Summer Reading Assignment for Incoming 11th Grade AICE English Literature
Instructor: M. Donohue
Required Reading:
A Passage to India by E. M. Forster
Half of a Yellow Sun by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie
Assignment 1: Literary Movements Analysis
Analysis: You are to read each work. Identify the literary movement the work is associated and
provide a full analysis as to how the work illustrates the elements of the literary movement. This
is NOT a formal research paper. You may identify the elements of each work in bullet format
with an accompanying explanation. You must identify theme and 3 other elements of the literary
movement and explain how each work is an exemplar of the movement you have identified.
Refer to the Online Literature website for an explanation of literary movements.
http://www.online-literature.com/periods/. Also of help for defining characteristics of the
movements is the Washington State University website:
http://public.wsu.edu/~campbelld/amlit/litfram.html.
Assignment 2: Essay Assignment for Half of a Yellow Sun (answer both)
Question 1:
How does Adichie vividly portray the relationship between Olanna and Ugwu?
AND
Question 2:
To extent does rebuilding play in the novel? Support your ideas with detail from the
novel.
Assignment 3: Essay Assignment for A Passage to India
Question 1:
To what extent does the setting impact the novel? Support your ideas with detail from
the novel.
AND
Question 2:
Respond to the critic who says: “Mr. Forster, it seems, has a strong impulse to belong to
both camps at once.”
Requirements for Essay Assignments
In answering the question, you must demonstrate that you understand the following:
1. Communicate a sensitive and informed personal response to literary text. (this is your
opinion/interpretation of the theme and characters)
2. Understand the meanings of the text beyond the surface. (author’s purpose and
implications)
3. Recognize ways in which the writer uses language, structure and form to create and shape
meaning and effects. (diction, tone, syntax, point of view, pun, alliteration, malapropisms,
imagery, other literary techniques, etc.)
4. Knowledge of the text through the use of close reference to details and use of embedded
quotations.
5. Demonstrate an understanding of characters, relationships, situations and themes.
Assignment Length: Each essay must be between no less than 900 words in length.
NOTE:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Essays must be typed (double spaced, Times or Arial).
Title each assignment.
Highlight your essay’s thesis statement.
Bring the assignments to class on September 10, 2014.
Grade descriptions
Grade descriptions
Grade A
A Grade A candidate will have demonstrated the ability to:
1. show detailed knowledge of texts, understanding of theme and characterization;
2. demonstrate clear critical/analytical understanding of the author’s intentions and the text’s deeper
implications and the attitudes it displays;
3. demonstrate a freshly personal and original approach to the questions;
4. make much well-selected reference to the text;
5. respond sensitively and in detail to the way language works in the text;
6. communicate a considered and reflective personal response to the text.
Grade B
A Grade B candidate will have demonstrated the ability to:
1. show an extended knowledge of texts, understanding of theme and characterization;
2. demonstrate clear critical/analytical understanding of the author’s intentions and the text’s deeper
implications and the attitudes it displays;
3. demonstrate a freshly personal and original approach to the questions;
4. show some thoroughness in use of the text for support;
5. respond in detail to the way language works in the text;
6. communicate a considered and reflective personal response to the text
Grade C
A Grade C candidate will have demonstrated the ability to:
1. make a reasonably sustained/extended response with detail of theme and characterization;
2. show understanding of the author’s intentions and some of the text’s deeper implications and the
attitudes it displays;
3. show some thoroughness in use of the text for support;
4. make some response to the way language works in the text;
5. communicate an informed personal response to the text.
Grade D
A Grade D candidate will have demonstrated the ability to:
1. make a few straightforward points in terms of narrative and situation;
2. show a few signs of understanding of the author’s intentions and the surface meanings of the
text;
3. make a little reference to the text;
4. show evidence of a simple personal response to the text.
Ms. Donohue’s Writing Checklist
Make sure you check the following aspects in your writing before turning in a final draft and
you will guarantee yourself a great paper.
1. Do you have a strong thesis?
2. Does your introduction preview your points without just listing them?
3. Are you supporting your thesis with strong evidence from the text?
4. Are you following your thesis throughout your writing?
5. Does each new idea/point have its own paragraph?
6. Do you have ample quotes and specific evidence to support each idea/point?
7. Do you have full transitional sentences that tie the paragraphs/ideas together?
8. Does your conclusion bring together all your points without simply repeating your
introduction?
9. Are you addressing all the aspects of the assignment?
If there are any pressing concerns or questions you may contact me via email:
[email protected] or on my class website: www.classjump.com/donohue
M. Donohue
AICE ENG 1
Literary Terminology – AICE Literature in English (AS Level)
These terms should be of use to you when annotating works, answering questions, analyzing prose passages,
dramatic works or poetry and composing your essays. You will need this packet the entire year and will get quizzed
almost weekly on the concepts and application of these terms.
Abstract Language – Language describing ideas and qualities rather than observable or specific things, people or
places. The observable or ‘physical’ is usually described with concrete language. Ex: love, honor, integrity, evil
Allegory – The device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in
addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may intend the characters to personify
an abstraction like hope or freedom. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization
about human existence.
Alliteration – The repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words (as in
“she sells sea shells”). Although the term is not frequently in the multiple choice section, you can look for
alliteration in any essay passage. The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply a musical sound, and/or
echo the sense of the passage.
Allusion – A direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an event,
book, myth, place, or work of art. Allusions can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or mythical. There are
many more possibilities, and a work may simultaneously use multiple layers of allusion.
Ambiguity – The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage.
