2014-2015 LAUSD INTERIM ASSESSMENTS – ELEMENTARY LITERACY – GRADE 3 OVERVIEW & ADMINISTRATION GUIDE Interim Assessment #1 – Narrative – Grade 3 The design of this assessment is intended to support students in developing college and career readiness. A key goal is that we support students in demonstrating collaboration skills as well as independence in the literacy competencies of reading, writing, speaking and listening, and language. “Students can, without significant scaffolding, comprehend and evaluate complex texts across a range of types and disciplines… convey intricate or multifaceted information… independently discern a speaker’s key points, build on others’ ideas as well as articulate their own, and confirm they have been understood.” - from CCSS Introduction This grade 3 interim assessment performance task is based on a text and images about making jam from cactus fruit. It consists of: § § § § Reading passage and support images Selected-response questions addressing the Reading and Speaking & Listening Standards below A graphic organizer to support students in identifying the elements of narrative contained in the source text and images. A constructed-response writing prompt addressing the Writing and Language Standards evaluated in the rubric. Teachers are encouraged to allow students the time that they need to read closely. Students will require multiple individual and partner readings to get the gist, examine text and images collaboratively, answer the questions, and identify the elements of narrative for the graphic organizer. (Additional reading scaffolds may be used to assist students in accessing the meaning of the text. Keep in mind that this assessment design was created to help students move toward accessing texts independently. Use professional judgment,) Students will need 3 to 5 sessions to complete the assessment process.. Questions: Student responses to questions are not graded; the question-answer process is intended to help students to work collaboratively to fully understand the information contained in the texts, as well as gather the building blocks of narrative in order for them to independently write their own piece. The questions align to the Reading and Listening & Speaking Standards listed below. Common Core Reading and Speaking & Listening Standards Engaged in Assessment Process Common Core Text Complexity Grade Band: 2nd- 3rd RI 1 Ask and answer questions to demonstrate understanding of a text, referring explicitly to the text as the basis for the answers. RI 2 Determine the main idea of a text; recount the key details and explain how they support the main idea. RI 3 Describe the relationship between a series of historical events, scientific ideas or concepts, or steps in technical procedures in a text, using language that pertains to time, sequence, and cause/effect. Determine the meaning of general academic and domain-specific words and phrases in a text relevant to a grade 3 topic or subject area. Use information gained from illustrations (e.g., maps, photographs) and the words in a text to demonstrate understanding of the text (e.g., where, when, why, and how key events occur). Describe the logical connection between particular sentences and paragraphs in a text (e.g., comparison, cause/effect, first/second/third in a sequence). Come to discussions prepared, having read or studied required material; explicitly draw on that preparation and other information known about the topic to explore ideas under discussion. Follow agreed-upon rules for discussions Ask questions to check understanding of information presented, stay on topic, and link their comments to the remarks of others. Explain their own ideas and understanding in light of the discussion. RI 4 RI 7 RI 8 SL 1a SL 1b SL 1c SL 1d Writing: The writing task is to be completed by each student independently. Students may use any notes generated in the partner/small group discussion. The writing is evaluated using the rubric. Common Core Writing and Language Standards Scored/Evaluated using Assessment Rubric W3 Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, descriptive details, and clear event sequences. Common Core Language Standards Evaluated using Rubric: L 1d, L 1e, L 1i, L 2a, L 2b, L 2c, L 2d, L 2f, L 3a, L 6 LAUSD Interim Literacy Assessment #1 – NARRATIVE – Grade 3 Adapted from “In Common-Effective Writing for All Students” achievethecore.org Rev. 09-15-15 1 2014-2015 LAUSD INTERIM ASSESSMENTS – ELEMENTARY LITERACY – GRADE 3 TEACHER OVERVIEW & ADMINISTRATION GUIDE: o o o o o Teacher administration instructions “Cactus Jam” text and photo images (black & white) Teacher may project or print color images for greater detail. Questions and Writing Task Graphic Organizer (Sourcing Narrative Elements) Rubric reflecting CCSS grade level standards for Writing and Language STUDENT PAGES: o o o o “Cactus Jam” text and photo images (black & white) Teacher may project or print color images for greater detail. Questions Graphic Organizer (Sourcing Narrative Elements) Writing Prompt and Task Checklist ADMINISTRATION This assessment can be administered in 3-5 sessions with third grade students. See below for a suggested session breakdown. READING: Reading Standards (Reading scaffolds may be used to assist students in accessing the meaning of the text. Keep in mind that this assessment design was created to help students move toward accessing texts independently.) 