Hasan Ali Yücel Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi
Sayı 1 (2006), 41-53
MULTIDIMENSIONAL CITIZENSHIP AND EDUCATION:
THE CASE OF G R E E C E
Maria NIKOLAKAKI
n
ABSTRACT
This paper examines the configuration of Greek multidimensional
citizenship through education. Multidimensional citizenship can be best
understood comprising of four elements: the personal, the social, the
spatial and the temporal (Karsten et al 2000:131), These elements do not
operate in isolation but intertwine and influence each other. In this paper I
will explore how the spatial and temporal elements influence the personal
and the social as far as Greek citizenship is concerned. The importance of
this study lies in understanding the complexity of the formation of
multidimensional citizenship in a country with a disturbing history. Thus we
can grow more aware of how complex powers can operate in the formation
of multidimensional citizenship.
Key
Words:,
Citizenship
multidimensional citizenship.
education,
Greek
nationality,
ÖZET
Bu çalışmada eğitim yoluyla Yunan çok boyutlu yurttaşlığı ele
alınmaktadır. Çok boyutlu yurttaşlığı en iyi şekilde anlayabilmek için dört
boyutu irdelemek gerekmektedir: kişisel, sosyal, uzamsal ve zamansal
(Karsten v.d. 2000:131). Bu boyutlar birbirlerinden bağımsız olmayıp
birbirleriyle etkileşim İçindedirler. Bu çalışmada Yunan yurttaşlığı
bağlamında uzamsal ve zamansal boyutların kişisel ve sosyal boyutları
nasıl etkiledikleri ele alınacaktır. Bu çalışmanın Önemi karmaşık bir tarihe
sahip bir ülkede çok boyutlu yurttaşlığın yapılanmasını anlamakta
yatmaktadır. Böylece çok boyutlu yurttaşlığın yapılanmasında karmaşık
güçlerin nasıl rol aldıkları konusunda daha bilinçli olabiliriz.
Anahtar Sözcükler: Çok Boyutlu
Uzamsal ve Zamansal Boyutlar.
University ofThessaly
Yurttaşlık, Kişisel,
Sosyal,
42
María Nikolakaki
1. I n t r o d u c t i o n .
C i t i z e n s h i p is a c o m p l e x a n d m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l c o n c e p t , with l o n g
d i s p u t e s a b o u t its p r o p e r u s e ( B e c k , 1 9 9 8 ) . T h e c l a s s i c a l definition of c i t i z e n s h i p
rests o n t h e a s s e r t i o n t h a t c i t i z e n s h i p i n v o l v e s a fusion between
rights
and
obligations
(Ichilov, 1 9 9 8 ) . T h i s n e e d s c a u t i o n , b e c a u s e as A . G i d d e n s ( 2 0 0 0 :
2 4 ) s a y s : " t h e r e a r e n o rights w i t h o u t responsibilities (...) but this m u s t a p p l y to
e v e r y o n e in s o c i e t y " .
T. H. M a r s h a l l (1950) c o n c e p t u a l i s e d c i t i z e n s h i p as involving t h r e e
e l e m e n t s ; t h e civil ( w h i c h c o n c e r n s t h e right to individual f r e e d o m ) , t h e political
(which c o n c e r n s t h e right to participate in t h e e x e r c i s e of political p o w e r ) a n d
t h e s o c i a l (which is b a s e d o n t h e individual's o b l i g a t i o n to c o n t r i b u t e t a x a t i o n to
a s t a t e s y s t e m of p r o v i s i o n t h a t c a n redistribute r e s o u r c e s to c i t i z e n s w h o
c a n n o t p r o v i d e for their o w n n e e d s ) . By c i t i z e n s h i p , M a r s h a l l ( 1 9 7 3 : 70) m e a n t
"full m e m b e r s h i p of a c o m m u n i t y " , w h e r e m e m b e r s h i p entails participation by
individuals in t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e c o n d i t i o n s of t h e i r o w n a s s o c i a t i o n .
R e c e n t d e s c r i p t i o n s s u p p o r t that c i t i z e n s h i p c o n s i s t s of legal, c u l t u r a l ,
s o c i a l a n d political e l e m e n t s , a n d p r o v i d e s citizens with d e f i n e d rights a n d
o b l i g a t i o n s , a s e n s e of identity a n d s o c i a l b o n d s . But c i t i z e n s h i p d o e s not
d e p e n d solely o n legal s t a t u s ; it a l s o requires a sense
of
belonging.
C o n s e q u e n t l y w h e n referring to c i t i z e n s h i p w e n e e d to a d d r e s s t h e cultural a n d
p e r s o n a l a s p e c t s of c i t i z e n s h i p , f o c u s i n g o n i s s u e s of identity, as w e l l as
a d d r e s s i n g structural a n d political i s s u e s (Osier a n d S t a r k e y , 1 9 9 6 ) . I s s u e s of
identity c a n b e w e l l d e s c r i b e d as dispositions
and attitudes a n d t h a t is a c r u c i a l
m a t t e r in o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d t h e r e s i s t a n c e a n y c h a n g e in c i t i z e n s h i p s t a t u s
can bring.