Anachronism – Anything that is incongruous in the time period it has been placed in. It appears in a temporal
context in which it seems sufficiently out of place as to be peculiar, incomprehensible or impossible. The item is
often an object, but may be a verbal expression, a technology, a philosophical idea, a musical style, a material, a
custom, or anything else closely enough bound to a particular period as to seem odd outside it.
For example: an actor in a Shakespearean play wearing a digital watch.
Analogy – A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. An analogy
can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to something more familiar.
Analogies can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging.
Anaphora – (uh NAF uh ruh) The repetition of the same word or words at the beginning of successive phrases,
clauses, or sentences, commonly in conjunction with climax and with parallelism:
To think on death it is a misery,/ To think on life it is a vanity;/ To think on the world verily it is,/ To think that
here man hath no perfect bliss. –Peacham
Anaphora can be used with questions, negations, hypotheses, conclusions, and subordinating conjunctions,
although care must be taken not to become affected or to sound rhetorical and bombastic. Consider these
selections:
Will he read the book? Will he learn what it has to teach him? Will he live according to what he has learned?
Analysis – Breaking down of something to see how the parts come together to form the whole. In rhetorical
analysis, we consider how the devices and strategies come together to support the author’s purpose.
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Anastrophe – (uh NAS truh fe) Inversion of the normal word order, as in a man forgotten (instead of a forgotten
man)
Anecdote – A short tale narrating an interesting or amusing biographical incident. Anecdotal evidence is an
informal account of evidence in the form of an anecdote, or hearsay. The term is often used in contrast to
scientific evidence, as evidence that cannot be investigated using the scientific method. The problem with arguing
based on anecdotal evidence is that anecdotal evidence is not necessarily typical; only statistical evidence can
determine how typical something is. Misuse of anecdotal evidence is a logical fallacy.
Annotation – Explanatory notes added to a text to explain, cite sources, or give bibliographic data.
Antithesis – The opposition or contrast of ideas; the direct opposite.
Antonomasia - (an tihn uh MAY zha) Identification of a person by an appropriate substituted phrase, such as her
majesty for a queen or the Bard of Avon for Shakespeare.
Aphorism – A terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral principle. (If the
authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) An aphorism can be a
memorable summation of the author’s point.
Apostrophe – A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified
abstraction, such as liberty or love. It is an address to someone or something that cannot answer. The effect may
add familiarity or emotional intensity. William Wordsworth addresses John Milton as he writes, “Milton, thou
shouldst be living at this hour: / England hath need of thee.” Another example is Keats’ “Ode to a Grecian Urn,”
in which Keats addresses the urn itself:
“Thou still unravished bride of quietness.” Many apostrophes imply a personification of the object addressed.
Argument - The kind of writing that uses reason to affect people’s opinions and actions
Archetype – Greek for “original pattern”. The abstract idea of a class of things which represents the most typical
and essential characteristics shared by the class. Certain character or personality types have become archetypal. Ex:
the femme fatale, the jealous husband, the all-conquering hero, the self-made man, the witch, the damsel in
distress.
Aside – In a play a character’s comment that is heard by the audience, but not by other characters.
Assonance – Repetition of a vowel sound within two or more words in close proximity.
Atmosphere – The emotional mood created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the setting
and partly by the author’s choice of objects that are described. Even such elements as a description of the weather
can contribute to the atmosphere. Frequently atmosphere foreshadows events. Perhaps it can create a mood.
Balance – Construction in which both halves of the sentence are about the same length and importance.
Bathos - The name given to the feeling that the tone or language being used is far more elevated than is
appropriate. Unintentional bathos can utterly scupper a poem, as that sense of distance and disconnectedness is
funny, but that humor can be used intentionally, often to humorous or satiric effect.
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Bildungsroman – German for a “formation novel”. It is a coming of age story. A bildungsroman is a story about
the moral, psychological or spiritual growth of the main character. It describes the process by which maturity
comes from the ups and downs of life.
Blank Verse - Poetry written in unrhymed iambic pentameter. This is a rhythm made up of five feet to a line,
each foot containing one unstressed and one stressed syllable.
Burlesque – Literary work, film, or stage production that mocks a person, a place, a thing, or an idea by using wit,
irony, hyperbole, sarcasm, and/or understatement. For example, a burlesque may turn a supposedly distinguished
person into a buffoon or a supposedly lofty subject into a trivial one. A hallmark of burlesque is its thoroughgoing
exaggeration, often to the point of the absurd. Cervantes used burlesque in Don Quixote to poke fun at chivalry
and other outdated romantic ideals. This is a close kin of parody.
Cadence - Borrowed from music, where it refers to the use of a group of notes or chords used to end a piece of
music or a phrase within it. As it can also be used to refer to the audible features of speech - a statement slowing
and falling in pitch as it ends, for example, or the pause that a comma demands - it has been taken up by poets to
refer to the pitch and rhythm of words within a poem. Unlike discussions of meter, which refer to the beat
underlying what is said, cadence attends to actual variations.
Caesura - A strong pause within a line, and is often found alongside enjambment. If all the pauses in the sense of
the poem were to occur at the line breaks, this could become dull; moving the pauses so they occur within the line
creates a musical interest.
Canon – Complete works of an author. When reasonable doubt exists that an author wrote a work attributed to
him, scholars generally exclude it from the author’s canon. Such doubt sometimes arises when a centuries-old
work–for example, a play, poem, or novel–has survived intact to the present day without an author’s byline or
other documentation proving that a particular author wrote it.
Caricature – A verbal description, the purpose of which is to exaggerate or distort, for comic effect, a person’s
distinctive physical features or other characteristics.
Catastasis – The climax of a stage play.
Catastrophe – Either the denouement, or conclusion, of a stage tragedy or the denouement of any literary work.
