M E M O R Y , 1 9 9 7 , 5 (3 ), 4 0 1 ±4 2 1
P r o c e s sin g In str u c tio n s a n d th e G e n e r a tio n E ffe c t:
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A T e st o f th e M u ltifa c to r T r a n sfe r -a p p r o p r ia te
P r o c e ssin g T h e o r y
P a tric ia A . d e W in sta n le y
O b erlin C o lle g e, O h io, U SA
E liz a b e th L ig o n B jo rk
U n ive rsity o f C a lifo rn ia , L o s A ng e le s, U S A
W e re p or t tw o e x pe rim e n ts d e si gn e d to tes t f ur th e r th e m ultifa c to r tra n sf er a pp ro p riate p ro ce s sin g e x p lan a tio n of g en e ra tio n ef fe c ts (d e W in s ta n le y , B jo r k , &
B jo rk , 1 99 6 ). T h e p r es en t r es e ar ch fo c u s es on th e f ollo w in g a s su m ptio n s: (a ) th a t
p r o ce ss in g r es o u r ce s a re lim ited an d , th u s, th e p ro c e ssin g of o n e ty p e o f
in fo r m a tion c a n b e , a n d of te n is , inc o m p atib le w ith th e p r oc e ssin g of oth er ty p es o f
in fo r m a tion ; an d (b ) th a t r ea d in g an d g en e ra tin g diff er in ter m s o f the f le xib ility
th e y p er m it fo r th e d ist rib u tio n o f th e su b je c t’ s p ro c e ssin g re so u rc e s a c ro ss th e
a va ila ble in fo rm atio n in a n ex p er im e n ta l co n te x t. T he se a ss um p tio n s w er e te st e d
b y e x a m in ing th e co n se qu e n ce s of p ro ce s si ng ins truc tio n s o n the o c cu r re nc e o f
g e n e ra tio n e ff ec ts, a n d the la c k th e re o f, in fr ee re c all a nd c u e d re ca ll. A c r os s bo th
e xp e rim e nts, id e n tica l p ro c es si n g in str u ctio n s h a d st rik in g ly d iffe re n t co n se q u e n ce s o n th e la ter f re e -r ec a ll a n d c u ed - re c all pe r fo rm a n ce of su b je c ts w ho
e nc o de d ta rg e ts b y g en e ra tin g the m v e rsu s re ad ing th e m , a p atte r n c on si st e nt w ith
th e f or eg o in g a ss u m ptio n s.
IN T R O D U C T IO N
T h e g e n era tio n e ffec t refe rs to th e fin d ing th a t su bje c t-p rod uc ed in fo rm a tio n is
b etter re m e m b e red th an ex p e rim e n ter-su p plie d in form atio n (Ja co b y , 1 9 78 ;
S lam e ck a & G ra f, 1 9 78 ). F or ne a rly tw o de c ad e s, th e ge n era tio n e ffe c t ha s
p rov e d re m a rk ab ly ro b u st. It h as b e en o bta ine d fo r a v a rie ty o f m a te ria ls an d
typ e s o f te sts a n d, m o re re ce n tly , h a s e v en w ith sto od w h at in itia lly a pp e a re d to
R e q u es t s fo r re p ri n t s s h o u ld b e s e n t to P a tri c ia A n n d e W in st an le y , O b e rl in C o l le g e , D e p ar tm e n t o f
P s y c h o lo g y , S e v e ra n c e L a b o ra to ry , O b e rli n , O H 4 4 0 7 4 -1 0 8 6 , U S A .
T h i s r es e a rc h w as ai d e d b y a g ra n t t o th e firs t a u t h o r fr o m th e K e c k F o u n d a ti o n . P o rt io n s o f th is
re s e ar ch w e re p re s e n t ed a t th e m e e tin g o f th e P s y c h o n o m ic S o c ie t y , S t. L o u is , M O , U S A .
W e t h a n k W e n d y H e b e rlie n a n d J o s h K ip n e s fo r h e lp in c o n d u c ti n g th e se e x p e ri m e n ts . W e a ls o
th a n k J a m e s T a n a k a , W il lia m F r ie d m a n , J u d i th B e in st e in -M ill er , a n d R o b e rt G re e n e (a s w el l a s t w o
a n o n y m o u s re v i e w er s ) fo r th e ir c rit ic a l c o m m e n ts o n a p re v io u s v e rs io n o f th e m a n u s c rip t.
Ó
1 9 9 7 P s y c h o lo g y P re s s, an im p rin t o f E rl b a u m (U K ) T a y lo r & F ra n ci s L td
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d eW IN S T A N L E Y A N D B JO R K
b e a d ev as ta tin g ch a lle n ge to its im p o rta n ce as a m e m o ry p h en o m en o n Ð
n a m e ly, th e fin din g o f little or n o g e ne ra tio n a d va n ta g e on fre e -re ca ll te sts w h e n
th e re ad -v er sus-g en e ra te m a n ip u lation w a s im p le m en ted o n a b etw e en -list b a sis
(e .g . B e g g & S n ide r, 1 9 8 7 ; S la m e ck a & K a tsa iti, 1 9 87 ). Ind iv id u a l th eo ries of
th e g en e ra tion effe ct, ho w e v er, h av e p rov e d less rob u st to c ha llen g es. In d ee d ,
M c D an iel, W ad d ill, a nd E in ste in (1 98 8 , p .5 2 2 ) h a ve asse rted th at ``it is o n ly a
m ild ex a gg e ra tio n to no te th at the n um b er o f ac co u n ts fo r th e g e n era tio n e ffe ct is
sligh tly less tha n th e n u m b er o f rep o rts o f th e e ffe ct itse lf’ ’ . O n th e oth er h an d ,
w h ile p erh ap s n o in d iv id u al th e o ry h as su rv iv e d in ta c t, few h av e d ied e n tirely .
R a th e r, a spe c ts of o ld er th eo ries h a ve te nd e d to re ap p ea r, ofte n w ith slig ht
m o dific a tio n , in n e w er th eo ries. F o r ex a m p le , in p ro p o sing th e ir m u ltifac tor
th eo ry of g en e ra tio n e ffec ts, M c D a nie l, W a dd ill, an d E in ste in b u ilt on the tw ofa cto r th eo ry o f H irsh m a n a nd B jo rk (1 98 8 ) a n d, m o re re c e ntly, d e W insta n ley ,
B jork , an d B jo rk (19 9 6 ) b u ilt o n the p re vio u s a cc o u n ts of th e se rese arc h ers as
w e ll a s th o se o f oth ers (e .g . R a bin o w itz & C ra ik , 1 9 8 6 ) in pro p osin g a
m u ltifa c tor tra n sfe r-a p pro p ria te p ro ce ssin g a cc o u nt o f ge n era tio n effe cts.
In the m ultifa c to r tran sfe r-ap p ro priate p ro c e ssin g a cc o u nt, the p rim a ry
su b jec t o f th e p rese n t rese a rc h , the fo llow in g a ssu m p tio n s are m ad e : (a) tha t th e
re q uire m e nt to g en e ra te p rese n ts su b je cts w ith a pro b le m to b e so lv ed , a nd
su b jec ts are th u s led to p ro ce ss w h a te v er inf orm ation is h elp ful in solv in g th e
p ro ble m Ð the typ e s of info rm atio n tha t su b jec ts m igh t fin d u sefu l in clu de ta rg e tsp e cific in form atio n (in form ation a b ou t th e targ et item itse lf, e.g . h ow it lo o ks;
H irsh m a n & B jo rk , 19 8 8 ), c ue ±ta rg et rela tio n al info rm a tio n (in fo rm a tio n ab o ut
th e re latio nsh ip th e targ e t ha s to th e c ue , e .g . an a n to n y m ; H irsh m a n & B jo rk ,
1 9 8 8), an d w ho le- list or targ e t±ta rg e t re latio na l in fo rm atio n (e .g . ca te g o ric a l
re la tion sh ips a m o ng targ e ts in th e list; M c D an iel e t al., 19 88 ); (b) th at th e
r e q u ir e m e n t to g e n e r a t e e n h a n c e s th e p ro c e s s in g o f w h a te v e r ty p e o f
in form a tio n is u sed as the b a sis fo r g en e ratio n in co m pa riso n to th e p ro ce ssin g
th at w o u ld ty p ic a lly b e giv en to su ch in form a tio n by su b jec ts rea d in g inta ct
stim u li; (c ) th at th e p roc e ssing of o ne ty p e o f in fo rm a tio n ca n b e, a n d o fte n is,
in co m p atible w ith th e p ro c e ssin g of o th e r ty p es o f in form atio nÐ fo r e x am ple ,
th e p ro ce ssin g of c u e±targ e t relation a l info rm a tio n c an b e in c om p a tib le w ith th e
p ro ce ssin g o f w h ole -list relatio na l in fo rm a tio n (e .g . H irsh m an & B jo rk , 1 9 8 8);
a n d (d) th at a g e ne ra tio n ad v an tag e w ill be o b serv ed to th e ex ten t tha t a la ter
c rite rio n te st (e .g . re co g n itio n o r cu ed rec a ll) is se n sitiv e to th e typ e of
in form a tio n en h an c e d b y th e g e ne ration ta sk (e .g . H irsh m a n & B jo rk , 1 9 8 8;
Ja c ob y , 1 9 83 ; R ab in ow itz & C ra ik , 19 8 6 ).
In d e W in sta n le y et a l. (19 9 6 ), re se arc h w as re po rte d te stin g th e la st
a s su m p tio n , w h ic h e sse n tia lly a p p li es th e n o tio n o f tra n s fe r- a p p r o p ri at e
p ro ce ssin g (M o rris, B ra nsf ord , & F ra n k s, 1 9 7 7 ) to th e m u ltifa c tor fra m e w or k
fo r e x pla in in g g en er ation effec ts. T h e m a teria ls u sed in th is rese arc h w e re c u e±
ta rg e t p airs in w h ic h ea c h targ et, w h ile b e lo n g in g to o n e o f fo u r c ateg o ries, a lso
h a d a u n iq u e c ue Ð th at is, a c u e to w h ich it w a s re lated b ut w h ich bo re little or
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n o re la tion to o th e r ta rge ts in th e sa m e c ateg o ry (e .g . isla n d ±pin e ap p le ; fu z zy ±
p ea c h ). A t th e sa m e tim e , h o w e v er, e ac h ta rge t w a s o n ly w e ak ly rela ted to its
sp ec ific cu e an d , thu s, d iffic u lt to g en e rate o n th e b a sis o f th a t in fo rm atio n a lo n e .
In th e ir first e xp e rim e nt, p airs w ere p res en ted b loc k e d by c a te g or y m em b ersh ip,
lea d ing ge n era te sub jec ts to re ly p rim a rily o n th is h igh ly sa lie nt ta rge t±ta rg et
rela tio n al info rm a tio n Ð as op p o se d to th e w ea k c u e±tar ge t re la tio n a l info rm a tio n Ð in ord e r to g en era te ta rg ets. A s p red icte d b y th e fra m e w o rk’ s tra n sfera pp ro p ria te p roc essin g assu m p tio n, th e re sultin g en h an c e d p roc e ssin g of targ et±
targ et re la tio n a l info rm a tio n le d to a g en e ratio n a dv a nt ag e o n a later free -rec a ll
tes t, p re su m ed to b e p rim a rily se nsitiv e to su c h info rm a tio n (E in ste in & H u n t,
1 98 0 ; H u n t & E inste in, 1 9 81 ); w h ere as th e lesse n e d p ro c essin g o f c ue ±ta rg et
rela tio n al in fo rm ation a s a b a sis fo r g en e ration le d to th e lac k o f a g en era tio n
a dv a nta g e o n a la te r cu e d-re c all te st, p re su m e d to b e p rim a rily se n sitiv e to c ue ±
targ et re latio n a l in form ation (B eg g 1 97 8 ; H irsh m a n & B jo rk , 1 98 8 ).