H e a t e r (1990) c l a i m e d c i t i z e n s h i p as o n e of t h e identities t h a t t h e p e r s o n
h a s , helpful " t o t a m e t h e d i v i s i v e n e s s " of our identities, w h i c h s t e m f r o m
d i f f e r e n c e s of g e n d e r , r a c e , nationality, religion a n d c l a s s ; he s u g g e s t e d t h a t
c i t i z e n s h i p , t h o u g h not c o v e r i n g t h e other identities, o v e r l a y s t h e m . In o t h e r
words citizenship can disguise differences a n d that m a y lead to a differentiated
d e g r e e of c i t i z e n s h i p identity. T h i s is o b v i o u s l y true in t h e c a s e of multicultural
s o c i e t i e s , a l t h o u g h , e v e n in t h e m o s t h o m o g e n e o u s society, c i t i z e n s will
p o s s e s s m o r e t h a n o n e identity.
B o t t e r y (1992) c l a i m e d t h a t c i t i z e n s h i p s h o u l d b e globally o r i e n t e d , d u e to
t h e universality of m a n y c h a l l e n g e s a n d p r o b l e m s . It is w o r t h recalling t h e
f a m o u s o b s e r v a t i o n of t h e A m e r i c a n s o c i o l o g i s t D a n i e l Bell a b o u t t h e role of t h e
n a t i o n in t h e global e r a : " t h e n a t i o n s t a t e is t o o s m a l l t o s o l v e t h e big p r o b l e m s
but t o o big t o s o l v e t h e s m a l l o n e s , t o o " . A m i d d l e c o u r s e c o u l d be t h a t v a l u e s
a n d d e m a n d s of n a t i o n a l c i t i z e n s h i p s h o u l d not be d e n i e d but c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e
43
Multimenshnal Citizenship and Education: The Case Of Greece
i d e a that n o n a t i o n o p e r a t e s in isoiation f r o m o t h e r s , s o t h a t c i t i z e n s h i p m u s t
combine the national a n d the multinational dimensions.
T h e rapid g r o w t h of interest in t h e politics of environmentalism
and animal
rights h a s a d d e d a f u r t h e r d i m e n s i o n t o t h e c o n c e p t of c o m m u n i t y , effectively
c l a i m i n g c i t i z e n s h i p rights for f u t u r e g e n e r a t i o n s , n o n - h u m a n s p e c i e s a n d t h e
e a r t h itself (Wilkins, 2 0 0 0 ) . M a n y of t h e s e ' n e w social m o v e m e n t s ' a r e in
e s s e n c e " v i r t u a l c o m m u n i t i e s " , with individuals c o m m u n i c a t i n g v i a Internet,
s u c h a s t h e J 1 8 "anti-capitalist m o v e m e n t " . T h e s e c o m m u n i t i e s p r o v i d e t h e
m o s t significant c h a l l e n g e t o d a y t o t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l libera! d e m o c r a t i c n o t i o n of
c i t i z e n s h i p ( W i l k i n s , 2 0 0 0 ) , e x e m p l i n g h o w t h e national c i t i z e n s h i p a l o n e will not
b e e n o u g h t o m e e t t h e c h a l l e n g e s of t h e 2 1 c e n t u r y a s t h e w o r l d b e c o m e s
m o r e i n t e r c o n n e c t e d a n d i n t e r d e p e n d e n t a n d m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l c i t i z e n s h i p is
e s s e n t i a l in m e e t i n g t h e n e e d s of s o c i e t y .
s t
M u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l c i t i z e n s h i p c a n b e b e s t u n d e r s t o o d c o m p r i s i n g of four
e l e m e n t s : t h e p e r s o n a l , t h e s o c i a l , t h e s p a t i a l a n d t h e t e m p o r a l ( K a r s t e n et. a l
2 0 0 0 : 1 3 1 ) . T h e s e e l e m e n t s d o not o p e r a t e in isolation b u t i n t e r t w i n e a n d
influence e a c h o t h e r . In this p a p e r I will e x p l o r e h o w t h e s p a t i a l a n d t e m p o r a l
e l e m e n t s i n f l u e n c e t h e p e r s o n a l a n d t h e s o c i a l a s far a s G r e e k c i t i z e n s h i p is
c o n c e r n e d . T h e i m p o r t a n c e of this s t u d y lies in u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e c o m p l e x i t y of
t h e f o r m a t i o n of m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l c i t i z e n s h i p in a c o u n t r y with a d i s t u r b i n g
history. T h u s w e c a n g r o w m o r e a w a r e of h o w c o m p l e x p o w e r s c a n o p e r a t e in
t h e f o r m a t i o n of m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l c i t i z e n s h i p .
2. S p a t i a l A n d T e m p o r a l D i m e n s i o n s in M u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l C i t i z e n s h i p
T h e spatial a s p e c t s in m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l c i t i z e n s h i p g o w i t h o u t s a y i n g : o n e
i m p o r t a n t a n d b a s i c w a y of p e r c e i v i n g multiple identities is a c c o r d i n g t o locality.
W e all are c i t i z e n s of o u r local c o m m u n i t y , o u r r e g i o n , o u r n a t i o n s t a t e , t h e
s u p r a - n a t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n ( E U for e x a m p l e ) a n d of t h e w o r l d . A l t h o u g h a s m a n y
r e s e a r c h e s h a v e d e p i c t e d , t h e r e s e e m s t o b e a p u s h a n d pull relationship
b e t w e e n t h e n a t i o n / s t a t e a n d g l o b a l i z a t i o n , in a fully built s e n s e , w e c a n
s u p p o r t t h e i d e a t h a t all s e n s e s of b e l o n g i n g c a n c o e x i s t a n d t h a t o n e w a y of
s e n s i n g c i t i z e n s h i p d o e s n o t n e e d t o d e v a l u e other w a y s of b e l o n g i n g .