Character - A person in a story, play, or novel. Characters that reveal only one personality trait are described as
flat. Characters that show varied traits are called round. Stereotyped characters are common character types
whose actions are predictable. Dynamic characters change significantly during the course of the literary work and
carry with them the reality of human growth and decline. Whereas, static characters remain unchanging, neither
dynamic nor static characters are necessarily truer to life than the other.
Characterization - The personality of a character and the method that an author uses to reveal this personality.
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Chiasmus – Could be called "reverse parallelism," since the second part of a grammatical construction is balanced
or paralleled by the first part, only in reverse order. Instead of an A,B structure (e.g., "learned unwillingly")
paralleled by another A,B structure ("forgotten gladly"), the A,B will be followed by B,A ("gladly forgotten"). So
instead of writing, "What is learned unwillingly is forgotten gladly," you could write, "What is learned unwillingly is
gladly forgotten." Similarly, the parallel sentence, "What is now great was at first little," could be written
chiastically as, "What is now great was little at first." Here is another example: He labors without complaining and
without bragging rests.
Catharsis – An emotional release at the resolution of a tragedy - A purification of the sense of pity and fear for
the audience after the return to order in a tragic universe. The audience members leave the theater as better
persons intellectually, morally, or socially. They have either been cleansed of fear of pity or have vowed to avoid
situations that arouse fear and pity. In modern usage, catharsis may refer to any experience, real or imagined, that
purges a person of negative emotions.
Circumlocution - Indirect, wordy language used to avoid stating it simply and directly.
Cliché – Any expression that has been used so much that it has lost it freshness and precision. By extension, in
literature, cliché has come to mean any hackneyed (timeworn) plot, theme or situation.
Climax - The point of our highest interest and greatest emotional involvement in a narrative.
Coherence – A quality of writing where the parts or ideas are so logically and clearly arranged so that the reader
can follow the progression of ideas from one part or idea to the next without difficultly.
Colloquial/colloquialism – The use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for
formal writing, colloquialisms give a work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include
local or regional dialects.
Comedy - A type of drama that is humorous and usually as a happy ending.
Comedy of Manners – A comedy that ridicules the manners (way of life, social customs, etc.) of the privileged
and fashionable segment of society. An example is Oliver Goldsmith's She Stoops to Conquer, in which Goldsmith
pokes fun at the English upper class. The play uses farce (including many mix-ups) to ridicule the classconsciousness of 18th Century Englishmen.
Common knowledge – Shared beliefs or assumptions are often called “common knowledge”. A writer may argue
that if something widely believed, then readers should accept it.
Complication – Any entangling affairs early in the development of the plot that must be unraveled in the
resolution.
Conceit – A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between
seemingly dissimilar objects. The Metaphysical poets of the seventeenth century enjoyed creating particularly
audacious metaphors and similes to compare very unlike things, and drawing attention to how skilfully they could
sustain this comparison; this became known as the conceit. A conceit displays intellectual cleverness as a result of
the unusual comparison being made.
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Concrete Language or Sensory Language - Words that appeal to the senses and represents concrete objects,
people, or events.
Confidant/confidante – Someone that he protagonist talks to enabling the audience or reader to become aware of
the motivations of the hero of the work.
Conflict – At the center of the plot, it is the struggle between two opposing forces.
 Character vs. Character Conflict - One of the simplest forms of conflict comes when one character is in
opposition to another. Sometimes writers show this type of conflict between a villain and a hero, other
times the conflict may take place between two sympathetic characters with opposing points of view. In
Othello, an African prince, is placed in opposition to Iago, a vengeful ensign who uses deceit to try and
destroy the life of the prince.
 Character vs. Self Conflict- Sometimes the conflict in literature does not come from external forces, but
emerges through a moral dilemma within the character. In Of Mice and Men the main character, George
Milton, has a conflict within himself about how to handle his disabled friend’s care. He struggles between
doing what is best for his friend and what is best for those around him, which becomes the central piece of
conflict in the story.
 Character vs. Nature Conflict- This conflict occurs when the character in the novel must battle some
natural element, often a natural disaster. In Their Eyes Were Watching God by Zora Neale Hurston, the
characters in the novel try to survive an impending hurricane. Hurston builds the novel's conflict in part on
the main character's actions during the hurricane and in its aftermath.
 Character vs. Society Conflict - A character is placed in opposition with society when his views or actions
go against those of a dominant group. Their Eyes Were Watching God incorporates this type of conflict
when the main character, Janie, abandons her prominent position as a mayor's widow to embark upon a
romance with a drifter. Janie's desire for true love is in opposition to prevailing views on status and
marriage at that time.
Connotation – The non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. Connotations may
involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes.
Consonance – Repetition of a consonant sound within two or more words in close proximity.
Conventional – Following certain conventions, or traditional techniques of writing. An overreliance on conventions
may result in a lack of originality. The five-paragraph essay is considered conventional.
Couplet - Two consecutive lines in a poem or play that rhyme.
Cumulative sentence – Begins with the main idea and then expands on that idea with a series of details or other
particulars.
Deduction – Begins with a general statement then applies that statement to specific examples to arrive at a
conclusion.
Denotation – The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color.
(Example: the denotation of a knife would be a utensil used to cut; the connotation of a knife might be fear,
violence, anger, foreboding, etc.)
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Denouement – Literally meaning “unraveling” like a knot at the resolution of a play. The term is usually reserved
for comedies and melodramas, although it does also apply to tragedies. The resolution of tragedies is commonly
referred to as a catastrophe. Denouements are also the applicable term for the resolution of short stories or novels.
Dialect – Characteristics of language particular to a specific region or culture.