1) You will be writing a NARRATIVE after reading, examining photographs, answering questions, and discussing an article entitled “Cactus Jam”. 2) First read the article to begin to get a general understanding of the text. READING AND ANSWERING QUESTIONS Reading and Speaking & Listening Standards STUDENTS IN PAIRS/SMALL GROUPS REREAD AND RESPOND TO QUESTIONS With your partner(s), reread the text, “Cactus Jam.” 3) After reading, work with a partner and/or small group to answer the questions. You will need to provide evidence from the text in answering the questions. PLANNING FOR WRITING: STUDENTS PLAN WRITING IN PAIRS/SMALL GROUPS Speaking & Listening Standards 5) Using what you have learned from reading the article, and from discussing and answering the questions about “Cactus Jam”, you are going to complete a graphic organizer, and then write a narrative story. 6) First, with your partner(s), use the Narrative Brainstorming Chart graphic organizer to begin to find narrative elements that you might use in your narrative. Use the graphic organizer to record your responses. Imagine you are visiting a member of the Tohono O’odham tribe in the Arizona desert. Write a story about the day you helped make jam from the fruits of the saguaro. You must use information from the passage in your story, but you may also make up some details. LAUSD Interim Literacy Assessment #1 – NARRATIVE – Grade 3 Adapted from “In Common-Effective Writing for All Students” achievethecore.org Rev. 09-15-15 2 2014-2015 LAUSD INTERIM ASSESSMENTS – ELEMENTARY LITERACY – GRADE 3 7) Before writing your narrative, think about the things you learned about making cactus jam. Refer to the graphic organizer you completed with your partner(s). What events will you write about – and in what order? What details can you include, to describe the characters’ actions, thoughts, and feelings? What might the characters be saying? What temporal words will you use to tell the order in which the events happen? What would be a good ending for your narrative? Share your ideas with your partner. 8) Now decide what you’re going to write about. Refer back to the text and your notes while you work with a partner. ❑ Talk with your partner, and share what you are going to include in your narrative, based on what you learned after reading the article, discussing the questions, and brainstorming. ❑ Talk with your partner about the events you’re going to write about, and the order in which they happen. ❑ What details can you add, to describe the characters’ actions, thoughts, and feelings? ❑ What temporal words will you use to tell the order in which the events happen? ❑ How are you going to conclude your narrative? DRAFTING INDEPENDENTLY AFTER DISCUSSION [Est. 30-55 min] Writing & Language Standards 2 The goal is to capture students’ authentic expression. Please avoid use of cloze sentences/sentence frames and simply listing facts from the text. 9) You’re going to write your narrative now – independently. Let’s look at the instructions. [Orient students to prompt-checklist.] Directions: Using what you have learned from reading the “Cactus Jam” text, discussing the questions and brainstorming, you are going to write a narrative story. You can use any notes you created when working with your partner(s). Imagine you are visiting a member of the Tohono O’odham tribe in the Arizona desert. Write a story about the day you helped make jam from the fruits of the saguaro. Use information from the passage in your story, but you may make up details also. You are going to: q q q q Write about the events happening as you helped make jam from the saguaro fruit. Add details to describe the characters’ actions, thoughts and feelings. Use temporal words to tell the order in which the events happen. Conclude your narrative with a good ending. 