In d e W insta n le y e t al.’ s sec o n d e xp e rim e nt, the sa m e p a irs w ere pre se nte d ,
b ut w e re n o lo n g er b lo ck e d by c a te g or y m em b ersh ip, fo rc in g g en e ra te su bje cts
to rely o n cu e±tar ge t rela tio n al in fo rm a tio n in o rde r to g e n era te ta rg ets. A ga in,
in ke e pin g w ith th e fra m e w o rk’ s tra n sfer-ap p ro pria te p ro ce ssin g assu m p tion , the
resu ltin g e nh a nc e d p ro ce ssin g of c ue ±ta rg et rela tio n a l info rm a tion led to a
g en e ratio n ad v an tag e o n a later cu e d-re c all te st, w h ile th e le ssen e d p roc e ssing o f
targ et±targ e t re lation a l in fo rm a tio n e lim in a te d th e g en e ration a d va n ta g e o n a
late r fre e-re ca ll te st. T h u s, a cro ss the se tw o ex p er im en ts, c om p letely o pp o site
p attern s o f re su lts w ere ob tain e d a s a fu nc tion o f th e n atu re o f a late r c rite rio n
tes t (free re c all v s. c u ed -rec a ll) an d the typ e o f in fo rm a tio n (ta rge t±ta rg et
rela tio n al v s. c ue ±ta rg e t re la tio n a l) p roc e ssed b y su b jec ts as a ba sis fo r
g en e ratin g id en tica l ta rge ts.
In th e p rese n t p a p er, w e re p ort rese arc h prim a rily foc u sing o n th e th ird
a ssum p tio n de sc rib e d e a rlierÐ tha t th e p ro ce ssin g o f o ne typ e of inf orm atio n ca n
b e in c o m p atible w ith th e p ro ce ssin g o f o the r ty pe s o f in fo rm a tio n Ð an d the
c on se q ue n ce s of th is assu m p tio n , w h ich is e ssen tially an a ssu m ption o f lim ited
p roc e ssin g re so urc es, for pro d uc in g (or fa iling to p ro du c e) g e n era tio n e ffe cts a s
a fun c tio n o f th e na tu re o f a la ter c rite rio n test. W e also p rop o se an d test so m e
p ossib le pro ce ssin g differ en ce s b etw e en g e ne ra tin g an d rea d in g a s w ay s o f
e nc o din g in fo rm a tio n Ð differe nc e s tha t, co m b in e d w ith th e o the r assu m ptio n s o f
the m u ltifac tor tra n sfe r-ap p ro priate p roc e ssing fra m e w ork , allo w pre d iction s o f
c irc um stan c es u n d er w h ic h w e sh ou ld or sh o uld no t ex p e ct to o b serv e g e ne ra te
a dv a nta g es a s w ell as re ad a dv a nta ge s.
M ore sp e cifica lly , w e a ssu m e th at b e ca u se sub je cts w h o g en e rate h av e a task
to pe rfo rm Ð th e g en e ra tio n o f ta rg etsÐ an d u su ally h a v e o n ly a lim ited tim e in
w h ic h to g e n era te e ac h targ e t, th e ir pro ce ssin g effo rts w ill be m ore restricte d in
term s o f the ty pe s o f in form a tio n th e y p ro c e ss as co m p a re d to su b jec ts rea d in g
inta ct in fo rm a tion . T h a t is, su b je c ts w h o g en e rate w ill b e le d to fo c us th eir
p roc e ssin g e ffo rts on th a t in fo rm a tio n m ost use ful to solv in g th e g en e ra tio n ta sk .
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C o n seq u en tly, w hile th e p ro ce ssing o f th a t in form atio n m ay b e e n ha n ce d , th e
p ro ce ssin g o f oth er in form atio n is lik ely to b e im p a ired . If, fo r e x am p le, c u e±
ta rg e t re lation a l in fo rm a tio n w a s c ritic a l fo r targ et g en e ratio n, th e pro c essin g of
th at info rm a tio n w ou ld b e e n ha n c ed , b u t a t th e e xp e ns e o f w h o le -list o r targ e t±
ta rg e t re lation a l pro ce ssin g Ð b ec a use , in the p re se n t fra m e w o rk , th e p ro ce ssin g
o f cu e ±ta rge t in fo rm atio n is a ssu m e d ty p ic ally to be in c om p atib le w ith th e
p ro ce ssin g of w ho le-list in fo rm a tio n . In co n trast, sub jec ts w h o re ad Ð an d , th u s,
d o n o t h av e th eir p ro ce ssin g e ffo rts gu ide d b y th e ge n era tio n ta skÐ a re m o re
fre e to e ng a ge in w h a te v er ty pe s o f p ro ce ssin g th ey m a y d e em to b e m em o rye n ha n c in g . M o re sp ec ific a lly , w e a ssum e tha t su bje c ts re ad in g inta ct in form ation fo r th e p u rpo se of re m e m b er in g w ill ty pic ally d istrib u te th e ir p ro ce ssin g
e fforts m o re or le ss e v en ly a cro ss th e d iffe re n t ty pe s o f a v aila ble info rm atio n . It
is im p o rta n t to p o int o ut, h o w ev e r, th a t w e vie w th is a s a d efa u lt assu m p tio n Ð
th at is, w e a ssu m e it to ho ld w h e n su b jec ts w ho a re rea d ing in ta ct in fo rm ation
fo r the p urp o se o f re m e m be ring a re p e rfo rm in g u n de r n o spe c ia l in stru ction a l or
situa tio n a l co n strain ts. If g iv e n e xp lic it (o r im p lic it) in stru ction s to ca rry o ut
p a rtic u la r m ne m o n ic stra teg ies (as w as d o ne , for ex a m p le, b y B e gg , V in sk i,
F ra nk o v ich , & H o lg a te, 19 9 1 ), th e p roc e ssing a ctiv ities o f re ad su b je c ts sh o u ld
1
b e altere d.
In th e p rese n t re sea rc h, w e te st the se p ro p ose d assu m p tion s c on c ern in g
p ro c e ssin g d iff er en c e s th a t o c c u r w h e n su b je c ts e n c o d e in fo rm a tio n b y
g e ne ra tin g it ve rsus re a d in g it, in th e c on te xt o f th e o th er a ssu m p tion s o f th e
m u ltif ac to r tra n sfe r- ap p ro p ria te p ro ce s sin g fra m e w o r k . A c c o rd in g to th is
fra m e w ork , g en e ratio n ad v a nta ge s o cc u r w h en th e re qu ire m e nts to ge n era te
o p p ortu ne ly fo c us p ro ce ssing reso u rce sÐ tha t is, lea d to en h an c e d p roc e ssin g b y
g e ne ra te sub je cts, as c om p are d to re ad su b je cts, o f in fo rm atio n to w h ic h a la ter
m em o ry test is sen sitiv e . C o n seq u e n tly , if rea d su b je c ts w ere also to b e led to
fo c us th eir p ro ce ssing re sou rc es in a n o p po rtu ne m a n ne r, g en e ration a dv a nta ge s
sh o u ld b e re d uc e d o r elim in a te d .
S u p po se , fo r e xa m ple , tha tÐ a s in E x p e rim en t 1 o f d e W in stan ley e t al.
(1 9 96 )Ð m a teria ls w e re co n stru c ted su ch th a t ge n era te su b jec ts w o uld b e forc ed
to foc u s o n th e p ro ce ssin g o f targ e t±ta rg e t re latio n a l in form a tio n in o rde r to
1
W i th re sp e c t to th e p re s e n t fr a m e w o rk , th e s tu d ie s o f B e g g e t a l . (1 9 9 1 ) w o u ld n o t b e co n si d e re d
a s d e m o n s tra t in g d iffe re n c e s b e t w ee n t h e m n e m o n ic e ff e c tiv e n e s s o f g e n e ra t io n v e rs u s re ad in g p e r
s e . R a t h e r, w e s e e th ei r re s e a rc h a s c o m p a ri n g t h e m e m o ri al c o n s e q u e n ce s o f g en e ra ti n g t o th o s e o f
re a d in g w h e n b o th a re c o m b in ed w it h a d d i tio n a l ty p e s o f e n c o d in g s tra t eg ie s , s u c h a s i m ag e ry o r
s il e n t p r o n u n c ia tio n . F u rth e rm o re , t h e re a re c o m p l ic a tio n s w i th in te rp re t in g th e re a d v e rs u s g e n er a t e
re s u lts th e y o b ta in e d b e c a u s e Ð g iv e n a c o n s ta n t p re s e n ta tio n t im e fo r b o th in ta c t an d to - b e -g e n e ra te d
t a rg e ts Ð r ea d s u b j e ct s w o u ld al w a y s h a v e h a d m o re t im e th a n g e n e ra te s u b je c t s to e n g a g e i n
w h a te v e r a d d it io n a l t y p e o f p ro c e s s in g th e y h a d b e e n in s tru ct e d to d o . T h u s , fo r e x a m p l e , h o w t o
i n t er p re t th e l a ck o f a g e n er a t io n ad v an ta g e in th e c o n d iti o n i n w h i c h s u b je c ts w e re in s t ru c te d t o
e n g a g e in im a g e ry p ro c e s s in g is u n c l e ar a s , es s e n t ia ll y , o n e is c o m p a rin g th e m n e m o n ic co n se q u e n c e
o f g e n e ra tio n p l u s a s m a ll a m o u n t o f im a g e ry p ro c e s s in g t o th a t o f re ad in g p lu s a g re a te r a m o u n t o f
i m ag e ry p ro c e s si n g . It is th u s u n c l ea r w h e th e r g en e ra ti o n w o u ld h a v e re s u lte d in a n a d v a n ta g e i n
m e m o ry g iv e n th e s am e a m o u n ts o f a d d i ti o n a l im a g e ry p ro c e ss in g i n t h e tw o c o n d iti o n s .
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g en e rate ta rg e ts a n d, fu rthe rm ore , th a t a la te r fre e-re ca ll test, se nsitive to suc h
inf orm atio n , w e re giv e n. In th e ab se nc e o f p ro vid in g re a d su b jec ts w ith an y
p articu lar p ro c essin g in stru c tio n s (i.e . th e typ ica l e x pe rim e n ta l situ a tio n ), w e
w o uld ex p ec t th e fre e-rec a ll p erfo rm an c e o f th e g e ne ra te sub jec ts to b e su p e rio r
to th at o f th e rea d su b jec tsÐ th a t is, to o b tain a g e n era tio n a d va n ta g e Ð w h ich
w as , in d ee d , w h a t h ap p e ne d . O n th e o the r h a nd , su p p os e th a t, rath e r th an b e in g
left alo n e to sp re ad th e ir p ro ce ssing e ffo rts a c ro ss a ll the typ e s o f info rm a tio n
p rese n t in th e list, rea d su b jec ts w e re e x plicitly d ire c ted in this situ a tio n to fo cu s
the ir p ro ce ssing effo rts o n targ e t±targ e t rela tio n al in fo rm a tio n . A c c o rd in g to the
p rese n t a ssu m p tion s, th e g e ne ratio n a d v an tag e sh o u ld b e g re atly le ssen e d o r
e lim in a te d . In c o ntra st, b e ca u se ge n er ate sub je cts m us t fo c us th eir p ro c e ssin g
e fforts o n the ty pe of in form atio n m o st u sefu l fo r targ et g e ne ra tio n , e x plic it
instru c tio ns to a tte n d to oth er typ e s of in fo rm ation sh ou ld ha v e less in flu e nc e o n
th e ir p ro c e s sin g e f fo rts a n d , c o n se q u e n tly , o n th e i r la te r c ri te rio n t e st
p erfo rm a n ce . T h at is, th e p e rform an c e o f ge n era te su b je c ts sh o uld b e d ete rm in ed
a lm ost en tire ly b y the re lation sh ip b etw ee n th e typ e o f in fo rm atio n the y m u st
p roc e ss in ord e r to g e n era te ta rge ts an d th e n a tu re o f a late r c riterio n te stÐ
sp ec ific a lly , w h eth er the in fo rm a tio n gu id in g th e g e ne ra tio n a c t is, o r is no t, the
typ e of in form atio n to w h ich a la ter c riterio n te st is se nsitive .
A s an e m p iric al te st of th ese n otion s, w e first co n struc ted a list o f c ue ±ta rg et
p airs th a t w e b e lie ve d w ou ld fo rc e ge n er ate su b je c ts to fo cu s o n th e p ro c e ssin g
o f targ e t±ta rg e t re la tio n a l in fo rm a tio n in ord er to g e ne rate ta rg e ts. G iv in g suc h
m a teria ls, w e th e n in ve stig a ted w ha t th e c on se q u en ce s o f d iffe ren t ty p e s o f
p roc e ssin g in stru ction s w o uld b e, a s a fun c tio n of w h eth e r a la te r crite rion test
w as , or w a s n o t, sen sitiv e to th e ty p e o f in form ation su b je c ts w e re e xp lic itly
instru c te d to p roc e ss. B asic ally, if ou r a ssu m p tion s ab o u t p ro ce ssin g differe n ce s
b etw ee n rea d in g a n d g e ne ra tin g a re c orre ct, th en th e p e rfo rm an c e o f g e ne ra te
su bje c ts sh ou ld b e larg e ly un a ffec ted by th e ty p e of ex p licit p ro c e ssin g
instru c tio ns th ey a re g iv e n , b ec a use the ir p ro ce ssin g e fforts w ill b e la rg e ly
restric te d b y th e re qu irem e nts o f the ge n era tio n task . In co n trast, b e ca u se the
p roc e ssin g strateg ie s of re ad su b je c ts a re n o t so re stric ted a nd , th u s, p o te n tia lly
m o d ifia b le o n th e b a sis o f in stru ction s, the ir p erfo rm a nc e sh ou ld v a ry as a
fu nc tion o f th e ty p e o f p ro c essin g in stru ction s th ey a re g iv e n an d w h e the r suc h
instru c tio ns a re, or a re n o t, ap p ro pria te for a la ter c rite rio n te st.