T h e q u e s t i o n t h a t a r i s e s is w h a t h a p p e n s if t h e r e is a c o n t r a d i c t i o n of
d i r e c t i o n s a n d interests b e t w e e n t h e v a r i o u s levels of spatial b a s e d c i t i z e n s h i p :
t h e r e is a c a s e w h e r e t h e r e m i g h t b e a rival b e t w e e n authorities t h a t s t e m f r o m
different levels, a n d t h e r e m i g h t a r i s e t h e n e e d of s u p p o r t for t h e identification of
the one to be enforced. O n the one hand, there s e e m s to be a trend w h e r e the
s m a l l e r t h e l e v e l , t h e e a s i e r it is f o r o n e t o c o i n c i d e a n d t h e b i g g e r possibility t o
i n f l u e n c e , a n d t h e l a r g e r t h e level, t h e possibility t o c o i n c i d e a n d t o i n t e r v e n e
44
Maria Niko la kaki
gets s m a l l e r . O n t h e other h a n d g l o b a l i s s u e s affect all a n d this fact s e e m s t o
unite p e o p l e r e g a r d l e s s of level of i n t e r v e n t i o n .
Graphl : Multiple identities according to space.
T h e t e m p o r a l a s p e c t s in m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l c i t i z e n s h i p a r e c r u c i a l as w e l l .
P e r s o n a l a n d social d i m e n s i o n s of m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l c i t i z e n s h i p a r e in s o m e w a y
historically c o n d i t i o n e d . Historically m a n y a r e a s h a d different c o n d i t i o n s ,
b a c k g r o u n d or e v e n o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s a n d t h a t is s o m e t h i n g to t a k e u n d e r
o b s e r v a t i o n w h e n e x a m i n i n g multiple identities. In t h a t s e n s e w e m u s t not b e s o
p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h the p r e s e n t t h a t w e lose t r a c k of t h e p a s t a n d t h e f u t u r e .
C i t i z e n s n e e d a rich k n o w l e d g e of their o w n a n d the w o r l d ' s history to give t h e m
t h e s e n s e of c o n n e c t e d n e s s a n d r o o t e d n e s s , a n d t h e d e p t h of u n d e r s t a n d i n g
t h a t a r e e s s e n t i a l to t h e p r a c t i c e of t h e m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l c i t i z e n s h i p . T e m p o c e n t r i s m c a n b e m i s g u i d i n g to t h a t .
Past
Present
Future
Graph 2: The axis of time.
T h e s p a t i a l a n d t e m p o r a l a s p e c t s of m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l c i t i z e n s h i p d o not
o p e r a t e in isolation but intertwine: w e c a n p o r t r a y t h e t e m p o r a l a n d spatial
dimensions as below:
Midtimensional Citizenship and Education: 'il\e Case Of Greece
45
Space
Time
Graph 3: The interconnectedness of the temporal and spatial dimensions in citizenship
M u l t i d i m e n s i o n a i c i t i z e n s h i p r e q u i r e s t h a t citizens s h o u l d b e a b l e t o live
a n d w o r k at a s e r i e s of i n t e r c o n n e c t e d levels f r o m t h e local t o t h e m u l t i n a t i o n a l .
O n e c a u s e of r e s i s t a n c e t o m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l c i t i z e n s h i p identities is t h e fact t h a t
t h e c h a n g e of d i s p o s i t i o n s c r e a t e r e s i s t a n c e a n d e s p e c i a l l y if t e m p o r a l a n d
spatial differentiations o c c u r t o s u p p o r t that. C h a n g e s o m e t i m e s d o e s n o t o c c u r
in a natural c o n d i t i o n a n d political r e a s o n s a r e p r o v e n t o b e insufficient t o
d i s p o s i t i o n a l c h a n g e . M u l t i p l e identities c a n lead t o role conflict a n d h a r d
c h o i c e s for i n d i v i d u a l s . T h u s m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l citizenship e d u c a t i o n w o u l d
require that w e p r o v i d e a d e l i b e r a t i v e a n d reflective f r a m e w o r k for s t u d e n t s t o
u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r m u l t i p l e roles a n d t o p r o v i d e t h e m with t h e skills t o c r o s s
b o u n d a r i e s , w h e t h e r t h e y a r e s p a t i a l , or t e m p o r a l , or cultural.
T h i s , at t h e m o s t b a s i c level r e q u i r e s t h a t citizenship e d u c a t i o n i n c l u d e s
w h a t H a v e n e y c a l l e d " r e s p e c t i v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s " , t h e r e c o g n i t i o n or a w a r e n e s s
o n t h e part of t h e i n d i v i d u a l that h e or s h e h a s a v i e w of t h e w o r l d that is n o t
universally s h a r e d a n d that this v i e w of t h e w o r l d h a s b e e n s h a p e d a n d
c o n t i n u e s to b e s h a p e d b y i n f l u e n c e s t h a t often e s c a p e c o n s c i o u s d e t e c t i o n a n d
t h a t o t h e r s h a v e v i e w s of t h e w o r l d t h a t a r e p r o f o u n d l y different f r o m o n e ' s o w n
( 1 9 7 6 , p.4). A t t h e m o s t a d v a n c e d level it w o u l d a s k that c i t i z e n s u n d e r s t a n d
n o w o n e or m o r e o t h e r c u l t u r e s f e e l f r o m t h e s a m e point of a n insider.