10) Now, independently draft your narrative. [As students are writing, walk around and make notes on how students are able to write their narrative.] PROOFREADING– [10-15 min] Take students through the prompt-checklist to make sure they’ve done what prompt is asking, and they proofread for conventions (grammar, spelling, capitalization, punctuation). LAUSD Interim Literacy Assessment #1 – NARRATIVE – Grade 3 Adapted from “In Common-Effective Writing for All Students” achievethecore.org Rev. 09-15-15 3 2014-2015 LAUSD INTERIM ASSESSMENTS – ELEMENTARY LITERACY – GRADE 3 Cactus Jam by Ruth J. Luhrs 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Once a year, the Tohono O’odham Indians make jam from cactus fruit. The Tohono O’odham live in the Arizona desert, where the giant saguaro cactus grows. In July, when the fruit is ripe, it splits open to show its bright red insides. Everyone gets ready to help make the jam. Young women use long poles to knock the fruit down. A saguaro can be up to sixty feet tall, and its fruit grows at the top of the cactus and at the ends of its big arms. Children try to catch the fruit in baskets as it falls. Plop, plop! The juicy red fruit is the same size and shape as a hen’s egg. It is full of tiny black seeds. While the young women and children gather the fruit, the men make a camp. They build a shelter to protect everyone from the hot sun. Then they gather wood and light the fires. The children bring their baskets of fruit to the shelter. There, the older women scrape the fruit out of its peel and put it into big cooking pots. They cook it over the fire for a long time. Then they pour the juice through a wire strainer to take out the seeds. Now, the juice must be cooked some more. When it is thick and sweet, the women pour it into clay jars to cool. Finally the jam is ready, and it’s time to feast. The people dance and sing. Children spread the cactus jam on bread and eat all they can hold. Reprinted by permission of LADYBUG magazine, February 2000, Vol. 10, No. 6, text copyright, © 2000 by Ruth J. Luhrs ANSWERS TO TEXT QUESTIONS 1. How often do the Tohono O’odham make jam from the cactus fruit? Circle your response Evidence from the text or paragraph # A. B. C. D. Once every month. One time every week. Once a day. One time a year. Once a year, the Tohono O’odham Indians make jam from cactus fruit. ¶1 LAUSD Interim Literacy Assessment #1 – NARRATIVE – Grade 3 Adapted from “In Common-Effective Writing for All Students” achievethecore.org Rev. 09-15-15 4 2014-2015 LAUSD INTERIM ASSESSMENTS – ELEMENTARY LITERACY – GRADE 3 2. The passage shows that the process of making jam requires different tools. Each tool has a special purpose in the process. Next to the name of each tool below, write the correct letter from the list of the Purposes that matches the tool. Each tool should have only one purpose, and not all possible purposes will be used. Go back into the text to confirm your answers. Tool Place Correct Letter List of Possible Purposes a. Takes the peel off Pole f b. Protects from the sun Basket e c. Stores the jam Scraper a d. Takes out seeds e. Catches the fruit Cooking pot g f. Knocks the fruit down Wire strainer d g. Holds the fruit as it heats over the fire Clay jar c h. Stirs the fruit 3. This question has two parts. First answer Part A and then answer Part B. Part A: Why are long poles used when gathering fruit from the cactus plants? Circle your response Evidence from the text or paragraph # A. to avoid getting too near the tall cactus plants where the giant saguaro cactus grows. ¶ 1 B. to be able to reach the fruit high in the air C. to keep the children safe as they receive the fruit Young women use long poles to knock the fruit down. A D. to stay out of the way of the fruit when it drops down saguaro can be up to sixty feet tall, and its fruit grows at the top of the cactus and at the ends of its big arms. ¶3 Part B: Which sentence from the passage tells the best reason for the correct answer in Part A? Circle your response Evidence from the text or paragraph # A. “The Tohono O’odham live in the Arizona desert, where the giant saguaro cactus grows.” B. “Everyone gets ready to help make the jam.” ¶3 C. “A saguaro can be up to sixty feet tall, and its fruit grows at the top of the cactus and at the ends of its big arms.” D. “Children try to catch the fruit in baskets as it falls.” 