Dialogue - Conversation between characters in a story, work of nonfiction, novel, play, or dramatic poem.
Dialogue can advance the plot and reveal character’s personalities.
Diction – Related to style, diction refers to the writer’s word choices, especially with regard to their correctness,
clearness, or effectiveness. For exams, you should be able to describe an author’s diction (for example, formal or
informal, ornate or plain) and understand the ways in which diction can complement the author’s purpose.
Diction, combined with syntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc., creates an author’s style.
Didactic – From the Greek, didactic literally means “teaching.” Didactic words have the primary aim of teaching
or instructing, especially the teaching of morals, ethical principles or correct behavior or thinking.
Doggerel – Rhyming verse that is trite, sentimental and not quite funny. Its meter is often monotonous or loosely
clumsy. Hint: Think greeting cards. Able writers will use doggerel for satirical or comic effect.
Drama – A play or story meant to be performed before and audience. Drama can be divided into two types –
comedy and tragedy.
Dramatic Convention – A device that a playwright uses to present a story on stage and that the audience accepts
as realistic.
Dramatic Poetry - Poetry in which one or more characters speak.
Elegy - An elegy is a poem of mourning; this is often the poet mourning one person, but the definition also
includes Thomas Gray's 'Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard', which mourns all the occupants of that
churchyard, and looks into the future to mourn the poet's own death. The difference between an elegy and a
eulogy is that the latter is a speech given to honor someone's best qualities, often (but not necessarily) after their
death.
Emotive – A style of writing aimed at bringing out an emotional response in the reader.
End Rhyme – The most common form of rhyme in English poetry. in poetry, a rhyme that occurs in the last
syllables of verses, as in stanza one of Robert Frost’s “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening”:
Whose woods these are I think I know,/His house is in the village, though; /He will not see me stopping here
To watch his woods fill up with snow.
End Stop - A grammatical pause at the end of a line of verse, as in these lines from Alexander Pope’s An Essay on
Criticism: A little learning is a dangerous thing; /Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring. / There shallow
draughts intoxicate the brain, /And drinking largely sobers us again.
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Enjambment - The continuation of a sentence or clause over a line-break. If a poet allows all the sentences of a
poem to end in the same place as regular line-breaks, a kind of deadening can happen in the ear, and in the brain
too, as all the thoughts can end up being the same length. Enjambment is one way of creating audible interest;
others include caesurae, or having variable line-lengths.
Epic - A long narrative poem that traces the adventures of a hero.
Epic Hero - A legendary figure of almost super-human qualities whose adventures for, the core of the epic poem.
Epigram - A short, succinct poem, often with witty (or even vicious) content
Epigraph - A brief bit of text, usually borrowed from another writer, found before a poem, but after the title.
(You may also find one at the start of a book, before the poems, but after the title page.) It gives a reader, or
listener, something else to hold in mind as the poem is read. Neither part of the poem, nor wholly separate from
it, an epigraph can be used for various purposes; it can be necessary information to understand a poem, for
example, or it can be something with which the poem disagrees.
Epiphany – A moment of revelation or profound insight.
Epithet – A descriptive word or phrase attached to the name of a person or thing, usually stressing a particular
characteristic.
Ethos – (Greek for 'character') refers to the trustworthiness or credibility of the writer or speaker. We tend to
believe people whom we respect. One of the central problems of argumentation is to project an impression to the
reader that you are someone worth listening to, in other words making yourself as author into an authority on the
subject of the paper, as well as someone who is likable and worthy of respect. Ethos is often conveyed through
tone and style of the message and through the way the writer or speaker refers to differing views. It can also be
affected by the writer's reputation as it exists independently from the message--his or her expertise in the field, his
or her previous record or integrity, and so forth. The impact of ethos is often called the argument's 'ethical
appeal' or the 'appeal from credibility’.
Eulogy – A formal composition or speech in high praise of someone (living or dead) or something.
Euphemism – From the Greek for “good speech,” euphemisms are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute
for a generally unpleasant word or concept. A euphemism is a pleasant or sanitized expression used to describe the
negative or unpleasant. The euphemism may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to
add humor or ironic understatement. Saying “earthly remains” rather than “corpse” is an example of euphemism.
Evoke – To transmit a particular feeling, emotion or sensory image.
Explication – Act of interpreting or discovering the meaning of a text. Explication usually involves close reading
and special attention to figurative language.
Exposition - An introduction to people, places, and situations that are important to the plot of a story, novel, or
play.
Extended metaphor – A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work.
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Eye Rhyme - Form of rhyme in which the pronunciation of the last syllable of one line is different from the
pronunciation of the last syllable of another line even though both syllables are identical in spelling except for a
preceding consonant. For example, the following end-of-line word pairs would constitute eye rhyme: cough,
rough; cow, mow; daughter, laughter; rummaging, raging.
Falling Action - In a play or story the action that is the result of the climax.
Farce - A type of comedy that presents stereotyped characters in improbable situations.
Feminine Rhyme - Rhyme in which the final two syllables of one line mimic the sound of the final two syllables of
another line. Examples: repeat, deplete; farrow, narrow; scarlet; varlet.
Figurative language – Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be
imaginative and vivid. The word or words are inaccurate literally, but describe by calling to mind sensations or
representations that the thing described evokes.
Figure of speech – A device used to produce figurative language. Many compare dissimilar things. Figures of
speech include apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche,
and understatement.
Flashback - A scene in a narrative that breaks the normal time sequence of the plot to narrate events that
happened earlier.
Foil – A character who, by contrast, points out the qualities or characteristics of another character. Ex: An oafish
character will further highlight the grace of another.
