many schools encounter faculty reluctance to teach online, adequate
resources for training and course development should reduce the trepidation of
instructors. Another common response to whether problems existed in taking a
program online was the inability to keep up with demand for additional online
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courses. Added to this concern was the need to restrict access to courses for those
enrolled in the program because the seats were being filled with students from
other disciplines.
Contrary to the literature, we found no significant problems with
technological concerns. It is possible that as schools increase their infrastructure
and incorporate online learning platforms campus-wide, these problems are
evaporating naturally. However, a more systematic study of student’s perceptions
of technological issues would be necessary before concluding this problem has
been largely overcome.
As noted in several previous studies, as a field, we need to embrace the idea
that not all faculty, and certainly not all students, are going to find the online
environment conducive to learning. To be successful in online coursework,
students need to be relatively technologically savvy, self-disciplined, and capable
of absorbing difficult material independently. While instructors teaching online
embrace the flexibility it provides, the schools should not overlook the skill set
required to teach effectively in this environment. Beyond the fact that teaching
online can be more labor intensive, the lack of face-to-face interaction makes
it more difficult for instructors to identify students who are struggling with
material. Instructors must also identify ways to effectively socialize students
and create group identities and cohesion as well as facilitate networking and
professional relationships for students. Future directions for research include
exploration of the best practices in online education within our field from both
the student and faculty perspective.
The general survey results—as well as the responses to the open-ended
question, “What do you feel you offer that other schools do not currently
provide?”—suggests that the most successful schools are those that offer
particularized degree concentrations that are able to recruit from a niche market.
Schools offering specialized degrees or certificates repeatedly indicated that
it helps to set them apart and definitely positively affects recruitment efforts.
Thus, to maximize success when entering the online educational arena, it would
behoove schools to focus on assessing their program’s strengths and degree
concentrations, along with exploring what concentrations are in demand and not
currently readily available. This type of deliberate planning would lead to a more
diverse, less redundant offering of degrees that would better serve the future
generation of public servants.
In sum, online education is now an integral part of public affairs education,
and its trajectory continues to move upward within the field. Bearing in mind
that the primary goal stated for offering courses and degrees online is to reach
more students, schools need to be strategic and deliberate in offering courses
or degrees online. Faculty concerns need to be addressed forthrightly with
existing empirical evidence that courses can be taught effectively online without
compromising quality if the appropriate resources exist. Furthermore, schools
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need to explore appropriate methods to entice faculty to teach online; motivators
may include paid time to develop courses and additional workload credits
for teaching online due to the added responsibilities involved in the virtual
classroom. Additional research could help shed light on which strategies have
been most effective in persuading faculty to participate.
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Martha H. Ginn is an assistant professor in the department of Political Science
at Augusta State University. She holds a doctorate in Political Science from the
University of South Carolina. Her areas of interest include judicial politics,
public opinion, political science pedagogy, and research methodology. Her work
has been published in journals such as the Journal of Politics, Political Research
Quarterly, and Judicature. Dr. Ginn can be reached at [email protected].
Augustine Hammond is an associate professor and director of the Master of
Public Administration (MPA) program in the department of Political Science
at Augusta State University. He holds a doctorate and MPA degrees from the
University of Akron and MPA from the University of Ghana. His research
interest includes issues of public policy and economic development in developing
countries. His recent research has been published in the Journal of Public
Management and Social Policy, Journal of Law and Health, and The Scholar: St.
Mary’s Law Review on Minority Issues. Dr. Hammond is the corresponding author
for this article; he can be reached at [email protected].
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