4. The following question has two parts. Answer Part A and then answer Part B. Part A: What are the four steps for making jam? Write each step # in the correct box to show the order of the steps for making jam. The fruits are scraped out The fruits are knocked of their peel and down from the cactus. cooked. Step 1 Step 2 The juice is cooked until it The juice is poured gets thick. through a strainer. Step 4 Step 3 Part B: What has to happen before Step 1 can start? A. The children have to take their baskets of fruit to the shelter. B. The fruit has to ripen and split open. C. The women have to take the seeds out of the fruit. D. The men have to build the fires for cooking. In July, when the fruit is ripe, it splits open to show its bright red insides. Everyone gets ready to help make the jam. ¶ 2 LAUSD Interim Literacy Assessment #1 – NARRATIVE – Grade 3 Adapted from “In Common-Effective Writing for All Students” achievethecore.org Rev. 09-15-15 5 2014-2015 LAUSD INTERIM ASSESSMENTS – ELEMENTARY LITERACY – GRADE 3 5. What details in photograph #3 help the reader understand what must be done first before making jam? Circle your response Evidence from the text or paragraph # A. The photograph shows that jam made from these fruits will be naturally sweet in flavor. B. The photograph shows that the size of the fruits makes gathering them fun to do. C. The photograph shows that gathering fruits is difficult because the fruits are stuck tightly to the plant. D. The photograph shows that the fruits must be peeled because they have cactus spines on them. Image # 3 has cactus spines. This shows that the fruits skin would not be best to eat. 6. The following question ha two parts. Answer Part A and then answer Part B. Part A: What is one of the main ideas in the passage? Circle your response Evidence from the text or paragraph # Young women use long poles to knock the fruit down. ¶ 3 A. Groups of Tohono O’odham make jam by Children try to catch the fruit in baskets as it falls. ¶ 4 doing different jobs and working together. While the young women and children gather the fruit, the men B. The Tohono O’odham make food from make a camp. They build a shelter to protect everyone from different plants they find in the desert. the hot sun. Then they gather wood and light the fires. ¶ 5 C. Groups of Tohono O’odham enjoy working The children bring their baskets of fruit to the shelter. There, outside in the summer. D. The Tohono O’odham enjoy having a special the older women scrape the fruit out of its peel and put it into big cooking pots. They cook it over the fire for a long time. sweet treat at the end of a busy day. Then they pour the juice through a wire strainer to take out the seeds. ¶ 6 Part B: Which three details from the passage best support the main idea in Part A? Circle your response Evidence from the text or paragraph # A. The Tohono O’odham live in the Arizona desert. B. The saguaro fruit grows at the top of the cactus and at the ends of its arms. C. The young women and children gather the fruit from the cactus plants. D. The men make a shelter and build fires for cooking. E. The older women scrape the fruit out of its peel, cook it, and strain it. F. The more it cooks, the thicker and sweeter the jam gets. G. When the jam is ready, children spread it on bread and eat all they can. See evidence from Part A. LAUSD Interim Literacy Assessment #1 – NARRATIVE – Grade 3 Adapted from “In Common-Effective Writing for All Students” achievethecore.org Rev. 09-15-15 6 2014-2015 LAUSD INTERIM ASSESSMENTS – ELEMENTARY LITERACY – GRADE 3 7. In the month of July, in Arizona, the Tohono O’odham make jam from the cactus fruit. How do you think the Tohono O’odham feel about this event? Respond below using evidence from the text. Answers may vary. I think the Tohono O’odham enjoy this event because… Possible Evidence from the text • Everyone gets ready to help make the jam. ¶ 2 • Children try to catch the fruit in baskets as it falls. Plop, plop! ¶ 4 • Finally the jam is ready, and it’s time to feast. The people dance and sing. Children spread the cactus jam on bread and eat all they can hold. ¶ 8 Additional resources for assessment and CCSS implementation Shift 1 – Complexity: Regular practice with complex text and its academic language • See Appendix B for examples of informational and literary complex texts http://www.corestandards.org/assets/Appendix_B.pdf • See the Text Complexity Collection on www.achievethecore.org Shift 2 – Evidence: Reading, writing, and speaking grounded in evidence from text, both literary and informational • See Close Reading Exemplars for ways to engage students in close reading on http://www.achievethecore.org/stealthese-tools/close-reading-exemplars • See the Basal Alignment Project for examples of text-dependent questions http://www.achievethecore.org/basalalignment-project Shift 3 – Knowledge: Building knowledge through content-rich nonfiction • See Appendix B for examples of informational and literary complex texts http://www.corestandards.org/assets/Appendix_B.pdf The In Common resources augment the annotated student writing samples in CCSS Appendix C and support grade level and vertical articulation at school sites. • Student Writing Samples from Achieve the Core “In Common” Resources: http://www.achievethecore.org/page/507/in-common-effective-writing-for-all-students LAUSD Interim Literacy Assessment #1 – NARRATIVE – Grade 3 Adapted from “In Common-Effective Writing for All Students” achievethecore.org