Foot - The basic unit of measurement in rhythm
Footnote – Information provided outside and in addition to the main text of a piece of writing.
Foreshadowing – The use of clues by an author to prepare readers for events that will happen later in a story.
Form - In poetry, this can be understood as the physical structure of the poem: the length of the lines, their
rhythms, their system of rhymes and repetition. In this sense, it is normally reserved for the type of poem where
these features have been shaped into a pattern, especially a familiar pattern. Another sense of "form" is to refer to
these familiar patterns - these can be simple and open-ended forms, such as blank verse, or can be a complex
system of rhymes, rhythms and repeated lines within a fixed number of lines.
Frame Story - A story structure that includes the telling of a story within a story.
Free Verse – Poetry that has no fixed meter or pattern. It is free from is the constraints of regular meter and fixed
forms. This makes the poem free to find its own shape according to what the poet - or the poem - wants to say,
but still allows him or her to use rhyme, alliteration, rhythms or cadences (etc) to achieve the effects that s/he
feels are appropriate. There is an implicit constraint, however, to resist a regular meter in free verse - a run of a
regular meter will stand out awkwardly in an otherwise free poem.
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Full-Length Play –A drama that usually has several major characters and a complicated plot that is usually divided
into acts and scenes.
Generalization – When a writer bases a claim upon an isolate example or asserts that a claim is certain rather than
probable. Sweeping generalization occurs when a writer asserts that a claim applies to all instances instead of some.
Generic conventions – This term describes traditions for each genre. These conventions help to define each genre;
for example, they differentiate an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing. Try to
distinguish the unique features of a writer’s work from those dictated by convention.
Genre – The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and
drama. However, genre is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often
called genres themselves. For example, prose can be divided into fiction (novels and short stories) or nonfiction
(essays, biographies, autobiographies, etc.). Poetry can be divided into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc. Drama
can be divided into tragedy, comedy, melodrama, farce, etc.
High Comedy – A comedy that relies on wit and subtle irony or sarcasm. High comedy usually focuses on the
everyday life of upper classes. It is generally verbal rather than physical.
Homily – This term literally means “sermon,” but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or
lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.
Hubris – Greek for “pride” or “insolence”. It is a character defect of the character that leads the tragic hero to
disregard all warnings of impending disaster and thereby hasten the catastrophe. Ex: In Richard III, hubris causes
him to put to death any who might wish him harm, which leads him to isolation (allies fled) in the final battle.
Hyperbole – A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. (The literal Greek meaning is
“overshoot.”) Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole
produces irony. The opposite of hyperbole is understatement.
Idiom – Common expression that has acquired a meaning different from its literal meaning. Ex: window shopping
Imagery – The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions.
On a physical level, imagery uses terms related to the five senses: visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory.
On a broader and deeper level, however, one image can represent more than one thing. For example, a rose may
present visual imagery while also representing the color in a woman’s cheeks and/or symbolizing some degree of
perfection. An author may use complex imagery while simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially
metaphor and simile. In addition, this term can apply to the total of all the images in a work.
Imperative sentence – Sentence making a call to action or command where the understood “you” is the subject.
Ex. Go forth and multiply
Implication – Hint given but not stated explicitly.
Incongruity – Juxtaposition of ideas or images that seem inconsistent, incompatible, or out of place.
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Induction – The opposite of deduction, induction moves from specific to general. Inductive reasoning takes the
available information to derive a general conclusion that connects it.
Inference/infer – To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. When a multiple choice
question asks for an inference to be drawn from a passage, the most direct, most reasonable inference is the safest
answer choice. If an inference is implausible, it’s unlikely to be the correct answer. Note that if the answer choice
is directly stated, it is not inferred and it is wrong. You must be careful to note the connotation – negative or
positive – of the choices.
In media res – Latin meaning “in the middle of things”. The narrative practice of starting a story in the middle of
the action to involve the reader and then using one or more flashbacks to fill in what led up to that point.
Although the practice is common in modern works the term is most often applied to epic poetry, for which it is a
convention.
Innuendo – An insinuation; the implication or hint of something derogatory; a device of satire.
Invective – an emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language. (For example, in
Henry IV, Part I, Prince Hal calls the large character of Falstaff “this sanguine coward, this bedpresser, this
horseback breaker, this huge hill of flesh.”)
Inversion – Variation of the normal word order (subject first, then verb, then complement) which puts a modifier
or the verb first in the sentence. The element that appears first is emphasized more than the subject.
Irony/ironic – The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant, or the difference between
what appears to be and what is actually true. Irony is often used to create poignancy or humor. In general, there
are three major types of irony used in language:
(1) Verbal Irony – when the words literally state the opposite of the writer’s (or speaker’s) meaning
(2) Situational Irony – when events turn out the opposite of what was expected; when what the characters
and readers think ought to happen is not what does happen
(3) Dramatic Irony – when facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction but
known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work.
(4) Irony of Fate - The view that fate, destiny or God, seeking diversion or amusement, manipulates
human beings like puppets and thwarts their plans. (Also referred to as Cosmic Irony)
Jargon – Technical language of a profession or skill, not typically understood or used by other people not
belonging to the professional or skill group. Ex. Military jargon
Juxtaposition – Purposeful placement of ideas, images, or language (often incongruous) to heighten their effect.
Kenning – A much-compressed form of metaphor, originally used in Anglo-Saxon and Norse poetry. It is a
compound expression, often hyphenated, representing a single noun. In a kenning, an object is described in a twoword phrase, such as 'whale-road' for 'sea'. Some kennings can be more obscure than others, and then grow close
to being a riddle.