46
María Nikolakaki
3. S p a t i a l A n d T e m p o r a l D i m e n s i o n s In G r e e k C i t i z e n s h i p F o r m a t i o n
It h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d that t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e c o n c e p t of t h e n a t i o n
a n d its relation to the c o n c e p t of t h e s t a t e a c q u i r e d d i v e r s e m e a n i n g s d e p e n d i n g
o n r e g i o n a l v a r i a t i o n s , for e x a m p l e t h e m e a n i n g is b e i n g c o n c e p t u a l i z e d in
different m a n n e r s in W e s t e r n , E a s t e r n a n d S o u t h e r n E u r o p e ( D i a m a n d o u r o s ,
1 9 8 3 ) . In W e s t e r n E u r o p e , w h e r e t h e F r e n c h R e v o l u t i o n a n d t h e p r e s e n c e of a
s t r o n g civil s o c i e t y i n f l u e n c e d t h e c o n c e p t of n a t i o n a l i s m , a n e m p h a s i s o n
individual rights w a s g e n e r a l l y u n d e r s t o o d w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k of l i b e r a l i s m .
E a s t e r n E u r o p e a n n a t i o n a l i s m , is itself a p r o d u c t of t h e W e s t e r n E u r o p e a n
e x p e r i e n c e c e n t e r e d , not o n F r e n c h , but o n G e r m a n p r o t o t y p e s . In G e r m a n y t h e
c o n s t r u c t i o n of n a t i o n a l i s m h a d as a c e n t r a l e l e m e n t " t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n of t h e
c o n c e p t of 'Volk' for t h e c o n c e p t s of individual or c i t i z e n . G r e e c e r e s e m b l e s
c l o s e r to E a s t e r n E u r o p e a n n a t i o n a l i s m . In other w o r d s , G e r m a n , E a s t e r n a n d
G r e e k n a t i o n a l i s m a i m e d at p r e s e r v i n g t h e t r u t h s of t h e c u l t u r e , t h e o r g a n i c
unity of t h e p e o p l e c o n c e i v e d not as individual entities but as m e m b e r s of t h e
group (Konstantellou, 1992:64).
T h e f a c t is that G r e e k s d u r i n g 4 0 0 y e a r s of t h e O t t o m a n o c c u p a t i o n h a d
f o u n d their o w n w a y s to exist t h a t h a d not m u c h t o d o with t h e institutions of t h e
w e s t . W i t h i n t h e multiethnic O t t o m a n E m p i r e , t h e G r e e k s u b j e c t s h a d f o r g e d
institutions t h a t a l l o w e d t h e m security a n d in s o m e c a s e s e v e n p r o s p e r i t y vis a
vis t h e c e n t r a l i z e d O t t o m a n s t a t e . T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t institution w a s t h e
e x t e n d e d f a m i l y , w h i c h b e c a m e t h e c e n t r a l m e c h a n i s m that s a f e g u a r d e d t h e
interests of its m e m b e r s in their d e a l i n g s with s t a t e a u t h o r i t i e s .
T h e e x t e n d e d f a m i l y g a v e rise t o a n intricate c l i e n t a g e n e t w o r k t h a t
i n s u r e d t h e protection of f a m i l y m e m b e r s (clients) b y p o w e r f u l p a t r o n s w h o
f u n c t i o n e d as intermediaries b e t w e e n t h e f a m i l y a n d political authorities
( K o n s t a n t e l l o u , 1 9 9 2 ) . T h i s g a v e rise to a n e t h o s of p r o n o u n c e d l o c a l i s m a n d
p a r o c h i a l i s m , w h i c h c a n be f o u n d e v e n t o d a y in G r e e c e , that w a s effective to
i m p e d e n a t i o n a l integration by p l a c i n g a p r e m i u m o n p r i m o r d i a l s e n t i m e n t s , a n d
b y p r o d u c i n g f i e r c e a n d lasting local a n d r e g i o n a l a t t a c h m e n t s " ( D i a m a n d o u r o s ,
1 9 8 3 ) . It w a s this e t h o s t h a t w a s c h a l l e n g e d b y t h e s m a l l but d y n a m i c g r o u p of
w e s t e r n i z i n g G r e e k s , t h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n g r o u p , w h o a t t e m p t e d to e s t a b l i s h t h e
f o u n d a t i o n s of a w e s t e r n s t a t e .
S i n c e b e f o r e t h e R e v o l u t i o n , o n e c a n f i n d t w o interest g r o u p s in G r e e c e :
t h e t r a d i t i o n a l i s t s , (which i n c l u d e d t h e C h u r c h , t h e l a n d o w n e r s a n d t h e
P h a n a r i o t s ) a n d t h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n g r o u p . W i t h i n a c o n t e x t that e m p h a s i z e d t h e
cultural unity of t h e p e o p l e , a c c o r d i n g to t h e r o m a n t i c i s m m o v e m e n t of t h e 1 9
c e n t u r y , t h e p a s t a n d history c a r r i e d t r e m e n d o u s w e i g h t . M o r e o v e r t h e G r e e k s
f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s in a u n i q u e situation b e c a u s e of its relation to C l a s s i c a l
Antiquity a n d to t h e s u p p o r t of t h e Phil-ellinist m o v e m e n t .
l h
Midrimensional Citizenship and Education: The Case Of Greece
47
F r o m its inception G r e e c e w a s b e s e t b y a d o u b l e a n x i e t y of i n f l u e n c e . It
h a d t o p r o v e t o m o d e r n E u r o p e a n n a t i o n s t h a t it w a s w o r t h y to be part of t h e i r
c o m m u n i t y a n d at t h e s a m e t i m e t o p r o v e t o itself that it w a s w o r t h y of its
g l o r i o u s past ( J u s d a n i s , 1 9 9 1 ) . S o o n t h e o n e h a n d t h e M o d e r n i z a t i o n g r o u p
h a d its f o c u s o n h o w to E u r o p e a n i z e t h e n a t i o n , w h i l e t h e traditionalists f o c u s e d
o n h o w t o p r e s e r v e its tradition, w h i c h w a s highly i n f l u e n c e d by e a s t e r n c u l t u r e .