EX P ER IM EN T 1
In E x pe rim e nt 1, th e criterio n test em plo y ed w a s a free -re c all te st b ec au se of its
a ssum e p rim ary se n sitivity to w h o le-list re latio na l p roc e ssin g (se e e.g . E in stein
& H u n t, 1 9 80 ; H u nt & E in stein , 1 9 81 ; H u nt & S eta , 1 9 84 ; S w artz , 1 9 73 ;
T u lv ing , 19 6 2 ), a n d all sub je cts w e re g iv en o n e o f th ree typ e s o f p ro c e ssin g
in s tru c tio n s: ta rg e t±ta rg e t, c u e ±ta r g e t, a n d n o n s p e c ific . T h e ta rg e t±ta rg e t
p roc e ssin g in stru c tio n s a d vise d su b je c ts to fo c us the ir p roc e ssin g e fforts o n
the re latio ns a m o n g th e ta rg et ite m s in e x p ec tatio n o f a fre e-rec a ll te st. T h e c ue ±
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ta rg e t p roc e ssin g in stru c tio n s a d vise d su b je c ts to fo c u s the ir p ro ce ssin g e ffo rts
o n the rela tio ns hip b etw ee n ea ch c ue a nd targ et in ex p ec tatio n o f a late r cu ed re ca ll test. T he no n sp e cific in struc tio n s re p lica te d th e m o d a l typ e of in stru ction
g iv en in inte ntio n al le arn ing c on d itio n s in p re vio u s stu d ies o f th e g en e ration
e ffec t: n am e ly , the y ad v ised sub jec ts to ex p ec t a la ter m e m ory te st, th e na ture of
w h ich w a s u n sp ec ifie d .
G ive n o ur a ssum p tio n th a t re ad su b je c ts sh o u ld b e a b le to m o dify th e ir
p ro c e s s in g a c tiv iti e s in a c c o r d a n c e w it h th e in st ru c ti o n s p ro v id e d , th e
p e rfo rm an c e o f rea d su b jec ts w a s p red icte d to b e b e st w h en th e p ro ce ssin g
in stru c tio n s m atc he d th e late r c riterio n test. T h u s, g iv e n a fre e-rec a ll crite rio n
te st, ta rge t±ta rge t p ro ce ssing instru ctio ns sh o uld p ro d uc e b e tte r p e rform an ce for
re ad su b jec ts th a n e ith e r cu e ±ta rge t or n o n spe c ific pro c e ssin g instru ctio n s. In
c o ntra st, th e p erfo rm a nc e of g en e ra te su bje c ts sh ou ld b e la rg e ly u na ffec ted b y
th e p roc e ssin g in stru ction s the y a re g iv e n , ow in g to th e restrictio ns p lac ed o n
th eir pro c essin g e fforts by th e de m an d s o f th e g e ne ra tio n ta sk. F u rth erm o re , in
th e c on d itio n in w h ich re ad sub je cts are g iv en ex p lic it targ e t±ta rg e t p ro ce ssin g
in stru c tio n s, little or no g en e ra tion ad v an tag e w o u ld b e ex p e cte d, b e ca u se th e
p ro ce ssin g o f suc h in fo rm atio n b y ge n era te su b je cts, as co m p are d to re ad
su b jec ts, sh ou ld no lo ng e r be en h an c e d.
A se co n d ary set o f pre dic tio n s ca n b e m a d e re g ard in g th e o cc u rre n c e o f o utp u t
c luste rin g . B ec au se ge n era te su bje cts sh ou ld b e fo rce d b y th e d em a nd s o f th e
g e ne ra tio n ta sk to fo c us o n th e p ro ce ssin g o f ta rg e t±ta rge t in fo rm atio n ra th e r th an
o th er ty p e s of info rm ation a va ila b le in th e list, th eir rec all pe rform an c e sh o u ld
re fle c t a ten d en c y to c lu ste r w ith re spe c t to ca teg o ry m e m b e rship re g a rdle ss of th e
ty p e o f pro c essin g in stru ctio n s th ey are g iv e n. T h e am ou n t o f c lu s te rin g in th e
re ca ll of re ad su b jec ts, o n th e o th e r h a n d, sh o uld v ary a s a fu n ctio n of p ro ce ssin g
in stru c tio n s if, in fac t, th e y a re ab le to m od ify th eir p ro ce ssin g e ffo rts a s assu m e d .
S p e cifica lly , th en , w e w o u ld e x pe c t m o re c luste rin g in th e fre e re c all o f re ad
su b jec ts g ive n ta rge t±ta rg et pro ce ssin g in stru c tio n s th an in th a t o f re ad su bje c ts
g iv en eith er c ue ±targ et o r n o n spe c ific pro c e ssin g in struc tio n s.
M eth od
S u bje cts.
T h e sub je cts w e re 11 4 O b erlin C olleg e u n de rg rad u a te s w h os e
p a rtic ip a tio n in th e ex p erim en t pa rtia lly fulfille d a n in tro d u c to ry p sy ch o lo gy
c o urs e re q uire m e n t. T h e y w e re ra n do m ly assig ne d to e ac h o f the six b e tw e e nsu b jec ts co n d itio n s, w ith th e to ta l in e ac h c on d itio n b ein g as fo llow s: 1 9 in ea ch
o f th e th re e g en e ra te ´ pro c essin g -in stru ction c o nd itio n s; 20 in b o th th e
re ad ´ cu e ±ta rg et a n d th e rea d ´ ta rg e t±ta rge t p ro ce ssin g co n ditio n s; a nd 1 7
in th e re a d ´ n on spe cific p roc e ssing c o nd itio n .
D e sig n .
T h e d esig n w a s a 2 ´ 3 fa cto ria l, w ith e n co d ing task (re a d v s.
g e ne ra te ) a nd ty p e of pro c essin g in stru ction s (targ e t±ta rg e t, c u e±targ e t, a nd
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n on sp e cific) m a n ip u late d b etw e en sub je cts. R ea d su b jec ts re ad th e c u e a nd the
targ et, a nd th e n w ro te b oth the c u e an d th e ta rg et o n a pa g e in th e ir re sp on se
b oo k le t. G e n era te su b je cts re ad th e cu e , so lv e d th e fra g m e nt, a n d th en w ro te
b oth the cu e a n d th e targ e t o n a p ag e in th e ir resp o n se b o ok let. S u b jec ts g iv en
targ et±targ e t p ro ce ssing instru ctio ns re ad th e fo llow in g: ``Y o u w ill b e re c eiv in g
a fre e -re ca ll te st in w hic h y o u w ill be ask e d to rec a ll a ll o f th e sec o nd m em be rs
o f th e w o rd p airs. T o d o w e ll o n y o ur m e m ory te st, it is p artic ula rly im po rta nt
tha t y ou p a y clo se atten tio n to the rela tio n s a m o n g all o f th e sec o n d ite m s o f the
w o rd p a irs.’ ’ S u b je c ts g iv e n cu e ±ta rg e t p ro ce s sin g in stru c tio n s re a d th e
fo llo w in g : ``Y o u w ill b e re ce ivin g a cu e d -re c all te st in w h ich y ou w ill be
g iv e n th e first w ord a nd y o u m u st in dic ate w hic h w o rd w a s p aire d w ith th at
w o rd d u rin g th e slid e p rese n tation . T o do w ell on y o ur m e m o ry test, it is
p articu larly im p o rta nt th at y o u pa y clo se atten tion to th e rela tio n s be tw ee n the
tw o w ord s.’ ’ S u b jec ts g iv e n n on sp e cific pro c essin g in stru ction s rea d tha t th ey
w o uld b e g iv en a m e m o ry te st, b u t th e n a tu re of th e te st w a s u n spe c ifie d. A ll
su bje c ts a c tu a lly re c eiv ed a fre e-re c all te st.
M a te ria ls a nd A pp a ra tus.
T h e stim u li w e re 24 c ue ±targ e t p a irs se lec te d
from M a rsh all a nd C o fer ’ s (19 7 0 ) w o rd-a sso cia tio n n o rm s. S ix targ ets ca m e
from e ac h o f the fo llo w in g c a te g or ie s: b ird s, fru it, alc o ho lic b e v era ge s, an d
inse c ts. W ith in e a ch c ateg o ry , c u es w e re sele cted suc h th a t a p re -ex p erim e n tal
a ssoc iatio n e xisted be tw e e n e ac h c ue an d a ll six ta rge ts. F or ex a m p le, th e w ord
``sw ee t’ ’ (p aired w ith th e targ et ``p in ea p p le ’ ’ in the stu d y list) h as a p ree xp e rim e nta l asso c iatio n w ith all o f th e o th er ta rge t ite m s in th e fruit c ate go ry a s
w ell. T h e stu d y list w as c o n stru c te d in th is m a n ne rÐ th a t is, w ith p ree xp e rim e nta l a sso cia tio n s ex istin g b e tw e e n a ll c u es a n d ta rg e ts w ithin a g iv en
c ate go ry Ð to en su re th e sa lie n cy o f th e ta rge t±ta rg et relatio n al in fo rm a tio n .
C u e ±targ et p airs w ere p re se nte d o n e a t a tim e u sin g a K o d ak E k ta g ra p h ic
p roje cto r. In the re a d c on d itio ns, ea ch slid e c on tain e d a c ue p a ire d w ith an inta ct
targ et (e .g . juic e±o ran g e ). In th e g e ne rate c o n ditio n s, e ac h slid e c o nta ine d a cu e
p aired w ith a fra g m e n te d targ et (e .g . ju ice ±o r-n - -). T h e p re se nta tio n o rde r o f the
p airs w as d e te rm in ed u sin g a b loc k ran d om isatio n p ro ce du re w ith ite m s b lo c k ed
b y ca teg o ry m em b ersh ip a n d , o n ce d ete rm in ed , w a s h eld c o n stan t fo r a ll
su bje c ts.
R e sp o n se a n d test b o o kle ts w ere p rep a re d fo r ea c h sub je ct. R e sp on se
b oo k le ts c on ta in e d 2 4 pa g es so tha t e a ch cu e ±ta rge t pa ir c o uld b e w ritte n o n a
se pa ra te p ag e . T he first p ag e of e ac h te st b oo k le t pre se nte d in stru c tio n s
reg a rd in g th e te st o n th e fo llo w in g pa g e, an d th e a ctu al free -rec all te st p ag e
c on ta in e d 2 4 bla n k lin es o n w h ic h su b je cts w ro te the targ et ite m s.
P ro c ed u re .
S u bje c ts w ere te sted in gro u ps o f 1 ±1 0 in div id ua ls. T h e y w ere
inf orm ed o f th e ty p e of ite m s th ey w o u ld b e see in g a n d sh ow n an e xa m p le . E ac h
su bje c t w a s g ive n a resp o n se bo o k let a nd in stru c ted to w rite b oth the c u e an d the
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ta rg e t m em be r o f e a ch pa ir, a s it w a s p rese n te d , on a sep a ra te p ag e o f th e
b o o kle t, turn ing to th e ne x t bla nk p a ge in p re pa ratio n fo r w ritin g d o w n th e n e xt
c u e±targ e t pa ir as th e p ro jec tor a d va n c ed to th e n ex t slid e. S u b je cts th en
re ce ive d targ e t±ta rge t, c u e±targ e t, o r n on sp e cific pro c essin g instru ctio ns as
a p pro p riate. (R e q uiring su b je cts to w rite b oth th e cu e a n d th e targ e t e n sure d th a t
th ey c o uld n o t sim p ly ign o re th e cu e Ð a p ote n tia l pro b le m , p artic u larly for
su b jec ts g iv en the targ et±targ e t p ro ce ssin g in stru c tio n s.)