Rev. 09-15-15 7 2014-2015 LAUSD INTERIM ASSESSMENTS – ELEMENTARY LITERACY – GRADE 3 LAUSD Interim Literacy Assessment #1 – NARRATIVE – Grade 3 Adapted from “In Common-Effective Writing for All Students” achievethecore.org Rev. 09-15-15 8 2014-2015 LAUSD INTERIM ASSESSMENTS – ELEMENTARY LITERACY – GRADE 3 LAUSD Interim Literacy Assessment #1 – NARRATIVE – Grade 3 Adapted from “In Common-Effective Writing for All Students” achievethecore.org Rev. 09-15-15 9 2014-2015 LAUSD INTERIM ASSESSMENTS – ELEMENTARY LITERACY – GRADE 3 Grade 3 – LAUSD Common Core Writing Rubric – NARRATIVE – 2014-2015 STUDENT PROMPT: Imagine you are visiting a member of the Tohono O’odham tribe in the Arizona desert. Write a story about the day you helped make jam from the fruits of the saguaro. Use information from the passage in your story, but you may make up details also. q Write about the events happening as you helped make jam from the saguaro fruit. q Add details to describe the characters’ actions, thoughts and feelings. q Use temporal words to tell the order in which the events happen. q Conclude your narrative with a good ending. q Proofread for spelling, punctuation, and grammar. COMMON CORE STATE STANDARDS TESTED IN THIS WRITING PROMPT Grade 3 standards evaluated on rubric in box below – lettering reflects March 2013 publication of CCSS. WRITING Standard 3 (W3): Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, descriptive details, and clear event sequences. a. Establish a situation and introduce a narrator and/or characters; organize an event sequence that unfolds naturally. b. Use dialogue and descriptions of actions, thoughts, and feelings to develop experiences and events or show the response of characters to situations. c. Use temporal words and phrases to signal event order. d. Provide a sense of closure. LANGUAGE Standard 1 (L1): Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English grammar and usage when writing or speaking. d. Form and use regular and irregular verbs. e. Form and use the simple verb tenses (e.g., I walk, I walked, I will walk) i. Produce simple, compound, and complex sentences. LANGUAGE Standard 2 (L2): Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English capitalization, punctuation, and spelling when writing. a. Capitalize appropriate words in titles. b/c. Use commas in addresses (Gr 1-2: in dates, to separate words in a series); use commas and quotation marks in dialogue. d. Form and use possessives. f. Use spelling patterns and generalizations (e.g., word families, position-based spellings, syllable patterns, ending rules, meaningful word parts) in writing words. LANGUAGE Standard 3 (L3): Use knowledge of language and its conventions when writing, speaking, reading, or listening. a. Choose words and phrases for effect. LANGUAGE #6 (L6): Acquire and use accurately grade-appropriate conversational, general academic, and domain-specific words and phrases, including those that signal spatial and temporal relationships (e.g., After dinner that night we went looking for them.) LAUSD Interim Literacy Assessment #1 – NARRATIVE – Grade 3 Adapted from “In Common-Effective Writing for All Students” achievethecore.org Rev. 09-15-15 10 2014-2015 LAUSD INTERIM ASSESSMENTS – ELEMENTARY LITERACY – GRADE 3 Language in bold on rubric is from SBAC (Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium) rubrics. Gr 3 standards are written on p.1 of this rubric and are basis for score of 3. Score “The narrative, real or imagined…” Establishment of Narrative Focus and Organization Punctuation, Spelling, Capitalization Organization Elaboration of Narrative Language and Vocabulary Grammar & Usage …Is clearly focused and maintained throughout: …Has an effective plot helping create unity and completeness: …Provides thorough and effective elaboration using details, dialogue, and description: …Clearly and effectively expresses experiences or events: …Demonstrates strong command of conventions with few if any errors in: …Demonstrates strong command of conventions with few if any errors in: • Effective choice of words and phrases for effect (L3a) • Use of regular and irregular plural nouns (L1b) • Punctuation, Spelling, • Effective use of • Subject-verb agreement and pronoun-antecedent agreement (L1f) • Effectively establishes a situation and introduces a narrator and/or characters (W3a) • Event sequence that unfolds naturally throughout (W3a) • Effective, consistent use of temporal words and phrases to signal event order (W3c) • Effective sense of closure (W3d) 3 Conventions of Standard English Narrative Focus 4 “The narrative, real or imagined…” Development: Elaboration and Language …Is adequately focused and generally maintained throughout: • Adequately establishes a situation and introduces a narrator