Historically G r e e k n a t i o n a l identity h a s b e e n r o o t e d in different a r e a s . O n
t h e o n e h a n d t h e r e is t h e c l a i m that t h e W e s t h a d b e e n c r e a t e d o n t h e v a l u e
b a s i s of t h e A n c i e n t G r e e c e . T h i s c l a i m t h a t A n c i e n t G r e e c e is t h e birth c o u n t r y
of t h e w e s t e r n civilization w a s a r e a s o n for n a t i o n a l pride a n d a d r a w b a c k f o r
significant c h a n g e s . A t t h e s a m e t i m e G r e e c e w a s a l w a y s c l o s e culturally t o t h e
E a s t a n d t h e B a l k a n s (note for e x a m p l e religion, m u s i c , f o o d , v a l u e s etc.). T h e
f a c t is t h a t G r e e c e w a s n e v e r East, n o r W e s t , b u t i n c l u d e d f e a t u r e s of East a n d
W e s t together.
A l t h o u g h with t h e r e v o l u t i o n a n d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e M o d e r n G r e e k
s t a t e it s e e m e d t h a t t h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n g r o u p h a d victory to r e c o r d , it s e e m e d a
" b u r n i n g " victory. A s N. M o u z e l i s h a s r e m a r k e d , if t h e y h a d s u c c e e d e d in
i m p o s i n g a W e s t e r n f o r m of g o v e r n m e n t , t h e y w e r e less s u c c e s s f u l in m a k i n g it
f u n c t i o n in t h e s a m e w a y a s in t h e W e s t , s i n c e it d i d not t a k e t h e traditionalists
l o n g t o infiltrate t h e e x p a n d i n g S t a t e a p p a r a t u s a n d t o g e a r t h e w h o l e political
s y s t e m t o t h e s a f e g u a r d i n g a n d p r o m o t i o n of t h e i r interests.
4 . C i t i z e n s h i p E d u c a t i o n in G r e e k S c h o o l s
T h e v i e w of c i t i z e n s h i p t a u g h t in t h e s c h o o l s h a s often b e e n u n d u l y
p a s s i v e a n d c o n f o r m i s t a n d it h a s d i s c r i m i n a t e d a g a i n s t girls a n d minorities
s t u d e n t s ( A n y o n 1 9 8 0 , Crick & Porter 1 9 7 8 , Kertis et a l . 1 9 9 2 ) . it h a s often
r e f l e c t e d t h e interests of t h o s e in p o w e r in a particular s o c i e t y a n d t h u s h a s
b e e n a m e a s u r e of indoctrination a n d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of ideological
h e g e m o n y rather t h a n of e d u c a t i o n ( A p p l e 1 9 9 9 , B o u r d i e u a n d P a s s e r o n , 1 9 7 7 ,
Snyders, 1976, Popkewitz, 2000).
S c h o o l s of n a t i o n / s t a t e s w e r e i n t e n d e d t o g i v e t h e y o u n g citizens a s e n s e
of identity a n d o f t e n of n a t i o n a l p r i d e a n d t o t e a c h t h e m t h e rights a n d duties of
c i t i z e n s h i p a s officially d e f i n e d . In o r d e r for t h e citizens of t h e nation/state t o
protect its territories t h e "fear of t h e e n e m y " w a s i n v e n t e d ( C o u l b y & J o n e s ,
2 0 0 1 ) . In G r e e c e t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e " e n e m y " p r e s e n t e d t h r o u g h e d u c a t i o n
is a p h e n o m e n o n with n o t i c e a b l e c h a n g e s , w h i c h w a s a p r o d u c t of historical
c i r c u m s t a n c e s . D u r i n g t h e 1 9 c e n t u r y t h e A l b a n i a n s w e r e t h o u g h t t o be a r a c e
similar t o t h e G r e e k s , s i n c e t h e y b o t h w e r e g e n e r a t e d f r o m t h e a n c i e n t race of
lllirious, a n d t h e f a c t w a s p o r t r a y e d in t h e t e x t b o o k s of t h e t i m e . After t h e loss of
t h
48
María Nikoiakaki
t h e territories of N o r t h Ipiros t h e r e is n o m o r e m e n t i o n of that. T h e fact of
p o r t r a y i n g t h e "other" t h o u g h historical c i r c u m s t a n c e s
c a n be o b s e r v e d w i t h
r e f e r e n c e to t h e A r a b s , t h e B u l g a r i a n s , t h e R u s s i a n s , t h e T u r k s or t h e
Yugoslavians.
A s far as C i t i z e n s h i p E d u c a t i o n in t h e G r e e k E d u c a t i o n a l S y s t e m is
c o n c e r n e d , t h e r e w e r e t w o p r o p o s a l s for its a p p r o a c h , t h e
'Greek-Christian',
traditional a n d t h e Modern-Individual
rights, w h i c h a r e reflections of t h e t w o
b a s i c ideologies in t h e c o u n t r y ' s s o c i a l a n d political f i e l d . In t h e political a n d t h e
c i t i z e n s h i p f i e l d , t h e dissimilarity is f o u n d in t h e relation of t h e law to t h e h u m a n
factor. It is a b o u t t h e ' i n d i v i d u a l i s m ' of t h e G r e e k citizen a n d his/her p r o b l e m a t i c
relationship t o w a r d s t h e S t a t e , d u e to this fact. T h i s particular c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of
t h e G r e e k citizen is c o n s i d e r e d , by b o t h t h e p r o p o s a l s , to b e a m a j o r p r o b l e m in
G r e e k society a n d t h e m a i n c a u s e of t h e a b o v e dissimilarity.