N e xt, th e stim uli w ere p rese n ted a t a ra te o f sev e n sec on d s p e r slid e, w ith th e
p ro je c tor ta kin g a b ou t o n e se co n d to ad v a nc e b etw ee n suc c essiv e slid es . A fter
th e last slid e w a s sh ow n, th e re sp o nse b o o kle ts w ere c o lle cte d, a nd th e su bje c ts
e n ga g e d in a v erb a l distrac tor ta sk for tw o m in u tes. T e st b oo k lets w e re th en
h a nd e d ou t, an d su b jec ts w e re a llo w ed tw o m in ute s to co m p le te th e fre e-re ca ll
te st.
R esults a nd D iscussio n
F o r th e p res en t e x pe rim e n t, a n d th e e x pe rim en t to follo w , all m ea n s re p o rte d a re
p e rce n ta g es a n d a ll m ea n -s qu a red e rro rs rep o rted are sq ua red -p e rc e nta g es.
G e n e r a ti o n R a t e .
T h e m e a n g e n e r a t io n fa il u r e Ð th a t i s , t h e m e a n
p e rce n ta g e o f ta rg ets tha t su b jec ts fa ile d to g en er ate a t stu d yÐ w a s 7 .8 % . T h e
a n aly ses c o nd itio n alise d on c orre ctly g en e ratin g the ta rg et a t stu d y d id n ot diffe r
fro m th e a n aly ses th at w e re u n co n ditio na l w ith re sp e ct to c o rre c t g e ne ratio n ;
th u s, o nly th e un c o nd itio n a l a n aly ses a re p res en ted h ere .
F ree -rec a ll.
Fig u re 1 pre sen ts th e m ea n pe rce n tag e s o f ta rg ets th a t w e re
c o rre c tly re ca lled b y th e g en e rate v ersu s th e re ad sub jec ts a s a fun c tio n o f th e
th ree ty p es o f pro c e ssin g in stru c tio n s. T h e lin e e x te n din g b e yo n d th e top o f ea ch
b a r sh o w s th e co rresp o n d in g sta nd a rd e rror for th a t co n d itio n . T h e d ata w e re
a n aly sed u sin g a tw o -w a y b etw e en -su b je c ts a na ly sis o f v a ria nc e an d p lan n e dc o m p a riso n s.
T he ap p are n t in te ra c tio n b e tw e en en c od in g task an d p ro ce ssing in stru ction s
in d ic ate d in F ig. 1 w a s rev e ale d to be sig n ifica n t, F (2 ,1 0 8 ) = 3 .0 7, M S e = 25 6 .8 1 ,
P < .0 5 . A s p red icte d, th e pe rform an c e o f g en er ate sub je cts w a s u n affe cted b y
p ro ce ssin g in stru ction s, F (2,1 0 8 ) = 0 .8 2 , M S e = 2 5 6 .8 1 , P > .1 0; w h e rea s th e
p e rfo rm an c e o f rea d sub je cts v aried a s a fu n ctio n o f p ro c e ssin g instru ctio ns, F
(2 ,1 0 8 ) = 8 .8 5, M S e = 2 5 6 .8 1 , P < .0 01 . F u rthe rm o re , fo r th e re a d c on d itio n s,
ta rg e t±ta rge t p ro ce ssin g in stru c tio n s le d to sig n ific an tly m ore ite m s re ca lle d th an
c u e ±t a r g e t a n d n o n s p e c i f i c p r o c e s s i n g i n s t r u c t i o n s , F ( 1 , 1 0 8 ) = 1 1 . 0 2 ,
M S e = 2 5 6.8 1, P < .0 1 , F (1,1 08 ) = 1 5 .1 9 , M S e = 2 5 6 .8 1 , P < .0 01 , resp e ctiv ely .
T h e la c k o f a p ro c e ssin g -in stru ction effec t in th e g en er ate co n ditio ns sup p o rts
o u r h y po th esis th a t th e re qu ire m e nt to p e rfo rm th e g e n era tio n task , g ive n th e
n a tu re o f th e p rese nt m a te rials, w ou ld e sse ntially restrict g e n era te sub jec ts to th e
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P R O C E S SIN G IN S T R U C T IO N S
FIG . 1.
409
M e a n p e rc e n ta g e o f c o rr e c tly re ca l le d t ar g e ts o n a fr e e -r e ca l l te s t fo r t h e g e n e ra te a n d re a d
c o n d iti o n s a s a fu n c ti o n o f p ro c e s s in g in st ru c t io n s i n E x p e rim e n t 1 . T h e li n e s e x te n d in g b e y o n d t h e
b ar s re p re s e n t s ta n d a rd e rr o rs .
p roc e ssin g o f ta rge t±ta rg et rela tio n al info rm a tio n an d , b y a nd larg e , ren d e r th em
u na b le to m o d ify the ir p ro ce ssin g e ffo rts in re sp o nse to in stru ction s. R e ad
su bje c ts, on the oth e r h a nd , no t be ing re stricte d in th e ir p ro ce ssin g e ffo rts by the
n ee d to g e n era te ta rge ts, w e re a ble to m od ify th eir p ro ce ssin g ac tiv itie s in a
m a n n er co n siste nt w ith the p roc e ssing in stru c tio n s, a s in d ic ate d b y th e ir su p e rio r
fre e-rec a ll p e rfo rm an c e w h e n d ire cte d to p ro c ess th e typ e o f inf orm ation to
w h ic h free -re c all te sts are p re su m e d to b e m o st sen sitiv e Ð n a m e ly, ta rge t±ta rg et
rela tio n al info rm atio n .
A dd itio n a lly , ou r a rgu m en t th at th e oc c urre n ce o f a g en e ratio n ad v an tag e
sh ou ld d e pe n d o n th e ty p e o f p roc e ssing in stru c tio n s g iv en to re ad sub jec tsÐ in
p articu lar, tha t little o r n o g en e ration ad v an ta ge sh o u ld o c cu r w h e n re a d sub je cts
w ere d ire cte d to p ro ce ss ta rg et±targ et rela tio n al in fo rm a tio n Ð w a s su p p or te d b y
the re sults. T h e d iffere nc e b etw ee n the fre e-rec a ll p erfo rm a n ce o f rea d an d
g en e rate su bje cts g ive n targ e t±targ e t p ro c essin g instru ction s d id n ot d iffer
sign ifica n tly , F (1 ,1 08 ) = 0 .0 4 , M S e = 2 5 6.8 1, P > .5 0 ; w h e rea s th e p erfo rm a nc e
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o f ge n era te su b je cts w a s sig n ifica n tly be tte r th a n th at o f th e c orre spo n d ing
r e a d s u b j e c t s g i v e n c u e ±t a r g e t o r n o n s p e c i f i c p r o c e s s in g in s t ru c t io n s ,
F (1 ,1 0 8 ) = 8 .7 3 , M S e = 25 6 .8 1 , P < .0 1 ; F (1 ,1 0 8 ) = 6 .6 7 , M S e = 2 56 .8 1 , P < .0 5 ,
re sp ec tiv e ly . T h u s, w h e n rea d su b je cts w e re no t e xp licitly in stru c te d h o w to
a llo c ate the ir p roc e ssin g e ffo rts e ffe c tiv ely d u rin g stud y , th e ir la ter p e rfo rm a n c e
o n a fre e -rec all test su ffere d in c o m p a riso n to th a t of g e n era te su b jec ts w ho , in
o rd er to pe rfo rm the g e ne ratio n ta sk , w ere p re su m ab ly a lw ay s p roc e ssing targ e t±
ta rg e t rela tio n al in fo rm a tio n reg a rd le ss o f p ro ce ssin g in stru ction s. O n th e oth er
h a nd , w h e n re ad su bje cts w ere d irec ted to allo ca te the ir p ro ce ssing e fforts in a
m an n e r p re sum ab ly sim ila r to th e ge n er ate su b jec tsÐ th at is, to en g a ge in targ e t±
ta rg e t re latio na l p ro ce ssin gÐ th e g en e ratio n a d va n ta g e w a s rem o ve d .
In te rp re ting th is p a tte rn o f resu lts in term s o f th e p re se nt fra m e w o rk , th e
b e ne fit o f ge n era tin g w a s to fo cu s p ro ce ssin g effo rts on th e typ e o f in fo rm ation
m o st u sefu l to the la ter free -rec a ll test, n am ely w ho le- list or targ et±targ e t
re la tion a l in form atio n. In d ee d , e ve n w h e n g e ne ra te su bje cts w ere in stru c ted to
fo c u s o n th e p ro c e ssin g o f c u e ±ta rg e t re latio n a l in fo rm a tio n, th ey w e re
a p pa re n tly u n ab le to d o so , resu ltin g in sim ila r le ve ls o f p e rfo rm a n c e fo r a ll
th ree ty p es o f instru c tio ns a nd a g en e ra te a dv a n ta g e in th e cu e±ta rg e t a nd
n o n spe c ific pro ce ssin g c o nd ition s.
G ive n tha t ou r inte rp re tation o f th e p rese nt p a tte rn o f resu lts re sts on th e
a ssu m p tion th at the g en e ratio n ta sk p rim a rily resu lted in w ho le- list or targ e t±
ta rg e t re la tio n a l p ro c es sin g , ad d itio n a l s u p p o rt fo r th is a s su m p ti o n w a s
d e sira b le . T o th is en d , w e e x am in ed th e d e gre e to w h ich ite m s from th e sam e
c a te g ory w e re gro u p ed to ge th er d u rin g re ca ll, b y ca lcu latin g ca teg o ry clu ste rin g
sc o res for ea c h c on d itio n , w ith th e ide a th at sub jec ts p rim a rily e n ga g in g in
w h o le -list o r targ e t±ta rg e t re latio na l p roc e ssin g sh ou ld p rod u c e m o re ca te g or y
g ro up in gs in the ir re ca ll th an su b jec ts e n ga g ing in o the r typ e s o f p ro ce ssing .
C luste ring .
C luste rin g w as m e asu re d usin g the a dju sted ra tio o f clu ste rin g
(A R C ) sc ore (R o en k e r, T h om p son , & B row n , 1 9 71 ), an d th e p a tte rn of
c luste rin g resu lts o bta in e d w as id en tic a l to tha t for fre e re ca ll. F o r th e ge n era te
c o nd ition s, c lu ste rin g d id n o t v a ry w ith ty p e o f pro c essin g in stru c tio n s, F
(2 ,1 0 8 ) = 1 .6 8, M S e = 0 .1 0 5 , P > .1 0 (M = 0.6 5, 0 .4 7 , & 0 .6 3 , fo r ta rge t±ta rg et,
c u e±targ e t, a n d n o n sp ec ific in stru c tio n s, resp e ctiv ely ); w he re as, fo r th e re ad
c o nd ition s, ty p e o f p ro ce ssin g in stru c tio n did h av e a sig n ifica n t e ffe ct o n
c luste rin g , F (2 ,1 0 8) = 9.5 3, M S e = 0 .1 0 5 , P < .0 0l (M = 0.5 9 , 0 .1 6 , & 0 .2 6 , for
ta rg e t±ta rge t, c ue ±targ et, an d no n sp e cific in stru ction s, re sp e ctive ly). O ve rall,
sig n ific an tly m o re c lu ste ring o c cu rred w he n su b je c ts w e re g iv e n targ et±targ e t
p ro ce ssin g in stru ction s th a n w h e n g ive n c u e±targ e t or n o n sp ec ific p ro ce ssin g
i n s tru c ti o n s , F (1 ,1 0 8 ) = 1 7 .3 5 , M S e = 0 .1 0 5 ; P < .0 0 1 ; F ( 1 ,1 0 8 ) = 1 0 .3 2 ,
M S e = 0 .1 0 5 , P < .0 1 , re spe c tiv e ly . F in a lly , a nd m o st im p o rtan tly w ith resp e ct
to th e pre se nt se t o f pre dic tio n s, a lth o ug h g en e rating re su lte d in sig n ific an tly
m o re o v e ra ll clu sterin g tha n d id rea d in g , F (1,1 08 ) = 1 6 .9 7 , M S e = 0 .1 0 5 ,
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411
P < .0 0 1, the re w a s no d iffe ren c e in the am o u nt o f c lus te rin g b y g e n era te v ersu s
rea d su b jec ts g iv e n targ e t±targ e t p ro c e ssin g in stru c tio n s, F (1 ,1 0 8 ) = 0 .3 1 4,
M S e = 0 .1 05 , P > .5 0.
