NASA
Meteoroids
C.A.
and Orbital
Debris:
Reference
Effects
Publication
1408
on Spacecraft
Belk
Universities
Space
J.H. Robinson
Marshall
Research
and M.B.
Space Flight
Association
• Huntsville,
Alabama
Alexander
Center
• MSFC,
Alabama
W.J. Cooke
Computer
S.D.
Sciences
Corporation
• Huntsville,
Alabama
Pavelitz
Sverdrup
Technology,
Inc.
• Huntsville,
Alabama
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Marshall Space Flight Center ° MSFC, Alabama 35812
August
1997
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors
Johnson
Space
acknowledge
Center
during
the comments
the preparation
and contributions
of this primer
I11
of Dr. Nicholas
Johnson
of the NASA
PREFACE
The effects
are the topic
magnetics
Space
of the natural
of a series
ronments
Center.
(neutral
management
mission
Environments
The objective
This primer,
survive
seventh
understanding
debris
minimize
Systems
meteoroids
development,
being
Analysis
and their effects
program
design,
currently
is to increase
plasma,
fields)
*NASA
and operation
developed
by the Electro-
and Integration
Laboratory,
the understanding
of natural
and orbital debris,
solar,
on spacecraft,
risks and costs,
and promotes
and their effects
Reference
Publications
Space
M.B.,
thereby
optimize
ionizing
enabling
design
Marshall
space
enviradia-
program
quality,
and achieve
"Spacecraft
Environments
Herr, J.L. and McCollum,
"Electronic
Systems
and Alexander,
"Failures
1995, NASA
"Spacecraft
System
Bedingfield,
K.L.,
Effects
of debris
mitigation
natural
in order
Environment
Environments
on Spacecraft,"
debris,
spacecraft
space
environments
Series,
available
(including
meteoroids
Branch,
James,
from the Marshall
include
Space
the following:
B.F., Norton,
O.A.,
Jr., and
Attributed
of Spacecraft
to Electromagnetic
Charging,"
Interference,"
Leach,
RP 1374.
to Spacecraft
Charging,"
Leach,
R.D. and Alexander,
M.B.,
RP 1375.
Failures
Leach,
and Anomalies
R.D.,
to
RP 1350.
and Anomalies
Attributed
of orbital
to design
policy.
Interactions:
Protecting
Against the Effects
M.B., November
1994, NASA RP 1354.
July 1995, NASA
and Anomalies
environments
of eight
Space
1994, NASA
Failures
M.B.,
size, and lifetime
debris
on spacecraft.
and Aerospace
Environment:
November
on the source,
awareness
Natural
Electromagnetics
Natural
Alexander,
focuses
and orbital
RP 1350 for an overview
debris)
Center
in the series,
the meteoroid
impacts,
See NASA
and orbital
August
Branch,
thermal,
to more effectively
Publications*
of this series
and gravitational
on spacecraft
objectives.
discusses
"The
environment
Reference
thermosphere,
tion, geomagnetic
Flight
of NASA
and Aerospace
Flight
space
Attributed
and Alexander,
to the Natural
M.B., August
Space
1996, NASA
Environment,"
RP 1390.
"Spacecraft
Environments
Interactions:
Solar Activity and Effects on Spacecraft,"
Niehuss,
K.O., and Alexander,
M.B., November
1996, NASA RP 1396.
iv
Vaughan,
W.W.,
R.D.
TABLE
OF CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION
SOURCE
AND
.....................................................................................................................
SIZE
OF ORBITAL
ORBITAL
DEBRIS
EFFECTS
OF ORBITAL
DESIGNING
ORBITAL
NASA
LIFETIME
DEBRIS
METEOROID
MITIGATION
AND
.........................................................................
................................................................................................
FOR THE ORBITAL
DEBRIS
DEBRIS
1
ON SPACE
DEBRIS
6
OPERATIONS
..............................................
7
ENVIRONMENT
.............................................
9
...........................................................................................