T h e ' G r e e k - C h r i s t i a n ' (traditional) v e r s i o n is a n a m a l g a m of t h e m o d e r n
religiosity a n d t h e r e v e r e n c e a n d m o r a l i t y in w h i c h it e n d s . It p r e s e n t s a priority
to t h e collective, w h i c h identifies w i t h t h e a u t h o r i t a t i v e S t a t e , w h o s e d e m a n d s
a r e in c o m p l e t e h a r m o n y with t h e a b o v e m o r a l c o m m a n d s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
t h e ' m o d e r n i s t - i n d i v i d u a l rights' v e r s i o n Is a p u r e v e r s i o n of E n l i g h t e n m e n t ' s
t h e o r y a b o u t n a t u r e , w h i c h , h a v i n g i n d i v i d u a l - c e n t r i s m as t h e starting point,
a i m s at t h e beneficial individual-centric c o v e r i n g of t h e p e r s o n a l n e e d s .
M o d e r n i s m w a s c o n n e c t e d w i t h a s y s t e m of S t a t e i n t e r v e n t i o n ( m i x e d
e c o n o m y ) . T h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n g r o u p , highly i n f l u e n c e d by t h e w e s t t r a d i t i o n d i d
not s u c c e e d in o v e r c o m i n g t h e o b s t a c l e s c o m i n g f r o m t h e G r e e k - C h r i s t i a n
tradition.
Future
M o d e r n izers
East
West
T r a d i t i o n a l elite
Past
Graph 4: The configuration ol the trends in Greek citizenship identity.
49
Multimensional Citizenship and Education: The Case Of Greece
T h e r e f o r e , t h e t w o 'conflicting' p r o p o s a l s f o c u s t h e political incident o n t h e
S t a t e ' s m e c h a n i s m , b e c a u s e , for t h e traditionalists it is a n e x p r e s s i o n of t h e
n a t i o n (idealism) a c c o r d i n g to p l a c e a n d t i m e , w h e r e a s , for t h e m o d e r n i s t s it is
t h e n e c e s s a r y distributive m e c h a n i s m . T h e m a i n c o n s e q u e n c e of t h e a b o v e ,
c o m m o n for b o t h t h e p r o p o s a l s , is t h e distinction of t h e a x i s rights-duties t o t h e
b a s i c political a x i s , a s f a r a s C i t i z e n s h i p E d u c a t i o n is c o n c e r n e d ( Z e i d a s , 2 0 0 1 ) .
A s a result, w e h a v e t h e u n - b r i d g e d conflict b e t w e e n t h e individual a n d
t h e s o c i a l / c o l l e c t i v e , w h i c h is p r e s e n t e d in C i t i z e n s h i p e d u c a t i o n in G r e e c e ,
w h i c h is o b v i o u s f r o m t h e o n e - s i d e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e n o r m s t h a t a r e
p r e s e n t e d o n t h e s u r f a c e ( d i s a p p e a r a n c e of i n d i v i d u a l t h r o u g h c o l l e c t i v i s m o n
t h e o n e h a n d ( c o n s e r v a t i v e g r o u p ) a n d c o m p l e t e distribution t h r o u g h l i b e r a l i s m
o n t h e o t h e r , ( m o d e r n i z a t i o n g r o u p ) . T h e result of t h e conflict of t h e a b o v e
t r a d i t i o n s r e m a i n s t h e individual-centric position of t h e h u m a n rights, w h i c h w a s
e s t a b l i s h e d historically in t h e G r e e k n a t i o n , either it refers to t h e n a t u r e t h e o r y of
t h e m o d e r n v e r s i o n , o r to t h e p o t e n t i a l - m o r a l v e r s i o n of t h e ' t r a d i t i o n a l ' p r o p o s a l .
A n d t h i s , b e y o n d a n y p r o g r e s s m a d e in G r e e k s o c i e t y c o n t i n u e s t o c o n s i s t a
problem.
5. R e c e n t t r e n d s in C i t i z e n s h i p e d u c a t i o n
In late m o d e r n i t y , liberal/social d e m o c r a c i e s require critically a w a r e
citizens in o r d e r to o p e r a t e effectively, a n d this n e e d for a s o p h i s t i c a t e d ,
politically literate c i t i z e n r y is c o m p l e m e n t e d by t h e skills a n d o u t l o o k
e n c o u r a g e d by a n e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m in w h i c h s t u d e n t s a r e t a u g h t to q u e s t i o n
rather t h a n to o b e y , e x p e r i m e n t rather t h a n learn b y rote (Heater, 1 9 9 0 : 1 0 4 ) .
H o w e v e r t h e critical citizen a l s o c r e a t e s a potential threat for a political
e s t a b l i s h m e n t d r i v e n b y a d e s i r e to m a i n t a i n stability a n d a grip o n p o w e r
(Wilkins, 2 0 0 0 : 1 7 ) .
A n o t h e r c o n c e r n of C i t i z e n s h i p E d u c a t i o n in late m o d e r n i t y is to e m b o d y
d i f f e r e n c e . T o d a y t h e s c h o o l ' s m i s s i o n of cultural h o m o g e n i s a t i o n f o r t h e n a t i o n
is b e i n g t r a n s f o r m e d . In A . N o v o a ' s w o r d s ( 2 0 0 0 : 3 4 ) , " t o d a y w e a r e c o n f r o n t e d
w i t h a n e x p l o s i o n of t r a d i t i o n a l identities a n d w i t h a n effort to r e d i s c o v e r or
rather to r e i n v e n t n e w identities".