and/or characters (W3a) …Has an evident plot helping create a sense of unity and completeness, though there may be minor flaws and some ideas may be loosely connected: • Event sequence that unfolds naturally (W3a) • Adequate use of temporal words and phrases to signal event order (W3c) • Effective use of dialogue and descriptions of actions, thoughts, and feelings to develop experiences and events, or show the responses of characters to situations (W3b) …Provides adequate elaboration using details, dialogue, and description: • Adequate use of dialogue and descriptions of actions, thoughts, and feelings to develop experiences and events, or show the responses of characters to situations (W3b) • Adequate sense of closure (W3d) conversational and general academic words and phrases, including those that signal spatial and temporal relationships (L6) …Adequately expresses experiences or events: • Adequate choice of words and phrases for effect (L3a) • Adequate use of conversational and general academic words and phrases, including those that signal spatial and temporal relationships (e.g., After dinner that night we went looking for them.) (L6) Capitalization at grade level (see descriptors for 3) • Variety of simple, compound, and complex sentences (L1i) …Demonstrates adequate command of conventions with some errors but no systematic patterns displayed in the: …Demonstrates adequate command of conventions with some errors but no systematic patterns displayed in the: • Formation and use of the • Capitalization of appropriate words in titles, names, and beginnings of sentences (L2a) simple verb tenses (past, present, future) with regular and irregular verbs (L1d,e) • Production of simple, compound, and complex sentences (L1i) • Correct use of commas & quotation marks (L2b,c) • Formation and use of possessives. (L2d) • Use of spelling patterns and generalizations in writing words (L2f) LAUSD Interim Literacy Assessment #1 – NARRATIVE – Grade 3 Adapted from “In Common-Effective Writing for All Students” achievethecore.org Rev. 09-15-15 11 2014-2015 LAUSD INTERIM ASSESSMENTS – ELEMENTARY LITERACY – GRADE 3 Language in bold on rubric is from SBAC (Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium) rubrics. Gr 3 standards are written on p.1 of this rubric and are basis for score of 3. “The narrative, real or imagined…” …Is somewhat maintained and may have a minor drift in focus: • Inconsistently 2 establishes a situation and introduce a narrator and/or characters …Has an inconsistent plot, and flaws are evident: • Uneven sequence of events from beginning to end • Inconsistent use of temporal words and phrases to signal event order • Weak sense of closure “The narrative, real or imagined…” 1 …May be maintained but may provide little or no focus, or focus is confusing or ambiguous: • May be very brief • Does not establish a clear situation • Does not clearly introduce a narrator and/or characters …Has little or no discernable plot: • Frequent extraneous ideas may intrude and/or no sequence of events is evident • No temporal words and phrases to signal event order • No sense of closure …Provides uneven, cursory elaboration using partial and uneven details, dialogue, and description: …Unevenly expresses experiences or events: • Partial or weak use of words and phrases for effect • Weak use of dialogue and descriptions of actions, thoughts, and feelings to develop experiences and events, or show the responses of characters to situations • Partial or weak use of conversational and general academic words and phrases, including those that signal spatial and temporal relationships …Provides minimal elaboration using little or no details, dialogue, or description: …Expresses ideas vaguely, lacks clarity, or is confusing: • Use of dialogue and/or description is minimal, absent, in error, or irrelevant LAUSD Interim Literacy Assessment #1 – NARRATIVE – Grade 3 Adapted from “In Common-Effective Writing for All Students” achievethecore.org • Uses limited language • No use of language that signals spatial and temporal relationships Rev. 09-15-15 …Demonstrates a partial command of conventions with frequent errors in the: • Formation and use the simple verb tenses (past, present, future) with regular and irregular verbs …Demonstrates a partial command of conventions with frequent errors in the: • Formation and use of possessives • Use of capitalization, commas and quotation marks, and spelling patterns • Production of simple, compound, and complex sentences …Demonstrates a lack of command of conventions: …Demonstrates a lack of command of conventions: • Errors are frequent and severe and meaning is often obscured • Errors are frequent and severe and meaning is often obscured 12
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