ORBITAL
3
DEBRIS
TECHNOLOGY
PROGRAM
13
.....................
15
CONCLUSION
.........................................................................................................................
16
REFERENCES
..........................................................................................................................
17
V
LIST
OF ILLUSTRATIoNs
Figure
°
Title
Depiction
of cataloged
2.
Shuttle
window
3.
Orbital
debris
4.
In-orbit
photograph
5.
Orbital
debris
6.
Front
7.
Series
(left)
,
9.
Typical
pit caused
a debris
ballistic
Hypervelocity
damage
and rear (right)
...........................................................................
1
with a paint
2
by ORDEM96
of LDEF
impact
debris
by impact
flux calculated
of photographs
and produces
orbital
Page
chip ..............................................
..............................................................
4
.....................................................................................
5
to silver
8
views
Teflon
TM
of spallation
as 1-cm projectile
impacts
blanket
damage
on LDEF
to LDEF
............................
surface
..................
10
a target
cloud
.........................................................................................
10
limit curves
.......................................................................................
11
Test Facility
at White
Sands
vi
Test Facility
............................................
12
ABBREVIATIONS
ASAT
antisatellite
CDR
Critical
cm
centimeter
GEO
geosynchronous-Earth
HEO
high-Earth
HST
Hubble
kg
kilogram
km
kilometer
km/s
kilometers
LDEF
Long
LEO
low-Earth
m
meter
mm
millimeter
M/OD
meteoroids
and orbital
debris
Meteoroid
and Orbital
Debris
M/OD
TP
Design
AND
ACRONYMS
Review
orbit
orbit
Space
Telescope
per second
Duration
Exposure
Facility
orbit
MSFC
Marshall
Space
NASA
National
Aeronautics
PC
personal
computer
PDR
Preliminary
SAIL
Systems
SSN
Space
U.S.
United
WSTF
White
yr
year
Flight
Design
Analysis
Surveillance
Technology
Center
and Space
Administration
Review
and Integration
Laboratory
Network
States
Sands
Program
Test Facility
vii
REFERENCEPUBLICATION
METEOROIDS
AND
ORBITAL
DEBRIS:
EFFECTS
ON SPACECRAFT
INTRODUCTION
Earth's
In the natural
space
orbital
at an average
space
micrometeoroids,
orbits,
small
altitudes
around
by Pegasus
meteoroid
large enough
man-made
tentional
debris
space
includes
rocket
bodies,
cumulative
of these
1 depicts
the Earth's
space,
occurring
40 years
satellites
mission
debris,
is customarily
Figure
of currently
1. Depiction
their velocities
than orbital
can reach
the probability
damage
exploration•
Released
this growing
threat
fragmentation
space
parts
to space
of cataloged
orbital
70 km/s.
and
Mea-
of collision
with a
environment.
It is
debris,
debris.
debris.
of spacecraft,
unin-
Orbital
and nonfunctional
space-
as large, medium,
orbital
debris
operations.
2 000 000 kg with an average
cataloged
tons of
is remote.l
in the natural
classified
through
each year.1 In geosynchronous
orbits,
significant
of space
is approximately
the area and density
where
in Earth
40 000 metric
to be encountered
phenomenon
have created
related
distribution
objects
that,
likely
ice or rock, travel
An average
atmosphere
are more
1 cm) to create
from
and spent
population
Figure
than
is not a naturally
craft. This debris
mass
enter
in 1965 found
(greater
small bits of cometary
of 20 km/s (44 000 mph).
in interplanetary
spacecraft
litter resulting
explosions,
speed
dust particles,
hazard
surements
debris
meteoroids,
35 000 kin, meteoroids
are the only penetration
Orbital
environment
and small•
velocity
The
of I 0 km/s.2
Significanceof the meteoroidandorbital debris(M/OD) threatis evidentin numerousspacecraft
anomalies.Unexplaineddestructionsof spacecraft are believed caused by impacts with large debris. A
French
military
research
the size of a suitcase.