T h e b a s i c c o n c e p t of t h e citizen of t h e n a t i o n
s t a t e h a s to be e n r i c h e d to include multiethnic, multiracial a n d multicultural
dimensions. Many countries that are seeking to redefine citizenship education
f o r t h e n e w d e m o c r a t i c s t a t e a r e t a k i n g this d e l i c a t e situation s e r i o u s l y . O s i e r
( 1 9 9 5 : 5) a r g u e s t h a t
st
An appropriate education for the 21 century is one that
encourages the development of an inclusive than an exclusive
understanding of national identity and citizenship. This revitalized view of
50
Maria Nikolakaki
education
would promote an understanding
of the rights and
responsibilities of democratic citizenship not dependent on ethnic affiliation
or identification, but recognizing and supporting diversity both within and
between societies. This view for active, participative citizenship might
therefore acknowledge diversity, interdependence and differences in
perception, and might approach areas of study from a variety of cultural
perspectives, encouraging students to recognize shared values.
C i t i z e n s h i p c o n s t r u c t i o n is d y n a m i c , reflective a n d a c c e p t a b l e to c h a n g e s .
T o d a y G r e e c e is c o n f r o n t e d w i t h m a j o r n a t i o n a l identity c h a n g e s , t h e m o s t
significant of w h i c h a r e d u e t o t h e E u r o p e a n U n i o n a n d g l o b a l i z a t i o n . D u r i n g t h e
last t w e n t y y e a r s , m o r e t h a n 1 0 % of t h e s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n is n o n - G r e e k a n d
t h a t is a responsibility t h e e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m h a s t o o v e r t a k e . T h e latest
e n l a r g e m e n t of t h e E u r o p e a n U n i o n c r e a t e s a n e w c h a l l e n g i n g c o n t e x t for
Greece.
E d u c a t i o n a l reforms in G r e e c e h a v e b e e n v e r y w e l l d e s c r i b e d a s " t h e
r e f o r m t h a t n e v e r w a s " ( D i m a r a s , 1 9 9 5 ) . Efforts t h a t h a v e b e e n m a d e t o
i m p r o v e f e a t u r e s of t h e e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m a r e b e e n c o n s t a n t l y s t o p p e d a n d
t h e p e n d u l u m s w i n g s b a c k t o t h e p r e v i o u s p o s i t i o n . T h i s is v e r y m u c h t r u e for
c i t i z e n s h i p e d u c a t i o n in G r e e k p r i m a r y s c h o o l s . But s i n c e c i t i z e n s h i p identity is
d y n a m i c , c i t i z e n s h i p e d u c a t i o n n e e d s f r e q u e n t l y u p d a t i n g , in order t o include
recent c h a n g e s .
D u e t o t h e highly c e n t r a l i z e d e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m in G r e e c e , the c o n t e n t
t a u g h t in G r e e k s c h o o l s t o d a y w a s w r i t t e n m o r e t h a n t w e n t y y e a r s a g o .
Inevitably t h e r e is no r e f e r e n c e t o m u l t i c u l t u r a l i s m , g l o b a l i z a t i o n or i m m i g r a n t s .
T h e last c u r r i c u l u m r e f o r m , w h i c h will b e i m p l e m e n t e d b y 2 0 0 6 , is p r o v e n to b e
narrow to global trends. Citizenship education curriculum reform a n d the
m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l a s p e c t n e e d e n f o r c e m e n t . A different reflective o u t l o o k t o
c u r r i c u l u m r e f o r m n e e d s to b e e n a c t e d .
6. C o n c l u s i o n s
C i t i z e n s h i p e d u c a t i o n entails t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e civic k n o w l e d g e
( c o g n i t i v e a s p e c t ) , skills ( b e h a v i o u r a l a s p e c t ) a n d d i s p o s i t i o n s ( n o r m a t i v e
a s p e c t ) n e c e s s a r y for m a k i n g i n f o r m e d d e c i s i o n s a b o u t a n d e x e r c i s i n g
responsibilities a n d rights in a d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t y . E d u c a t i n g citizens for a
d e m o c r a c y effectively m e a n s that citizens will b e a c t i v e l y i n v o l v e d in t h e public
s p h e r e , a n d t h e y will n o t a c c e p t p a s s i v e l y t h e d i c t a of o t h e r s or a c q u i e s c e t o t h e
d e m a n d s of o t h e r s ( W h i t e , 1 9 9 6 ) .