T h u s, th e c luste rin g p a tte rn pro v id es c o n ve rg ing ev ide n ce fo r th e p ic ture
p rese n te d b y th e rec all resu lts. O v era ll, clu sterin g sco res w e re gre a te r for g e ne ra te
su bje c ts th an fo r rea d sub je cts a nd , in a dd itio n , th e clu stering sc o re s o f the
g en e rate su bje cts d id n ot v ary in rela tio n to p ro ce ssin g in stru ction s. T h is p attern
su pp o rts the c o nte ntio n th a t, a s a co n se qu e nc e o f th e g e ne ratio n ta sk , g e ne ra te
su bje c ts w e re le d to fo c us th e ir p ro ce ssin g effo rts on ta rg e t±ta rge t rela tio n al
inf orm atio n a n d, fu rth e rm o re, w e re u n ab le to sh ift th is fo cu s to the p ro ce ssin g o f
o th e r ty p e s of in form atio n e v en w h e n in stru c te d to d o so as a w ay to op tim ise th eir
late r m em ory pe rfo rm a nc e . In co n trast, the clu ste rin g sco re s fo r re a d su bje cts did
v ary w ith th e ty pe o f p ro c essin g instru ction , su pp o rtin g the c on ten tio n th at re ad
su bje c ts w o u ld be a b le to d istribu te th e ir pro ce ssin g e ffo rts in a c co rd an c e w ith the
p roc e ssin g in stru c tio n s th ey re ce ive d . F in a lly , th e fac t tha t the clu ste rin g sc o re fo r
rea d sub je cts giv e n targ et±targ e t p ro ce ssin g instru ctio n s d id n ot d iffe r fro m tha t o f
the ge n era te su b jec ts su p po rts th e co n clu sion th a t it w a s th e re a d su bje cts’
fo cu sin g of th eir p ro ce ssing e fforts o n targ et±targ e t re lation a l in fo rm a tio n tha t led
to th e la ck o f a free -rec all g en era tion a dv a nta ge in th is c o n dition .
EX P ER IM EN T 2
In E x p erim e n t 1 , w he n rea d su b jec ts w e re g ive n e ith e r c u e±ta rge t o r no n sp e cific
p roc e ssin g in stru c tio n s, a g en e rate ad v an tag e w a s o bse rve d o n a la te r free -rec a ll
c r i te r i o n te s t; w h e n re a d s u b je c t s w e re g iv e n t a r g e t±ta rg e t p ro c e ss i n g
instru c tio ns, h ow e v er, w h ich p resu m a b ly le d th em to p ro ce ss th e stim u lu s
m a teria l in th e sa m e m a n n er as th e g en e rate su bje cts, n o g en e ra te ad v an tag e w a s
o bse rv e d. In E x p erim e n t 2 , w e inv e stig ate d w h e th e r a d iffe ren t pa tte rn o f
g en e rate a dv a nta g es an d n on -a d va n ta g es w ou ld b e ob ta in e d w ere a m e m o ry test
les s sen sitiv e to targ e t±targ e t relation a l pro c e ssin g to b e g iv e n as th e la ter
c rite rio n te stÐ sp ec ifica lly , a cu e d-re c all te st.
If, a s w as arg u e d in E x p e rim en t 1 , th e req u ire m en t to p e rfo rm the g en era tio n
tas k c o m b ine d w ith th e n a tu re o f th e stim ulu s m ateria ls w o u ld le ad g e ne ra te
su bje c ts to fo c us th eir p ro c essin g e ffo rts o n ta rge t±ta rge t re latio na l in fo rm atio n ,
a nd , if, a s w a s arg u e d in th e intro du ctio n , c ue d -rec a ll tests are prim a rily
se nsitive to cu e ±ta rg et re la tio n a l in fo rm a tio n a nd re la tiv e ly in se nsitive to targ et±
targ et relatio n al in form atio n, th en Ð un like th e resu lts o f E xp e rim e nt 1Ð little o r
n o ge n era te a dv a n ta g e sh o u ld b e o b ta in ed o n a late r c u ed -rec a ll test w h en
su bje c ts a re g iv e n targ e t±ta rg e t o r no n sp e cific pro c essin g in stru c tio n s. M o re o ve r, w he n su b je cts a re g iv e n cu e ±ta rge t p ro c e ssin g in stru c tio n s, a re ad
a dv a nta g e m ig ht w e ll be e x pe c ted . T h at is, a cc o rd in g to ou r a ssu m p tio n s a n d the
resu lts of E x p e rim en t 1, rea d sub jec ts sho u ld b e a b le to m od ify th e ir p ro c e ssin g
e fforts in re sp o nse to th e in stru ction s g iv en , w h e re a s g en e rate sub je cts w o uld
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c o ntin u e to fo c u s on the p ro ce ssing o f targ et±ta rg et re la tio n a l in fo rm ation
b e ca u se o f th eir ne e d to p e rfo rm th e g en e ratio n ta sk . T hu s, in th e c ue ±targ e t
re la tion a l p ro ce ssing c o nd itio n s, re ad su bje cts sh o uld be led to fo cu s o n th e ty p e
o f in fo rm ation to w h ic h the la te r criterio n te st is prim a rily se n sitiv e, w he rea s
g e ne ra te su b jec ts w ill be fo rc e d to co n tin ue fo c usin g the ir pro c e ssin g effo rts o n
a ty p e o f in form ation to w h ic h th e late r c rite rio n te st is re lative ly in sen sitiv e . O n
th e o th e r h an d , alth ou g h g e ne rate su b je c ts are p rim a rily d e p en d en t o n th e
p ro ce ssin g of ta rge t±ta rge t re la tio n a l in fo rm a tio n to g e n era te ta rge ts w ith th e
p re sen t stim u lus m a teria ls, th ey m a y a lso en g ag e in so m e m in im al am o u nt of
c u e±targ e t rela tio n al p ro ce ssin g if the y fe el re q u ire d to ch e ck w he th er ea ch
g e ne ra te targ e t also fits w ith th e p artic u la r c u e w ith w hic h it w a s p aired . It is
u n cle a r, h ow e v er, w h e th er su ch ``p o st-g e ne ra tio n’ ’ c h ec k in g w o uld b e suffic ie n t
to o ffse t th e a d va n ta g e rea d su b jec ts w o uld h a v e in b ein g a ble to fo cu s th e ir
p ro ce ssin g e fforts on c u e±targ e t re la tio n a l in form atio n.
T o su m m a rise , g iv en the sa m e stim ulu s m a terials a s u sed in E xp e rim e nt 1 ,
w h ich w e re co n stru c ted to fo rce g e ne ra te su b je c ts to fo c u s o n the p ro ce ssin g of
ta rg e t±ta rge t re la tion a l info rm ation in o rde r to p e rfo rm th e g e ne ration task , a nd
th e use o f a cu ed -rec a ll te st, a ssum ed to b e se n sitiv e to c ue ±ta rg et re la tio n a l
in form a tio n a nd larg ely in sen sitiv e to ta rge t±ta rge t re la tion a l in fo rm a tion , th e
p re sen t fram e w ork w o u ld le ad us to ex p e ct th e fo llo w in g p a tte rn of resu lts in
E x pe rim e n t 2 : little o r n o g en e ratio n ad v an ta ge w h en sub jec ts a re g ive n targ e t±
ta rg e t re la tio n a l o r n o n spe c ific p ro ce ssin g instru ction s, a n d a p o ssib le re ad
a d va n ta g e w h en su bje cts are g ive n cu e ±ta rg e t re la tio n a l p ro c essin g in stru c tio n s.
A d d itio na lly , a s w ith E x p e rim en t 1 , th e pe rfo rm a nc e o f g e n era te sub je cts sh o u ld
n o t va ry a s a fu n ctio n o f p ro c essin g in struc tio n s, w h e rea s th e p erfo rm a nc e of
re ad su b je c ts sho u ld , resu ltin g in b e st p e rfo rm an c e fo r rea d sub je cts w h en th e
p ro ce ssin g instru ction s the y re ce ive m a tc h th e ty p e o f in form a tio n to w h ic h th e
la te r c rite rio n test is m o st se nsitive . In E x p erim e n t 2 , th en , b est p e rfo rm an c e for
re ad su b jec ts sh o uld o cc u r w h e n c u e±ta rge t p ro ce ssin g in stru c tio n s are g iv e n.
M eth od
S u bje cts.
T h e sub je cts w e re 11 6 O b erlin C olleg e u n de rg rad u a te s w h os e
p a rtic ip a tio n p a rtially fu lfille d a n intro d uc tory p sy c ho lo g y c ou rse req u ire m en t.
T h ey w ere ran d o m ly a ssign e d to e ac h of the six b e tw e en -su b je c ts c o nd itio n s, w ith
th e to ta l in ea ch c on d itio n b e in g as fo llo w s: 2 0 in b o th th e g en e rate ´ targ e t±
t a rg e t a n d th e g e n e ra t e ´ n o n s p e c i fic p r o c e ss in g c o n d i tio n s ; 1 9 in th e
g e ne ra te ´ cu e ±ta rg e t pro c essin g c o n dition ; 2 0 in b oth th e rea d ´ c ue ±targ e t
a n d re ad ´ ta rge t±ta rg et pro c e ssin g c o n ditio n s; an d 1 7 in th e re a d ´ n on sp e cific
p ro ce ssin g c on d itio n .
M a te ria ls an d A pp a ra tu s.
T h e stu dy p h a se m a te rials a n d the a p p ara tus
w e re th e sam e as th o se u sed in E x p e rim en t 1 , bu t th e te st b o o k le ts c on ta in e d a
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P R O C E S SIN G IN S T R U C T IO N S
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c ue d -rec all rath er th an a fre e-re ca ll te st. T h e first pa g e o f the test b oo k let
inf orm ed su bje c ts a b ou t the te st on the n e xt p ag e . T h e c u ed -re ca ll te st pa g e itself
c on ta in e d th e 2 4 cu e s p rese nte d in a ra nd o m ly d e te rm in ed o rd er th a t w a s h e ld
c on sta nt fo r all su bje c ts. A ne w o rd erin g of th e cu es at test e nsu re d tha t su bje cts
c ou ld n o t ta ke ad v a nta ge o f o rd er info rm a tio n to d o w ell on the te st. N ex t to
e ac h c u e w a s a b lan k lin e o n w hic h su bje cts w ro te th e ta rg e t ite m tha t th ey
rem em b e re d as b e in g pa ired w ith tha t cu e o n the stud y list.
D es ig n an d P r oc e du re .
T he b asic d esig n an d pro c e du re w e re th e sam e a s
tho se use d in E x p erim e n t 1 . T h e d e pe n d en t va ria b le in E x p e rim en t 2, h o w ev e r,
w as p e rform an c e o n a late r cu ed -re ca ll tes t, ra the r th a n a late r fre e-re ca ll test.
R e su lts an d Discussio n
G en e ra tio n R a te.
T h e m ea n g e n era tio n fa ilu re ra te w a s 6.4 % . T h e an a ly se s
c on d itio n alised o n co rre ct ta rg et g en e ratio n at stu d y d id n o t d iffe r from the
a na ly ses th at w e re u n c on d itio na l w ith re sp ec t to co rrec t ge n er atio n ; th u s, o nly
the u nc o n dition a l a n aly ses a re p re sen ted h e re .
C u e d -rec a ll.
F ig u re 2 p rese n ts th e m ea n p e rce n ta g es o f ta rge ts th a t w ere
c orre ctly re ca lle d b y th e g en era te v ersu s th e re ad su b jec ts a s a fu n ctio n o f the
thr ee ty p es o f pro c e ssin g in stru ction s. A s in Fig . 1 , th e line ex te n din g b e y on d the
top o f e ac h b a r sh ow s th e c o rre sp o nd in g sta n da rd erro r for th at c on d itio n . T he
d ata w e re a na lyse d usin g a tw o -w ay be tw e e n -sub je cts an aly sis o f va ria n c e an d
p la n n ed -c om p ariso ns to test th e hy p o th e se s.
T h e a p p are n t inte rac tio n b e tw e e n e nc o d in g ta sk a n d ty pe of p ro c e ssin g
instru c tio n in dic ate d in F ig . 2 w a s rev e ale d to b e sig n ific an t, F (2 ,1 1 0 ) = 3 .1 0 ,
M S e = 3 10 .1 9 , P < .0 5 . A s pre d ic te d th e p e rfo rm an c e o f g e ne rate sub jec ts w a s
u na ffe cte d b y p roc e ssin g instru ctio ns, F (2 ,1 1 0 ) = 1 .3 2 , M S e = 31 0 .1 9 , P > .2 0 ;
w h ere as th e p e rfo rm an c e o f re ad su b je c ts w a s sig n ific a ntly in flu e nc e d b y
p roc e ssin g in stru ction s, F (2 ,1 1 0 ) = 7 .4 1 , M S e = 3 10 .1 9 . P < .0 0 2 . A lso , a s
p red ic te d , re ad su b jec ts g iv e n in stru ction s to fo c us on th e p roc e ssin g o f c ue ±
targ et re lation a l info rm a tio n p e rfo rm e d sig n ific an tly b e tte r o n the c ue d -rec a ll
tes t th a n d id rea d su b jec ts g ive n ta rge t±ta rg e t a n d n o nsp e c ific p ro c e ssin g
in s tru c tio n s , F (1 ,1 1 0 ) = 8 . 4 6 , M S e = 3 1 0 .1 9 , P < .0 0 5 ; F (1 ,1 1 0 ) = 1 3 .0 0 ,
M S e = 3 10 .1 9 , P < .0 0 1 , re sp ec tiv e ly .