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Line - a subdivision of a poem, specifically a group of words arranged into a row that ends for a reason other than
the right-hand margin. This reason could be that the lines are arranged to have a certain number of syllables, a
certain number of stresses, or of metrical feet; it could be that they are arranged so that they rhyme, whether they
be of equal length or not. But it is important to remember that the poet has chosen to make the line a certain
length, or to make the line-break at a certain point. The words that fall at the end of a line seem more important
to a reader (an effect that rhyme can intensify); other strong points are the start of a line, and either side of a
caesura.
Litotes (pronounced almost like “little tee”) – a form of understatement that involves making an affirmative point
by denying its opposite. Litotes is the opposite of hyperbole. Examples: “Not a bad idea,” “Not many,” “It isn’t
very serious. I have this tiny little tumor on the brain” (Salinger, Catcher in the Rye).
Local Color – Literature with local color is tied in location, topic, attitudes and beliefs (and even in dialect) to a
particular region of a country
Logic – Implied comparison resulting when one thing is directly called another. To be logically acceptable, support
must be appropriate to the claim, believable and consistent.
Logos - (Greek for 'word') refers to the internal consistency of the message--the clarity of the claim, the logic of
its reasons, and the effectiveness of its supporting evidence. The impact of logos on an audience is sometimes
called the argument's logical appeal.
Loose sentence/non-periodic sentence – A type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes
first, followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed at the end of
the independent clause, the clause would be a complete sentence. A work containing many loose sentences often
seems informal, relaxed, or conversational. Generally, loose sentences create loose style. The opposite of a loose
sentence is the periodic sentence.
Example: I arrived at the San Diego airport after a long, bumpy ride and multiple delays.
Could stop at: I arrived at the San Diego airport.
Lyrical Poetry - Poetry that expresses a speaker’s personal thoughts and feelings.
Macrocosm – The world as a whole; the universe.
Malapropism – The use or substitution of one words for another similar in sound but quite different in meaning
for humorous effect.
Metaphor – A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for
the other, suggesting some similarity. Metaphorical language makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought
provoking, and meaningful.
Meter – A regular pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables giving a line of poetry its rhythm.
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Metonymy – (mĕtŏn′ ĭmē) A term from the Greek meaning “changed label” or “substitute name,” metonymy is a
figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. For
example, a news release that claims “the White House declared” rather than “the President declared” is using
metonymy. The substituted term generally carries a more potent emotional impact. It is important to note that
metonymy is a substitution of abstract qualities rather than concrete.
Microcosm - A tiny world within the macrocosm. Often a microcosm represents ideas and activities present in the
macrocosm. In Herman Melville's novel Moby Dick, the whaling ship The Pequod is a microcosm. In William
Golding's novel The Lord of the Flies, the island on which children take on the negative characteristics of adults in
the world at large is a microcosm
Monologue - A long speech by a character in a play.
Mood – The prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work setting – that influence the attitudes of characters
and the readers. Setting, tone, and events can affect the mood.
Motif - Recurring theme, symbols or images in a literary work or a recurring theme in literature in general.
Maltreatment of women is a motif that appears in “Hills Like White Elephants,” a short story by Ernest
Hemingway; “The Story of an Hour,” a short story by Kate Chopin; and “The Chrysanthemums,” a short story by
John Steinbeck.The love of money as the root of evil is a motif that occurs in many works of literature.
Motivation – The psychological and moral impulses and external circumstances that cause a literary character to
act, think or feel a certain way.
Narrative – The telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events.
Neologism - [ne ALL uh jizm] Word or phrase–or a new meaning for an existing word or phrase–that is accepted
into a dictionary. For example, the word sandwich was a neologism in 1762 when John Montagu–a British
nobleman who had served as First Lord of the Admiralty–placed slabs of meat between two pieces of bread as a
snack to sustain him while he was seated at a table in a 24-hour gambling marathon.
Objectivity – Writer’s attempt to remove himself or herself from any subjective, personal involvement in a story.
Hard news journalism is frequently prized for its objectivity, although even fictional stories can be told without a
writer rendering personal judgment.
Old Comedy - In Greece of the Fifth Century, BC, a genre of comedy that displayed great imagination and used
cutthroat satire, caricature, and sometimes vulgar dialogue to ridicule public figures, politics, ideas, trends, and
institutions.
Onomatopoeia – A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words. Simple examples
include such words as buzz, hiss, hum, crack, whinny, and murmur. If you note examples of onomatopoeia in an
essay passage, note the effect.
Oversimplification – When a writer obscures or denies the complexity of the issue in an argument.
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Oxymoron – From the Greek for “pointedly foolish,” an oxymoron is a figure of speech wherein the author
groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. This device is often used for emphasis or simply to
attract attention. Take note of the effect that the author achieves with the use of oxymoron.
Paradox – A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer
inspection contains some degree of truth or validity. (Think of the beginning of Dickens’ Tale of Two Cities: “It
was the best of times, it was the worst of times....”)
Parallelism – Also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term comes from Greek roots
meaning “beside one another.” It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or
paragraphs to give structural similarity. This can involve, but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element
such as a preposition or verbal phrase. (Again, the opening of Dickens’ Tale of Two Cities is an example: “It was
the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the
epoch of believe, it was the epoch of incredulity....”) The effects of parallelism are numerous, but frequently they
act as an organizing force to attract the reader’s attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a
musical rhythm.
anaphora – A sub-type of parallelism, when the exact repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of
successive lines or sentences. MLK used anaphora in his famous “I Have a Dream” speech (1963).
Paraphrase – A summary in the reader’s own words of a piece of literature.
Paraprosdokia – surprise or unexpected ending of a phrase, series or literary work.