satellite,
The Cerise
cut in half.3 This incident
The Long
test the stability
LDEE
LDEF
coupled
Examples
Space
understand
2
the current
debris
particle
(LDEF)
impact
debris
caused
from impact
of high gain
antenna
dish aboard
on the Solar
2. Shuttle
exploration
orbital
impacts,
Maximum
window
Mission
debris
environment,
and take measures
by impact
civil,
have
environment.
craters/m2
per year.
a
materials.4
include:
chip (fig. 2)
Space
Telescope
(HST)
spacecraft.
pit caused
is vital to national,
was to
Gas Gun have provided
environment
the Hubble
space
impact
on aerospace
with a paint
about
was
objects.
orbit (LEO)
tests with the Light
by the M/OD
fragment
the satellite
7, 1984. Its mission
140 significant
impacts
booster
stabilizes
space
April
in the low-Earth
approximately
of orbital
which
of two tracked
was deployed
window
surfaces
space
impact
coatings
with hypervelocity
anomalies
July 24, 1996, by an Ariane
after the 6-m boom
Shuttle
Figure
Because
of thermal
on the effects
• Penetration
• Marred
Facility
experienced
of spacecraft
• A cracked
orbital
Exposure
and interaction
of information
was struck
tumbling
was the first witnessed
in orbit for 69 months,
Data from
wealth
Duration
Cerise,
began
and commercial
design
to guard
with a paint
guidelines
against
orbital
chip.
interests,
that protect
debris
it is necessary
spacecraft
proliferation.
to
from
SOURCE
Since
the advent
of space
in orbits
around
material
from both intentional
related
items.
the Earth.
Unless
AND
SIZE
exploration,
These
objects
a growing
include
augment
the orbital debris population.
To minimize
to understand
the current orbital debris environment.
Each
object
is classified
(1) Fragmentation
upper
according
material
stage explosions)
thermal
about
blankets,
consists
nonfunctional
rocket
operations
the potential
hazard
and fragments
dislodged
largest
from
of these
component
orbits
objects,
other
could
mission
severely
it is necessary
types:
vehicles
satellites
fragmented
and various
in these
five debris
of destroyed
has accumulated
spacecraft,
fuel ejecta,
continued
of pieces
debris
(antisatellite
(paint
flakes,
of the tracked
(ASAT)
pieces
debris
tests,
of
population,
of the total.
(2) Nonfunctional
spacecraft
had shortened
mission
of the debris
population.
(3) Rocket
of orbital
to one of the following
etc.). This is the single
40 percent
bodies,
explosions,
is addressed,
DEBRIS
population
rocket
and unintentional
this accumulation
OF ORBITAL
bodies
are intact structures
life due to a nondestructive
are spent
(4) Mission-related
that have
items
upper
include
stages,
about
explosive
completed
malfunction,
19.4 percent
bolts,
vehicle
their mission
approximately
of the tracked
shrouds,
debris
etc., released
or have
25.3
percent
population.
during
staging
and spacecraft
separation,
approximately
13.3 percent. This category
also includes two
families of solid rocket motor debris, those with diameters
less than 25 microns and those
around
I cm, and a population
potassium
(5) Debris
(NaK)
from
unknown
orbital
debris
by the following
particle
sizes:
cataloged
ground.
fragments
where
large
account
for the remaining
has various
sources,
sizes,
and monitored
reflect
inclination
debris
debris.
orbits,
only
greater
rely on albedo
10 percent
to be sodium
much
2.0 percent.
and compositions,
10 cm are classified
sensors
(light
of the sunlight
due to lack of sensors
spends
than
by ground-based
telescopes
However,
near 900 km believed
sources
with diameter
Optical
particles
droplets.
Although
Large---Objects
of small
directed
as large debris.
but not all large objects
reflection)
to detect
they receive.
to those
of its time at very high altitudes.
such an impact would
it is customarily
cause
1 There
areas,
can be
from the
and, typically,
are also limitations
and in highly
Probability
catastrophic
Many
are visible
objects
classified
breakup
elliptical
in low
orbits
is low of encounters
with
of a spacecraft.