W ith resp e ct to th e p red ictio n o f a p o ssib le rea d a d va n tag e w h en bo th re ad
a nd g en e rate su b jec ts w e re g iv en cu e ±ta rg et pro ce ssin g in stru c tio n s, re ad
su bje c ts d id pe rfo rm m a rg in a lly b etter th an th e c o rre sp o n din g ge n era te su b jec ts,
c on sisten t w ith th e p re d ic tio n th a t rea d su b jec ts w o u ld b e m o re a b le to m o dify
the ir p ro ce ssin g effo rts in resp o n se to instru ction s th a n w o uld ge n era te sub je cts
o w in g to th e co n stra in ts im p o se d o n th eir pro c essin g e fforts by the g en era tio n
tas k, F (1 ,1 1 0 ) = 3 .2 4 , M S e = 3 1 0 .1 9, P < .0 8 . W h en g iv en e ith e r targ et±ta rg et o r
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F IG . 2 .
M e a n p e rc e n t a g e o f co rr e c tl y re c a ll ed ta rg e ts o n a c u e d -r ec a ll te s t fo r th e g e n e ra te a n d re a d
c o n d it io n s a s a fu n c t io n o f p ro ce s s in g in s tru c tio n s in E x p e rim e n t 2 . T h e l in es e x t e n d in g b e y o n d th e
b a rs re p re s en t s t an d a rd e rr o rs.
n o n spe c ific p roc e ssing in stru c tio n s, h o w ev e r, th e cu e d -re c all p erfo rm a n ce o f th e
re ad an d g en e ra te su bje cts d id no t d iffe r, F (1 ,1 1 0 ) = 0 .1 6, M S e = 3 10 .1 9 , P > .0 5;
F (1,1 10 ) = 2 .9 0 , M S e = 3 10 .1 9, P > .0 5, resp ec tive ly .
T hu s, th e p atter n o f re sults ob tain ed in E x pe rim en t 2 a re a lso co n siste n t w ith
th e co n ten tion th a t re a d su bje cts w o u ld be b e tte r a ble th an g e ne ra te su b jec ts to
m o dify th eir allo c a tio n o f pro ce ssin g reso u rc es in ac c or da n ce w ith p ro ce ssin g
in stru c tio n s. F irst, w he n g ive n in stru c tio n s th at dire cted th e m to p ro c ess the ty p e
o f in fo rm a tio n to w h ic h th e later c ue d -rec all te st w o uld b e se n sitive , th e
p e r f o r m a n c e o f re a d s u b je c t s w a s m a r g in a l ly b e tt e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e
c o rre sp o nd in g ge n era te su b jec ts an d sig n ific a ntly be tte r th an tha t o f re ad
su b je c ts g iv e n e ithe r ta rg e t±ta rg e t o r n o n sp ec ific p ro c essin g in stru ctio n s.
S e co n d , th e p e rfo rm an c e o f th e ge n era te su b jec ts d id no t va ry as a fu n c tio n of
th e ty pe o f p ro c essin g in stru ctio n s g iv e n , su pp o rtin g the a ssum ptio n th a t th e
re q uire m e nt to g en e rate la rge ly p re scribe s the allo ca tio n o f p ro c e ssin g re so u rc e s.
T h at is, w hile g en e ra te su bje cts w e re la rg ely fo rce d to c on tinu e p ro ce ssin g
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targ et±targ e t in fo rm a tio n a t th e ex p e nse o f c ue ±ta rg e t in fo rm atio n in o rd er to
p erfo rm th e g en e ration ta sk, re ad su b jec tsÐ n ot be in g c o n stra ine d b y an y
g e n e ra tio n re q u ire m e n tsÐ w e re fre e to d ire ct th e ir p ro c e ss in g e ffo rts to
w h ate ve r in form atio n th e y h a d b ee n told w o u ld be m o st h elp ful to th em o n a
late r te st, re su ltin g in a m arg in ally sign ifica n t re ad a dv a nta g e w h en in stru cte d to
p roc e ss cu e ±ta rge t re lation a l in form atio n. A s c o nte m p late d e a rlie r, th e fa ilu re o f
the o b serv e d re ad a dv a n ta g e to re a c h statistic al sig nifica n ce in th is c o nd itio n
c ou ld b e du e to g en e rate su bje cts a lw a y s e n ga g ing in so m e d e g re e o f c ue ±ta rg et
rela tio n al p ro c e ssin g ow in g to th e im plicit ta sk d e m a n d to se e if a targ e tÐ
a lth ou g h p rim a rily g en e rate d on th e ba sis o f targ e t±ta rg e t relatio na l info rm a tio n Ð n on e th e le ss fitte d w ith its c u e.
A s an a d ditio n a l c h ec k o n ou r p red ictio n th a t re ad su b jec ts w o u ld be m ore
a ble th an ge n era te sub jec ts to tak e a d v an tag e o f th e p ro c essin g in stru c tio n s th ey
rec e ive d , a n an a ly sis o f cu e ±ta rg et m isp airing s w a s p e rfo rm e d . S p e cifica lly , w e
a ssum e d tha t if rea d su bje cts w e re ab le to m o dify th eir p ro ce ssing effo rts in
resp o n se to pro c essin g in stru c tio n s, th e n th e y sh o uld co m m it fe w er c ue ±ta rg et
m isp airin gs w h e n g ive n cu e ±ta rge t pro c essin g in stru c tio n s th a n w h e n g iv en
o th e r ty pe s of pro c essin g instru c tio ns; w he rea s th e n u m b er o f c ue ±ta rg et
m isp airin gs m ad e b y g e n era te su bje c ts w o u ld b e la rge ly u n a ffe cte d by th e ty pe
o f p ro c essin g in stru ction s th ey re ce iv e d . A d d itio na lly , if rea d su bje c ts w e re a b le
to e n ga g e in m o re cu e±ta rge t pro c essin g th a n g e n era te su bje cts w h en b o th w ere
g iv e n in stru c tio n s to pro c ess cu e ±ta rg et in fo rm a tio n in o rd er to o p tim ise th eir
p erfo rm a n ce o n a la te r c u ed -rec a ll te st, th en on e m igh t e x pe c t the re a d su bje cts
to co m m it few e r cu e ±ta rg et m isp a irin g s o n th e later cu e d-re ca ll te st tha n w o uld
the g en e rate sub jec ts.
C u e ± T a rge t M isp a irin g s.
T he n u m b e r of tim e s tha t a ta rg et w a s giv e n in
resp o n se to a c u e o th e r th a n the c u e w ith w hic h it h a d b ee n p aired a t stu dy w a s
sc ore d , an d th e se d a ta w ere an a ly se d u sin g a tw o -w ay be tw ee n -sub jec ts an a lysis
o f v arian c e an d p lan n e d-c om p ariso n s to te st th e h y po th ese s. A sig n ific an t
inte rac tio n b etw ee n e nc o din g task a nd ty pe o f instru ctio n w a s o bta in e d ,
F (2,1 10 ) = 3 .0 6 , M S e = 3.5 4, P < .0 5 . R ea d sub je cts m a de sign ifica ntly fe w er
ta rg et m isp airing s w hen g iv en cu e±targe t proc essing instru ction s (M = 0.8 0) tha n
w h en g iv en targe t±ta rg et (M = 2.2 5 ) or n on spe cific proc essin g in stru ctio ns
(M = 2.8 2), F (1,1 10 ) = 5 .9 4 , M S e = 3.5 4, P < .0 2; F (1,1 10 ) = 1 0.6 2, M S e = 3 .5 4 ,
P < .0 02, respe ctive ly . In co ntra st, proc essin g in stru ctio ns faile d to p ro du ce a
sig nifican t differenc e in the nu m be r o f c ue ±ta rg et m isp airings m a de by gen erate
sub jec ts. In the cue ±targ et, targe t±targe t, an d n on sp ecific proce ssing co ndition s,
th e m e an nu m ber o f m ispairing s w e re 2.1 1, 2.7 0, and 2 .8 2 , respe ctive ly ,
F (2 ,1 1 0 ) = 0 .8 0 , M S e = 3 .5 4 , P > .4 0 . M ore o ve r, c o nsiste nt w ith ou r e arlie r
sp ec u latio ns, w h en w e lo ok on ly at th e p e rfo rm a n ce o f su b jec ts g iv e n c ue ±ta rg et
p roc e ssin g in stru c tio n s, th e re ad su b je c ts m a de sig nifica n tly few e r c ue ±ta rg et
m isp airin gs th an the su bje cts req u ire d to ge n er ate, F (1,1 1 0 ), M S e = 3 .5 4 , P < .0 5 .
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T he pa tte rn o f c u e±ta rge t m isp a irin g s is th u s co n siste n t w ith th e p ictu re
p a in te d b y the c u ed -rec a ll re su lts. R e ad sub jec ts, be ing un c o ns tra in e d b y th e
n e ed to ge n era te ta rg e ts, w e re ap p are n tly ab le to m o d ify th e ir p roc e ssing e ffo rts
in ac co rd an c e w ith th e in struc tio n s giv en , a s ev id en c ed by th e sig n ific an tly
fe w er cu e ±ta rg et m isp a irin g s th e y m a d e w h en giv en cu e ±ta rg et v e rsu s targ e t±
ta rg e t or n o n sp ec ific p ro c essin g instru ctio ns. In co n tra st, e v en w h en e xp licitly
in stru c ted to pro c ess c ue ±ta rg et relatio n al in fo rm a tio n, ge n era te su bje cts m a d e
a s m a ny cu e ±ta rge t m isp a irin gs a s w h e n g iv e n targ et±targ e t o r n on sp e cific
p ro ce ssin g in stru c tio n s, a nd sig nifica ntly m o re c u e±targ e t m isp a irin g s th a n re ad
su b jec ts g iv en cu e ±ta rg et pro c e ssin g in stru c tio n s, c o nsisten t w ith o u r assu m p tion th at th e n e ed to p erfo rm the ge n era tio n ta sk re nd e rs ge n era te su bje c ts
in fle x ible w ith reg a rd to th e ty p e o f p ro ce ssin g in w h ic h the y c an e n ga g e d u rin g
stu d y . T h at is, su bje cts re q u ire d to g en e rate targ e ts m u st fo c us on the ty pe of
in form a tio n n e ed e d to g en e ra te ta rg e ts, w hic h, in th e p rese n t e x p erim e n ts, w a s
ta rg e t±ta rge t or w h ole -list rela tio na l in fo rm a tio n .
G E N E R A L D IS C U S S IO N
P resent R esults
T h e p rese n t rese a rc h pro v id e s ne w a s w ell a s co rrob o ra tiv e ev id en c e fo r th e
m u ltifa c tor tra n sfer-a pp ro p ria te p roc essin g fra m e w o rk , a s orig in a lly p ro p o sed in
d e W insta n le y e t a l. (1 9 96 ) a n d a s fu rth e r ela b ora ted in th e p rese n t p a p er. F irst,
c o nsiste nt w ith th e a ssu m ption o f this fra m e w o rk tha t a ge n era tio n e ffe c t sh o u ld
o n ly b e ex p ec ted w h en a la ter rete ntio n te st is se nsitiv e to th e in fo rm ation
e n ha n c ed b y th e g en e ratio n ta sk, a ge n era tio n a dv a nt ag e w a s o n ly o b ser ve d in
th e p re se n t stu d ies w he n th e prim ary ty p e of in fo rm a tio n u sed as th e b asis for
so lv in g th e ge n era tio n ta skÐ n am e ly , targ et±ta rg e t re latio na l info rm a tion Ð w a s
th e ty pe o f in fo rm a tio n to w h ich th e la te r re te n tio n te st w a s se n sitive Ð n am ely ,
th e free -rec a ll te st o f E x p erim e n t 1 . S ec o nd , th e p atter n o f re sults ob tain e d
a c ro ss the pre sen t tw o e x p erim e n ts is c o n siste nt w ith w h a t w e h a ve ca lle d th e
lim ite d p ro c e ss in g re so u rc e a ssu m p tio n o f th i s fra m e w o rk Ð n a m e ly , th e
c o nte n tio n tha t th e pro c essin g o f o ne ty p e of in fo rm a tio n c an be , an d o fte n is,
in co m p atible w ith the p ro ce ssin g o f o the r ty pe s o f info rm a tio n . A c c ord ing ly ,
w h ile th e re q uire m e n t to g en e rate m a y lea d to e n h an c ed p ro ce ssin g o f th e ty p e
o f in form a tio n u sed a s th e b asis fo r g e ne ra tio n, th e p ro c essin g o f o the r ty pe s of
in form a tio n is lik e ly to b e im p aired as a co n se q ue n ce , resu ltin g in e ith e r c osts or
b e ne fits d ep e nd in g o n th e n a tu re o f a la ter reten tion test. C on sisten t w ith th is
n o tio n , w h en a cu e d-re c all te st w a s ad m in istere d in E x p erim e n t 2 Ð a te st
a ssu m e d to b e p rim a rily se n sitiv e to c u e±targ e t re latio na l inf orm ation an d n ot
se n sitiv e to targ e t±ta rg e t rela tio na l in form ation Ð n o ge n era tio n a d va n ta g e w a s
o b ser ve d .