Parody – A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or
ridicule. It exploits peculiarities of an author’s expression (propensity to use too many parentheses, certain favorite
words, etc.) Well-written parody offers enlightenment about the original, but poorly written parody offers only
ineffectual imitation. Usually an audience must grasp literary allusion and understand the work being parodied in
order to fully appreciate the nuances of the newer work. Occasionally, however, parodies take on a life of their
own and don’t require knowledge of the original.
Pathos - (Greek for 'suffering' or 'experience') is often associated with emotional appeal. But a better equivalent
might be 'appeal to the audience's sympathies and imagination.' An appeal to pathos causes an audience not just
to respond emotionally but to identify with the writer's point of view--to feel what the writer feels. In this sense,
pathos evokes a meaning implicit in the verb 'to suffer'--to feel pain imaginatively.... Perhaps the most common
way of conveying a pathetic appeal is through narrative or story, which can turn the abstractions of logic into
something palpable and present. The values, beliefs, and understandings of the writer are implicit in the story and
conveyed imaginatively to the reader. This means persuading by appealing to the reader's emotions. We can look
at texts ranging from classic essays to contemporary advertisements to see how pathos, emotional appeals, are used
to persuade. Language choice affects the audience's emotional response, and emotional appeal can effectively be
used to enhance an argument. Pathos thus refers to both the emotional and the imaginative impact of the message
on an audience, the power with which the writer's message moves the audience to decision or action.
Pedantic – An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or
bookish (language that might be described as “show-offy”; using big words for the sake of using big words).
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Personification – A figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animals, or inanimate
objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions. Personification is used to make these abstractions,
animals, or objects appear more vivid to the reader.
Point of view– In literature, the perspective from which a story is told. There are two general divisions of point of
view, and many subdivisions within those.
(1) first person - tells the story with the first person pronoun, “I,” and is a character in the story. This narrator
can be the protagonist, a secondary character, or an observing character.
(2) third person - relates the events with the third person pronouns, “he,” “she,” and “it.” There are two main
subdivisions to be aware of:
(3) a. third person omniscient - in which the narrator, with godlike knowledge, presents the thoughts and actions
of any or all characters
(3) b. third person limited omniscient - in which the narrator presents the feelings and thoughts of only one
character, presenting only the actions of all the remaining characters.
In addition, be aware that the term point of view carries an additional meaning. When you are asked to analyze
the author’s point of view, the appropriate point for you to address is the author’s attitude.
Prose – one of the major divisions of genre, prose refers to fiction and nonfiction, including all its forms. A literary
medium distinguished from poetry especially by its greater irregularity and variety of rhythm and its closer
correspondence to the patterns of everyday speech.
Pun - the humorous use of a word or phrase so as to emphasize or suggest its different meanings or applications, or
the use of words that are alike or nearly alike in sound but different in meaning; a play on words.
EXAMPLE: Shakespeare and other writers use puns extensively, for serious and comic purposes; in Romeo and
Juliet (III.i.101), the dying Mercutio puns, "Ask for me tomorrow and you shall find me a grave man."
Quatrain - Stanza or poem of four lines. A quatrain usually has a rhyme scheme, such as abab, abba, or abcb.
Redundancy - Writing flaw in which unnecessary wording is used. Examples: Wrong: Her dress was green in color.
Refrain - Group of words repeated at key intervals in a poem
Repetition – The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound, word,
phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern.
Rhetoric – From the Greek for “orator,” this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively,
eloquently, and persuasively. Rhetoric focuses on the interrelationship of invention, arrangement, and style in
order to create felicitous and appropriate discourse.
Rhetorical device – Any characteristic of language used to achieve the writer or speaker’s purpose.
Rhetorical question – Question with an obvious, understood answer.
Rhyme - The repetition of accented vowel sounds and all succeeding consonant sounds.
Rising Action - The part of a story’s plot that adds complications to the problems and increases reader interest.
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Sarcasm – From the Greek meaning “to tear flesh,” sarcasm involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt
or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony as a device, but not all ironic statements are sarcastic (that is,
intended to ridicule). When well done, sarcasm can be witty and insightful; when poorly done, it is simply cruel.
Satire – A work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule.
Regardless of whether or not the work aims to reform human behavior, satire is best seen as a style of writing
rather than a purpose for writing. It can be recognized by the many devices used effectively by the satirist: irony,
wit, parody, caricature, hyperbole, understatement, and sarcasm. The effects of satire are varied, depending on
the writer’s goal, but good satire, often humorous, is thought provoking and insightful about the human condition.
Some modern satirists include Joseph Heller (Catch 22) and Kurt Vonnegut (Cat’s Cradle, Player Piano).
Semantics – The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical and psychological
development, their connotations, and their relation to one another.
Sentimentality - A flaw in a literary work or film in which the author relies on tear-jerking or heart-wrenching
scenes rather than writing talent or cinematic skill to evoke a response in readers.
Setting - The place and time in which a story, play, or novel happens.
Scansion - The process of marking the stresses in a poem, and working out the meter from the distribution of
stresses. The verb is to scan. 'Mark' can be taken to mean both 'notice' and 'annotate', the latter often done with
a u for an unstressed syllable and a slash, /, for a stressed one.
Simile – Figurative comparison of two things, often dissimilar, using the connecting words like or as.
Slang – Very informal or coarse language.
Slant Rhyme - When there is a close, but not exact, rhyme.
Soliloquy - In a play a long speech spoke by a character who is alone on stage.