C i t i z e n s h i p of c o u r s e is n o t a n e w c o n c e p t . O n e of t h e b a s i c f u n c t i o n s of
s c h o o l i n g is t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e d e s i r e d c i t i z e n . B u t c i t i z e n s h i p e d u c a t i o n in
51
Multimensional Citizenship and Education: Tiie Case Of Greece
G r e e c e h a s b e e n u n n e c e s s a r i l y n a r r o w , e m p h a s i z i n g national priorities a n d
n e g l e c t i n g t h e m u l t i n a t i o n a l . It h a s b e e n c o n f i n e d t o f o r m a l instruction r a t h e r
t h a n b e e n i n f u s e d at s c h o o l i n g a s a w h o l e , t a k i n g t o o p a s s i v e a v i e w of w h a t
c i t i z e n s h i p entails. I n s t e a d , in o r d e r t o m e e t t h e c h a l l e n g e s of t h e 2 1 ' century
(social a n d e c o n o m i c i n e q u a l i t i e s , e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e t e r i o r a t i o n , u n e q u a l a c c e s s
to i n f o r m a t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s , r e d u c e d p r i v a c y , t h r e a t e n e d p e a c e a n d s e c u r i t y ) a
m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l c i t i z e n s h i p is n e e d e d . C i t i z e n s h i p is m o r e a b o u t d i s p o s i t i o n s
a n d attitudes t h a n it is a b o u t skills a n d k n o w l e d g e a n d that is s o m e t h i n g
e d u c a t i o n h a s t o t a k e into c o n s i d e r a t i o n
s
T h e p r o b l e m a s it a p p e a r s is " w h a t is t h e profile of t h e p r e s e n t G r e e k
c i t i z e n ? " W h i c h a r e his c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ? H a s h e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e
w e s t e r n E u r o p e a n or t h e E a s t e r n ? D o e s h e a c t a c c o r d i n g to t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n
i d i o s y n c r a s y or a c c o r d i n g t o t h e B a l k a n ? T h e a n s w e r to all t h e s e h a s n o t b e e n
c o m p l e t e l y clarified. N o w a d a y s , w h e n w e refer t o a G r e e k citizen, of c o u r s e , w e
d o not m e a n t h e o n e w h o is G r e e k in o r i g i n . A G r e e k citizen is t h e o n e w h o is
i n f l u e n c e d in his e v e r y d a y life by t h e political, cultural a n d e c o n o m i c a l activities,
w h i c h o c c u r in G r e e c e , in t h e E U , a s in t h e w o r l d . A t t i t u d e s , identities,
d i s p o s i t i o n s a r e w e l l r o o t e d in t i m e a n d s p a c e a n d t h e r e f o r e c h a n g e in political
s t a t u s d o e s not c o n s e q u e n t l y l e a d to c h a n g e in citizenship identity. T h i s
r e c o g n i t i o n is e s s e n t i a l if w e a r e t o d e a l w i t h p r o b l e m s in d e p t h . B u t e d u c a t i n g
for c i t i z e n s h i p t o d a y i n v o l v e s t e a c h i n g t h i n k i n g for oneself w h i l e at t h e s a m e
t i m e listening t o a n d r e s p e c t i n g t h e v i e w p o i n t s of other p e o p l e in o r d e r t o
b e c o m e p e r s o n a l l y e n g a g e d w i t h t h e p r o b l e m s a n d issues that c o n f r o n t o n e ' s
society. A n d G r e e c e of t o d a y with t h e multicultural d i m e n s i o n s it f a c e s h a s t o
d e a l with t h e s e i s s u e s .
S o m e a c a d e m i c s s p e a k of d e l i b e r a t i v e c i t i z e n s h i p
e d u c a t i o n a r g u i n g t h a t c i t i z e n s m u s t b e e d u c a t e d t o b e able t o think, reflect,
d i s c u s s , a n d to a c t in w a y s t h a t a r e rational, r e a s o n a b l e a n d ethically d e f e n s i b l e
( C o h e n 1 9 8 9 , M a t h e w s , 1 9 9 6 , Miller, 1 9 9 3 )
T h e q u e s t i o n t o b e a s k e d a n d t h e starting point of a n y r e f o r m s h o u l d b e
w h a t k i n d of c i t i z e n s h i p is e n v i s a g e d . T h e s e c o n d q u e s t i o n is w h a t kind of
c i t i z e n s h i p w e p o s s e s s . A n d t h e s e c o n d q u e s t i o n involves a n a l y z i n g a n d
including t h e g l o b a l c o n d i t i o n . W e h a v e t o a s k w h e r e w e a r e a n d w h e r e a r e w e
g o i n g t o . T e m p o r a l a n d s p a t i a l e l e m e n t s of c i t i z e n s h i p a r e to b e i n c l u d e d , s i n c e
t h e y affect b o t h t h e p e r s o n a l a n d t h e s o c i a l a s p e c t s of c i t i z e n s h i p identity.
7. S o m e A f t e r t h o u g h t s
W h e n T u r k e y b e c o m e s full m e m b e r of t h e E . U . n e w o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r
G r e e k s a n d T u r k s a r e t o b e o p e n : historical m e m o r i e s p e r s u a d e u s of t h e
possibility of h a r m o n i c c o - e x i s t e n c e of t h e t w o n a t i o n s . C i t i z e n s h i p e d u c a t i o n for
t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of t h e d e s i r e d citizen of b o t h n a t i o n / s t a t e s h a s t e n d e d t o c r e a t e
52
Maria Nikolakaki
t h e " f e a r of t h e e n e m y " of t h e "Other". T h e f a c t r e m a i n s t h a t dispositions a n d
attitudes a r e rooted in t i m e a n d s p a c e , a n d i n f o r m a t i o n b a s e d k n o w l e d g e a r e
s u s c e p t i b l e of c h a n g e . S o , in t h i s r e g a r d b o t h c o u n t r i e s h a v e to c o n t r i b u t e
m u t u a l l y to t h e alteration of information of t h e " O t h e r " t h a t is d e l i v e r e d t h r o u g h
e d u c a t i o n . O n t h e other h a n d b o t h t i m e a n d s p a c e m e m o r i e s will c o n t r i b u t e t o
t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of a d e e p a n d s i n c e r e r e l a t i o n s h i p . T h e r e are m o r e
c o m m o n a l i t i e s t h a n dissimilarities in this c o n t e x t a n d t h a t is s o m e t h i n g m o s t of
us s h a r e a n d b e l i e v e .
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