A d d itio na l, th e pre sen t resu lts su p po rt the c u rre n tly p ro po se d d iffe ren ce
b e tw e e n ge n era tin g an d rea d in g a s w a y s of e n co d ing in form atio n. A cc o rdin g to
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this v iew , th e req u ire m en t to ge n era te re sults in sub jec ts fo cu sing th eir
p roc e ssin g e fforts o n w h atev er typ e o f info rm a tio n is m os t h e lp fu l in g u id in g the
so lu tio n o f th e g e ne ratio n ta sk; w he rea s, w h e n rea d in g in ta ct info rm a tio n for the
p urp o se o f re m e m b e rin g , su bje cts are m o re fre e to distrib u te the ir p ro c e ssin g
e fforts a cro ss the diffe re n t typ e s of av a ila b le in fo rm a tio n . C o n siste n t w ith th is
p rop o se d d istin ction , th e p erfo rm a nc e o f sub jec ts re q uired to g en e ra te d id no t
v ary a s a fu nc tion o f the pro ce ssing in stru ction s th ey re c eiv ed , w h e the r
m e a su re d in te rm s o f fre e-re ca ll p erfo rm a nc e an d ca te g o ry c lu ste rin g a s in
E x pe rim en t 1 or in te rm s o f cu e d-re c all p e rform an c e a n d c u e±targ e t m ispa irin g s
a s in E xp e rim e nt 2. In c o ntra st, th e p erfo rm a nc e o f su b jec ts re ad ing inta ct
inf orm atio n d id v a ry in rela tio n to th e p ro ce ssing in stru c tio n s giv e n, w ith b etter
p erfo rm a n ce b ein g o b ta ine d w he n th e re ten tio n test w a s co n sisten t w ith
p roc e ssin g instru ction s. Fu rth erm o re , w h en , in E x p erim e n t 1 , b o th re ad an d
g en e rate sub je cts w ere led to fo c us th eir p ro ce ssin g e ffo rts o n th e ty p e o f
inf orm atio n to w hic h th e later re ten tio n test w a s prim a rily se n sitiv eÐ th e re ad
su bje c ts b y instru ction a n d th e g en e rate sub jec ts b y th e n a ture o f th e g en era tio n
tas kÐ th e ge n era tio n ad v an ta ge ob se rve d in the oth e r tw o in stru c tio n c o nd itio n s
w as elim ina te d. S im ila rly , w h e n , in E x pe rim e n t 2 , re ad su b jec ts w e re le d to
fo cu s th e ir p roc e ssin g effo rts o n th e typ e o f in fo rm a tio n to w h ich th e la ter
rete ntio n te st w a s se n sitiv e, bu t g e ne ra te sub je cts w ere c o nstra ine d by th e na ture
o f the g e ne ra tio n task to c on tin ue fo cu s in g o n the p ro ce ssing of ta rge t±ta rg et
rela tio n al info rm atio n , a m a rgin a lly sig n ific a nt rea d ad v an ta g e w as o b se rv e d.
P rev io usly R ep orted R esu lts
In a dd itio n to the p re sen t resu lts a nd th o se re p o rte d b y d eW in sta nle y et a l.
(1 99 6 ), re su lts su pp o rtin g th e pro p os ed m u ltifa c tor tra n sfe r-ap p ro pria te p ro ce ssing fram e w o rk ca n a lso b e fo un d in a v a rie ty o f o the r stu d ies rep o rted in the
lite ratu re. N o t su rp risin g ly , all fin d in g s pre vio u sly inte rp re ted as su pp o rtiv e o f
tw o -fa cto r, thr ee -fa c to r, o r m u ltifa cto r th e o rie s of g e ne ra tio n effec ts (e.g . B u rn s
1 99 0 ; H irshm a n & B jo rk , 1 9 88 ; M c D an iel, R ie g le r, & W ad d ill, 1 9 90 ; M c D a n iel
e t a l., 19 8 8 ) c an also be in terp re te d a s su p p or tiv e o f th e p re se nt fra m e w o rk ,
g iv e n th at it w a s b u ilt on th o se p rev io us a cc o u nts. M ore spe c ifica lly, h o w ev e r,
su pp o rt c an a lso b e fo un d in ea rlie r find ing s fo r w h at w e h av e ca lled th e lim ited
p r o c e s sin g re s o u rc e a s su m p tio n o f th e p re se n t fr a m e w o rk Ð th a t i s, th e
c on te ntion th a t the fo c usin g o f p ro ce ssin g effo rts o n o n e ty p e o f info rm a tio n Ð w hile e nh a nc in g th e p roc e ssing o f tha t in fo rm a tio n Ð c an b e, an d o ften is,
inc o m p a tib le w ith the p roc e ssin g o f o th e r typ e s o f in fo rm a tio n lea d ing to co sts
o r be n efits, d ep e nd in g on the n atu re o f a late r re ten tio n te st.
C o n sid e r, fo r e x a m p le, th e fin d in gs th a t H irsh m a n an d B jo rk (19 88 )
o rigin ally re g ard ed a s a p u zz lin g o utc om e o f the ir re sea rc h. (Se e a lso H irsh m a n ,
1 98 8 ; an d H irsh m a n , W h e lle y , & P alij, 19 8 9 , for a d iscu ssio n o f th e se fin din g s.)
A cro ss fo u r e xp e rim e nts, H irsh m a n an d B jo rk fo u nd a d isso cia tio n b etw ee n
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fre e-re ca ll an d cu e d-re c all tests for c ue ±ta rg et pa irs in w h ich th e ta rge ts w e re
first asso c ia tes v ersu s th ird a sso cia te s o f th eir c ue s: c u ed re ca ll of first-a sso cia te
ta rg e ts e xc e ed e d c ue d re ca ll of th ird -a sso c ia te ta rge ts, w he rea s th e rev e rse w a s
tru e fo r fre e re ca ll. A lth o u gh in te rp reting th is inte rac tio n a s ind ica tin g th at th e
e ffec t of g e ne ratio n o n re sp on se ac tiv a tio n (ta rge t-sp ec ific in fo rm a tio n in th e
p re sen t fra m ew o rk) w a s g rea ter fo r th ird asso c iates th a n first asso c ia tes, w he rea s
th e effe ct o f g e n era tio n o n stim u lu s±re spo n se a ssoc iatio n (cu e ±ta rg et re la tio n a l
in form a tio n) w a s e q ua l fo r th e tw o ty p es o f asso c ia tes, th ey a rriv e d a t th is
in te rp reta tio n in a p o st h o c m an n e rÐ h a vin g in itia lly assu m e d tha t th e e ffe ct of
g e ne ra tio n w o uld b e to stre n gth en b oth ty pe s o f in fo rm atio n m o re for th ird
a sso c ia tes tha n for first a sso ciate s.
In c on tra st, the p rese n t fram ew o rk w o uld p red ict suc h a n o utc om e a s follo w s:
fo r th e pu rp o se o f ge n era tin g th e ap p ro priate ta rg e t, th e cu e ±ta rge t re la tio n sh ip
w o u ld n ot b e a s su ffic ien t fo r th ird a sso cia te s as fo r first. F o r first-asso c ia te
ta rg e ts, th e c ue ±ta rg et re la tio n sh ip w ou ld b e lik ely to p ro du c e the re sp on se w ith
o n ly m in o r p ro c essin g o f the a ctu al fra g m en t. F o r th ird -ass o ciate ta rge ts,
h o w e ve r, th e less stro n g re la tion sh ip b etw ee n c u e an d ta rge t w o uld fo rc e
su b jec ts to foc u s m o re a tte n tio n on th e p ro ce ssing o f in fo rm a tio n pro v ide d b y
th e fra gm e n t in o rd e r to g en e rate th e ap p ro pria te targ e t, resu ltin g in re la tiv e ly
g re ate r targ e t-sp e cific pro c essin g fo r th ird asso cia tes. In a la te r c u ed -rec a ll
te stÐ a ssum ed to be prim arily se nsitiv e to c u e±targ et re la tio n a l in form ation a nd
le ss sen sitive to targ et-sp ec ific inf orm ation Ð first a ssoc ia te s w o u ld p ro fit b o th
fro m th eir g rea te r p re-e xp e rim en ta l a sso cia tio n stre n gth a nd fro m the su b je c ts’
g re ate r re lia nc e o n cu e ±ta rg et re lation a l in form a tio n in o rd er to p e rfo rm th e
g e ne ra tio n ta sk . In a late r fre e -re c all testÐ a ssu m ed to be se n sitiv e to targ e tsp e cific info rm a tio n as w ell a s to targ et±targ e t rela tio n al in fo rm a tio n Ð th ird
a sso c ia tes w o u ld p ro fit from th e su b jec ts’ gre a te r relian c e o n targ e t-sp e cific
in form a tio n in ord e r to pe rfo rm th e g en er ation task .
S im il a rly , a lth o u g h s p e c ific a ll y d e si g n e d to te st th e as s u m p tio n th a t
g e ne ra tio n e nh a nc e s c ue ±targ et re lation a l pro c e ssin g a s w ell a s ite m -sp e cific
p ro ce ssin g, the o v era ll p a tte rn o f re su lts o b ta in ed b y B urn s (1 9 9 0) c a n also b e
in te rp rete d in te rm s of th is a sp ec t o f th e pre sen t fra m e w ork . In h is stu d y ,
p h o ne m ic a lly re lated c ue ±ta rg et p airs w e re p rese nte d fo r tw ice th e ty pic al
d u ratio n to allow a m p le tim e fo r p o st-ge n era tin g a n d p ost-re ad in g p ro c essin g .
T h en , b y m an ip ula tin g th e a m o u n t o f c ate go rica l stru ctu re in the lists, b oth re ad
a n d ge n er ate sub je cts w er e in d uc e d to a llo c ate the ir p ro c e ssin g reso u rc es d u rin g
th is ex tra tim e to th e sa m e ty pe o f in fo rm atio n.
W he n m in im a l ca teg o ric a l stru c ture w as p rov ide d , bo th rea d a n d ge n era te
su b jec ts w e re in d uc e d to sp en d th is e xtra tim e e ng a ge d in th e p ro c e ssin g o f c u e±
ta rg e t rela tio n al in fo rm atio n Ð th e m o st sa lie n t ty p e o f in fo rm a tion p re se nt in th e
list. T h u s, in te rm s o f th e p rese n t fra m ew o rk, alth ou g h the b en e fits o f en h an c e d
ta rg e t-spe c ific p roc e ssing sh ou ld re m a in fo r th e g en e rate su b je c ts, th e in du c e d
a d dition a l p roc e ssing of cu e ±ta rg et in form atio n b y the re ad su bje cts co u ld
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e lim in a te th e a dv a nta g e o f e nh a nc e d c u e±targ e t rela tio na l p ro ce ssin g for the
g en e rate sub jec ts, re sultin g in a g en e ration a d va n ta g e in re c o gn itio n an d
p ossib ly fre e re ca ll, b u t n o t in cu e d re c allÐ th e p a tte rn th at B urn s (1 9 90 ), in fac t,
o bta ine d . W h en , h ow e v er, m a x im al c a te g or ic al stru ctu re w a s p ro v id e d, so th at
b oth re ad a nd g e n era te su b je cts w e re in d uc ed to sp en d th is e x tra tim e e n ga g e d in
targ et-sp e cific an d targ et±ta rg et rela tio n al pro c essin g , th e re v erse pa tte rn o f
resu lts w o uld b e ex p e cted . A lth o u gh th e b en ef its o f en h a nc e d c ue ±ta rg et
p roc e ssin g sh ou ld re m a in for the ge n er ate su b je cts, th e ind u c ed ad d itio n al
p roc e ssin g o f targ et-sp e cific a nd ta rg e t±ta rge t p ro c essin g b y th e rea d sub je cts
c ou ld e lim ina te the ad v an tag e of en h an c e d targ e t-sp e cific an d ta rge t±ta rg et
p roc e ssin g fo r th e g e ne ra te sub jec ts, resu ltin g in a g e n era tio n a d va n ta g e in c ue d
rec a ll bu t p o ssibly e lim ina tin g th e g en e ra tio n ad v a nta g e in re c o gn itio n a n d free
rec a llÐ ag a in, th e pa tte rn th a t B u rn s, in fac t, o b ta ine d .