3
MediummObjects
tion,
with
estimated
can detect
cant
objects
damage
as small
spacecraft
Space
debris
returned
Shuttle,
spallations,
enced
with
of small
length,
tethers
Debris
flux
by
calculated
flux
by the
and
data
space.
may
amount
is directly
as a function
National
of debris
proportional
of time
and
debris
size
could
as small
by in-situ
to spacecraft,
debris
small
Because
by
through
Its popularadar
cause
which
signifi-
Space
Administration
Because
such
of their
small
with
area
small
at a given
of impact.1
Figure
Station's
damage
as LDEF,
HST,
damage,
diameter
to
and
craters,
and
long
debris.
time.
The
3 depicts
altitude
and
debris
model,
(NASA)
the popula-
examining
are component
impacts
a given
debris.
sampling,
with
to the probability
Space
of medium
of damage
at the International
Aeronautics
Haystack
are classified
severed
passing
debris.
with
failure.
surfaces.
or completely
as medium
on measurements
acquired
of collisions
of spacecraft
be frayed
1 mm
are best
Examination
the effects
with
mission
than
are classified
is based
A collision
possible
less
degradation
is the
a spacecraft
in the debris
as 1 cm.
diameter
from
to 10 cm
of millions,
is so great,
shows
and
of 1 mm
tens
to a spacecraft
Small--Objects
tion
diameter
to be in the
flux
experi-
the variation
inclination,
as
ORDEM96.
1e+3
le+2
le+1
Circular Debris Orbits
J
-A _
le+0
Elliptical Debris Orbits
Total Debris Flux
le-1
E
¢Jl
_E
le-2
1e-3
1e-4
1e-5
le-6
le-7
1996 Kessler Model
SpaceStation Orbit
(400 km Altitutde, i = 51.6 degrees, Year = t995)
le-8
1.0e-3
1.0e-2
1.0e-1
1.0e+0
Particle Size, cm
Figure
4
3. Orbital
debris
flux
calculated
by ORDEM96.
1.0e+1
All objects
have
orbital
objects
optical
elements
in the catalog
complete
lance
pected
in-orbit
and other
have
properties
their orbital
objects.
Command,
stored
Smaller
Orbital
debris
is monitored
of an object
radar can detect
must
objects
to be in the trillions,
photograph
evidence
visibility
ways.
taken
] Density
increases
of the population
objects
4. In-orbit
about
debris,
8000
is reasonably
(if at all) by the Space
are detected
orbits
(GEO)
on returned
Shuttle
during
Surveil-
of these
"debris
photograph
of LDEF.
In LEO,
of small
Hayex-
such as LDEE
An
is shown
causes
in figure
orbital
extensive
and
material.
debris,
in flux of small
swarms"
radars
on debris
to be visible.l
retrieval,
of 3 to 5 magnitudes
by land-based
reflectivity
spacecraft
surfaces.
Figure
Currently,
The catalog
as 5 mm. The population
of damage
from the Space
swarms,"
tracked
or orbital
in the catalog.
Larger
as small
spacecraft
basis.
due to the light and radar
is via examinations
of "debris
the catalog.
on a regular
be 1 m in geosynchronous
with a diameter
of LDEF,
for a few minutes.
sion to spacecraft
in several
have limited
is called
ones are not easily
and, thus, are not well represented
which
functional
updated
(SSN)
telescopes
whether
in what
parameters
Network
data show
lasting
by the U.S. Space
for 10 cm or larger
The diameter
stack
tracked
4. LDEF
debris
corro-
ORBITAL
As debris
on its surfaces
the decay
moves
and gradually
rate of orbital
low altitude
months.
orbits
Density
or thousands
can have
exceed
of years.2
Several
include
decays
altitude,
Because
more quickly.
rapidly
Objects
orbit (HEO).
Density
by the ll-year
surface.
Surface
area determines
ionized
particles
of the atmosphere
lifetime.
aluminum
sphere
altitude
brings
has a lower
lunar gravitational
LEO.