Stanza - A group of lines within a poem; the blank line between stanzas is known as a stanza break. Like lines,
there is no set length to a stanza or an insistence that all stanzas within a poem need be the same length. However,
there are names for stanzas of certain lengths: two-line stanzas are couplets; three-lines, tercets; four-lines,
quatrains. (Rarer terms, like sixains and quatorzains, are very rarely used.) Whether regular or not, the visual effect
and, sometimes, the aural effect is one of uniting the sense of the stanza into one group, so poets can either let
their sentences fit neatly within these groups, or create flow and tension by enjambing across the stanza breaks.
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Style – The consideration of style has two purposes:
(1) An evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending tone, diction, syntax, figurative language,
and other literary devices. Some authors’ styles are so idiosyncratic that we can quickly recognize works by the
same author. We can analyze and describe an author’s personal style and make judgments on how appropriate it is
to the author’s purpose. Styles can be called flowery, explicit, succinct, rambling, bombastic, commonplace,
incisive, laconic, etc.
(2) Classification of authors to a group and comparison of an author to similar authors. By means of such
classification and comparison, we can see how an author’s style reflects and helps to define a historical period,
such as the Renaissance or the Victorian period, or a literary movement, such as the romantic, transcendental, or
realist movement.
Syllogism - From the Greek for “reckoning together,” a syllogism (or syllogistic reasoning or syllogistic logic) is a
deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises (the first one called “major” and the second called
“minor”) that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion. A frequently cited example proceeds as follows:
major premise: All men are mortal.
minor premise: Socrates is a man.
conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is a mortal.
A syllogism’s conclusion is valid only if each of the two premises is valid. Syllogisms may also present the specific
idea first (“Socrates”) and the general second (“all men”).
Symbol/symbolism – Generally, anything that represents itself and stands for something else. Usually a symbol is
something concrete -- such as an object, action, character, or scene – that represents something more abstract.
However, symbols and symbolism can be much more complex. One system classifies symbols into three categories:
(1) natural symbols are objects and occurrences from nature to symbolize ideas commonly associated with them
(dawn symbolizing hope or a new beginning, a rose symbolizing love, a tree symbolizing knowledge).
(2) conventional symbols are those that have been invested with meaning by a group (religious symbols such as a
cross or Star of David; national symbols, such as a flag or an eagle; or group symbols, such as a skull and
crossbones for pirates or the scale of justice for lawyers).
(3) literary symbols are sometimes also conventional in the sense that they are found in a variety of works and are
more generally recognized. However, a work’s symbols may be more complicated, as is the jungle in Heart of
Darkness.
Synecdoche – a figure of speech in which a part of something is used to represent the whole or, occasionally, the
whole is used to represent a part. Examples: To refer to a boat as a “sail”; to refer to a car as “wheels”; to refer to
the violins, violas, etc. in an orchestra as “the strings.” **Different than metonymy, in which one thing is
represented by another thing that is commonly physically associated with it (but is not necessarily a part of it). In
other words, this represents concrete qualities of the subjects.
Synesthesia – when one kind of sensory stimulus evokes the subjective experience of another. Ex: The sight of red
ants makes you itchy. In literature, synesthesia refers to the practice of associating two or more different senses in
the same image. Red Hot Chili Peppers’ song title, “Taste the Pain,” is an example.
Syntax – The way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is similar to
diction, but you can differentiate them by thinking of syntax as groups of words, while diction refers to the
individual words. You will need to analyze how syntax produces effects.
Tautology - Wordiness, needless repetition.
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Theme – The central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers into life. Usually theme is unstated in fictional
works, but in nonfiction, the theme may be directly stated, especially in expository or argumentative writing.
Thesis – The central argument an author makes in a work. In expository writing, the thesis statement is the
sentence or group of sentences that directly expresses the author’s opinion, purpose, meaning, or position.
Expository writing is usually judged by analyzing how accurately, effectively, and thoroughly a writer has proven
the thesis.
Tone – Similar to mood, tone describes the author’s attitude toward his material, the audience, or both. Tone is
revealed through the writer’s diction, figurative language, selection of detail, imagery, and organization on the
sentence and global levels. Considering how a work would sound if it were read aloud can help in identifying an
author’s tone. Some words describing tone are playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal, ornate,
sardonic, somber, etc.
Tragedy - A play in which a main character suffers a major downfall.
Tragicomedy – A play that has tragic events but ends happily.
Transition – A word or phrase that links different ideas. Used especially, although not exclusively, in expository
and argumentative writing, transitions effectively signal a shift from one idea to another. A few commonly used
transitional words or phrases are furthermore, consequently, nevertheless, for example, in addition, likewise,
similarly, on the contrary, etc. More sophisticated writers use more subtle means of transition.
Turning Point - A term used to describe that point in the plot when the protagonist’s situation changes for the
better or for the worse.
Understatement – the ironic minimalizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant than it is.
The effect can frequently be humorous and emphatic. Understatement is the opposite of hyperbole. Example:
Jonathan Swift’s A Tale of a Tub: “Last week I saw a woman flayed, and you will hardly believe how much it
altered her person for the worse.”
Verse - Collection of lines (as in a Shakespeare play) that follow a regular, rhythmic pattern.
Wit -- in modern usage, intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights. A witty statement is humorous,
while suggesting the speaker’s verbal power in creating ingenious and perceptive remarks. Wit usually uses terse
language that makes a pointed statement. Historically, wit originally meant basic understanding. Its meaning
evolved to include speed of understanding, and finally, it grew to mean quick perception including creative fancy
and a quick tongue to articulate an answer that demanded the same quick perception.
Zeugma–a grammatically correct construction in which a word, usually a verb or adjective, is applied to two or more
nouns without being repeated -often used to comic effect. Ex: the thief took my wallet and the Fifth Avenue bus.
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