T h e resu lts ob tain e d in the rese a rc h o f N a irne , R ieg ler , an d S e rra (1 99 1 ) an d
S erra a nd N a irne (1 9 93 ) c an a lso be in te rp reted a s p ro vid ing su p p or t fo r the
p attern o f fac ilitatio n a n d im pa irm e nt p red icte d b y th e p re sen t fra m e w o rk .
A cro ss a n u m b e r o f ex p erim e n ts, th e se re se a rch e rs h a v e sh ow n d isso c ia tive
e ff e c ts o f g e n e r a ti o n o n m e m o ry fo r i te m ( t a r g e t- s p e c i f ic ) a n d o r d e r
inf orm atio n . F o r e xa m p le , N a irn e e t a l. (1 99 1 , E x p erim en t 1 ) fo u nd a g en era tio n
a dv a nta g e in a b etw e en -list de sign fo r ite m in fo rm a tion as m e asu re d b y a
rec o g n itio n te st, b u t a n eg ativ e ge n era tio n e ffec t for ord e r info rm a tio n a s
m e a su re d by a n o rde r-rec o nstru c tio n tes t. A g a in , th ese typ e s o f d isso c ia tive
e ffec ts o f g en e ra tion a re c on siste n t w ith th e lim ited p roc essin g reso u rce
a ssum p tio n of th e p re se n t fra m e w o rk. A cc ord in g to th is a ssum p tio n , w h en
p roc e ssin g effo rts are fo c us ed on ta rg et-sp ec ific in form ation in o rde r to g e ne ra te
targ ets, the pro c essin g o f o th e r typ e s o f info rm ation a v aila ble in th e list, su ch a s
o rde r in form ation , c an b e im p aire d . W e re it po ssible in the ty p e o f p a ra d igm
u sed b y N a irn e an d his asso c iate s to m a ke p roc e ssing of o rd er in fo rm a tio n
c on g ru en t w ith o r u sefu l to th e ge n era tio n task , the n a ge n era tio n a dv a nta g e fo r
o rde r as w e ll a s ite m info rm a tion m ig h t w e ll o cc u r.
C o n clud in g C om m en ts
In c on c lu sio n , th e p res en t rese a rch h a s p ro vid e d n ew as w e ll a s c orro b o rative
su p p ort for th e m u ltifa c to r tra n sfer-a p pro p riate p ro ce ssin g e x pla n atio n o f
g en e ratio n effec ts. A c co rd in g to this fra m e w ork , ho w su b jec ts alloc a te th eir
p roc e ssin g re so urc es to the v a rio u s ty p e s o f in fo rm a tio n av a ila b le in an
e xp e rim e nta l co n tex t w ill de p en d n o t o n ly o n w h e th e r the y a re req u ire d to re ad
o r to g e ne rate stim u lus in fo rm ation , b u t also on v ariation s in p ro c e du re s,
instru c tio ns, an d m a te rials. S u bje c ts req u ired to g en e ra te w ill b e led to fo cu s
the ir pro c essin g effo rts o n th e typ e o f in fo rm a tio n m o st he lp fu l in so lv in g the
g en e ratio n task . In co n tra st, su bje cts rea d ing inta ct in fo rm a tio n w ill n o t h av e
the ir p ro c essin g e ffo rts g uid e d by th e n e ce ssity to p erfo rm a g en e ratio n ta sk an d
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420
d eW IN S T A N L E Y A N D B JO R K
w ill th er efo re ty p ic a lly sp re ad th eir p roc e ssin g e fforts m or e o r le ss ev e nly a c ro ss
th e d iffere n t ty p es o f a va ilab le in form a tio n. A dd ition a lly , th e n e ed to p erfo rm
th e ge n er atio n ta sk an d , th u s, to fo c us p ro c e ssin g e fforts o n th e ty p e of
in form a tio n m o st use ful for g en e ra tio n , ren d e rs g en e rate su b jec ts, as co m pa re d
to re a d su bje c ts, le ss a b le to m o d ify the ir p roc e ssing effo rts in re sp on se to oth er
fa cto rs, su ch a s ex p lic itly pro v id e d pro c essin g in stru c tio n s.
In th e pre se nt fra m e w o rk , the n , a g en era tion a d va n tag e sh o u ld o c cu r in th os e
situa tio n s w h e re the req u ire m en t to g e ne ra te o p po rtu ne ly fo c us es p ro ce ssin g
re so u rc e sÐ tha t is, le a ds to th e e n ha n ce d pro ce ssin g b y g en e ra te su b jec ts, as
c o m p a red to rea d sub jec ts, o f th e ty pe o f in fo rm atio n to w h ic h a la te r reten tion
te st is sen sitiv e , as w as o b serv e d in th e p attern o f re sults o bta in e d in E x p erim e nt
1 for rea d an d g en e rate su b jec ts giv e n e ith e r c u e±targ e t o r no n sp e cific
p ro ce ssin g in stru c tio ns . O n th e o th er h an d , g en e ratio n a dv a n tag e s a re u n lik e ly
to o c cu r w he n th e g e ne ratio n tas k d oe s no t fo c u s p ro ce ssin g e fforts o n th e ty p e
o f in fo rm a tion to w hic h a la te r test is p rim arily se n sitiv e, as w as o b serv e d in th e
re su lts o f E x p erim e n t 2 . Fu rthe rm o re , e ve n w he n the g en e ration task lea d s to
fo c us ed p ro ce ssing o f the ty pe of in fo rm a tio n to w h ic h a la te r te st is se nsitiv e , a
g e ne ra tio n a d va n ta g e w ill no t n e ce ssa rily b e o b serv e d if re ad sub jec ts h a v e
so m eh o w also be en le d to fo c us th eir p roc essin g effo rts o n th a t sa m e typ e of
in form a tio n, a s w a s o b se rve d in th e la c k o f a g e ne ration ad v a nta g e w h en re ad
su b jec ts w ere e xp lic itly g ive n targ e t±ta rg e t pro ce ssin g instru ction s in E xp e rim en t 1 . T h u s, th e m u ltifa cto r tran sfer-a p p ro p ria te p roc essin g fram e w o rk , as
p re vio us ly p rop o se d in d eW in stan le y e t a l. (19 9 6 ) an d fu rthe r ela b ora ted in th e
p re sen t p ap e r, p rov id e s a c o m pe llin g th e o re tic a l fra m e w o rk in w h ich th e
so m etim e s a p pa re n tly c o nflictin g o utc o m e s re g ard ing th e g e n era tio n e ffec t c an
b e ex p lain ed , a n d in w hic h th e e ffe cts of a v ariety o f v a ria b le sÐ in term s of
p ro du c in g, or failin g to p ro du c e , a g e n era tio n ad v an tag e Ð c a n b e p re d ic ted .
M a n u s c rip t re c e iv e d 9 A u g u s t 1 9 9 3
M a n u s c rip t a c c e p te d 2 9 M a y 1 9 9 6
R E FE R E N C E S
B e g g , I . (1 9 7 8 ). S im i la rity an d c o n tra s t in m e m o ry fo r re l a tio n s. M e m o r y & C o g n i tio n , 6 , 5 0 9 ±5 1 7 .
B e g g , I., & S n i d e r, A . (1 9 8 7 ). T h e g e n e ra tio n e ff e c t: E v i d e n c e fo r g e n e ra li ze d in h i b it io n . J o u r n a l o f
E xp e r im e n ta l P s yc h o l o g y: L e a r n in g , M e m o r y , a n d C o g n iti o n , 1 3 , 5 5 3 ±5 6 3 .
B e g g , I ., V in s k i , E ., F ra n k o v i ch , L ., & H o lg a te , B . 1 9 9 1 ). G e n e ra ti n g m a k e s w o rd s m e m o ra b le , b u t
s o d o e s e ff e c ti v e re a d i n g . M e m o r y & C o g n i tio n , 1 9 , 4 8 7 ±4 9 7 .
B u rn s , D .J. (1 9 9 0 ). T h e g e n e ra ti o n e ff e c t : A te s t b e t w e e n si n g le -a n d m u l tifa c t o r th e o ri es . J o u r n a l o f
E xp e r im e n ta l P s yc h o l o g y: L e a r n in g , M e m o r y , a n d C o g n iti o n , 1 6 , 1 0 6 0 ±1 0 6 7 .
d e W i n s ta n le y , P .A ., B j o rk , E .L ., & B jo r k , R .A . (1 9 9 6 ). G e n e ra tio n e ff e c t s an d th e la c k th er eo f: T h e
ro le o f tra n s fe r- a p p ro p ri at e p ro c e ss in g . M e m o ry , 4 , 3 1 ±4 8 .
E in st e in , G .O ., & H u n g , R .R . (1 9 8 0 ) . L ev e ls o f p ro c e ss i n g a n d o rg a n iz a ti o n : A d d iti v e e ff e c ts o f
i n d iv id u a l-it e m a n d re la ti o n a l p ro ce s s in g . Jo u rn a l o f E x p e r im e n ta l P s y c h o lo g y : H u m a n L e a r n i n g
a n d M em o r y, 6 , 5 8 8 ±5 9 8 .
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421
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J o u r n a l o f M e m o r y a n d L a n g u a g e , 2 7 (1 ), 4 0 ±5 8 .
H irs h m an , E ., & B j o rk , R .A . (1 9 8 8 ). T h e g en e ra ti o n e ff e c t: S u p p o rt fo r a t w o -f a c to r th e o ry . J o u r n a l
o f E x p e ri m en ta l P s y c h o lo g y: L e a r n i n g , M em o r y , a n d C o g n i tio n , 1 4 , 4 8 4 ±4 9 4 .
H irs h m an , E ., W h e ll e y , M .M ., & P a li j, M . (1 9 8 9 ). A n in v e s ti g a tio n o f p ar ad o x i ca l m e m o ry e ff e c ts .
J o u r n a l o f M e m o r y a n d L a n g u a g e , 2 8 (5 ), 5 9 4 ±6 0 9 .
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H u n t, R .R ., & E in s te in , G .O . (1 9 8 1 ). R e la ti o n a l a n d it em -s p e c ific in fo rm at io n in m e m o ry . J o u r n a l
o f V e r b a l L ea r n i n g a n d V e r b a l B e h a v i o r , 2 0 , 4 9 7 ±5 1 4 .
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in d i v i d u a l it e m in fo r m a t io n . J o u r n a l o f E xp e r im e n ta l P s y c h o lo g y : L ea r n in g , M e m o r y , a n d
C o g n itio n , 1 0 , 4 5 4 ±4 6 4 .
J a c o b y , L .L . ( 1 9 7 8 ) . O n
in t e r p r e t i n g
th e
e ff e c t s o f r e p e t i ti o n : S o l v in g
a p ro b l e m
v e rs u s
re m e m b e rin g a s o l u t io n . J o u rn a l o f V e r b a l L e a r n i n g a n d V er b a l B e h a v io r, 1 7 , 6 4 9 ±6 6 7 .
M a rs h a ll, G .R ., & C o fe r, C .N . (1 9 7 0 ). S i n g le -w o rd f re e -a s s o c i a tio n n o rm s fo r 3 2 8 re s p o n s es fr o m
th e C o n n e c ti c u t c u ltu ra l n o rm s f o r v e rb a l it e m s in c a te g o rie s . In L . P o s tm a n & G . K e p p e l (E d s .) ,
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C o g n itio n , 1 6 , 7 8 9 ±7 9 8 .
M c D a n ie l, M .A ., & W a d d i ll, P .J . ( 1 9 9 0 ). G e n e ra tio n e ff e c ts fo r c o n t e x t w o rd s : Im p li ca ti o n s fo r
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