During
the 11-year
(solar
maximum).
spheric
density
increased
drag
400 km or less decay
time increases
debris
craft
forces
Environments
affect
hardware
forces
6
information
higher,
is exposed
and perturbation
orders
from
reduce
especially
Density
decay
more
at altitudes
on materials,
can easily
rate by the number
it. This means
the greater
of aluminum
of
than the atmosphere
1000 km that are greatly
of particles
impinging
to the environment
the area-to-mass
foil decays
factors
The most significant
dense
below
time. The more area exposed
life. An object
quickly
to the Earth
decays
ratio
more quickly
is sufficient
force
cycle,
because
the
the more
the shorter
than a small
to gradually
The
ll-year
decay
it. However,
affect
an object's
objects
in higher
solar cycle
about
the solar
cycle
Solar Activity
elliptical
orbits
Depending
life to a few months.
average
to the Earth,
of
if the circular
rate.
activity,
trajectory
orbits
is found
(solar
orbit
and Effects
Reference
on Spacecraft."
such as the Geostationary
on alignment
No significant
of the object
forces
orbital
and atmoas objects
does this population
Publication
Orbit
life in
and high solar
is heated
replenished
Solar
Transfer
1396 "Space-
and lunar
gravitational
used to transfer
with the Sun and the Moon,
in GEO
expedite
it
the solar and
minimum)
the atmosphere
LEO is continuously
in NASA
by pulling
where
also influences
of low solar activity
of increased
a faster
point of orbit closest
deteriorates
does not affect
the years
to produce
perigee,
orbit with the same
quickly.
the Sun has periods
During
in an elliptical
and rapidly
more
are more significant.
LEO to GEO.
orbital
in a few
to. These
forces.
of magnitude
is not constant,
the object
Interactions:
very
in
to tens, hundreds,
generation
from higher altitudes draw closer to the Earth. Only during times of solar maximum
of debris decrease.
The next solar maximum
is expected
around the year 2000. 5
More
determines
debris
is low and has little effect
rate of growth,
drag an object
of orbit,
sheet
force)
increases,
in as few as 20 years.
of atmospheric
more
closer
gravitation
activity
atmospheric
unusable
orbital
This perturbation
fields
around
600 km and decay
At the current
affects
decreases
impinge
mass.
altitude,
Earth
to the Earth.
where
orbits
in altitudes
above
years.
impact
orbit, decays
the object
In LEO,
closer
Objects
a square
of orbit affects
average
as altitude
deterioration
of the same
as a circular
the ellipse
solar cycle.
For example,
Eccentricity
drag (retarding
density
in LEO is several
affected
the orbital
This atmospheric
ratio, eccentricity
The atmosphere
ions in the atmosphere
atmospheric
affect the amount
area-to-mass
10 km/s,
the material.
in GEO,
higher
LIFETIME
at approximately
in altitudes
of a million
and make
factors
is altitude.
in high-Earth
deteriorate
lifetime
rates
its trajectory
debris.
decreases
an orbital
decay
these
along
DEBRIS
the decay
these
process.
EFFECTS
Large,
more
dense,
nous orbits.
resolution
medium,
hot spots
These
and small debris
exist.
or retaining
The probability
to determine
variables
these
Altitude
populated
objects
in a 10-km
effects
with debris.
orbits.
Inclination
refers
inclination
orbits
population
is dense
Spacecraft
blanket
Where
debris
semisynchronous,
to spacecraft
designers
concentrations
are
and geosynchro-
such as providing
high-
depends
on orbital altitude,
testing
is a procedure
and survivability
inclination,
performed
of the spacecraft.
to judge
spacecraft
on critical
Because
all materials.
size,
spacecraft
of the many
To date very little
factor
Altitudes
to consider
in collision
avoidance.
Low-Earth
from 900 to 1000 km have an average
band.2 These
altitudes
have the highest
these altitudes
more
likely
offer lower launch
to experience
population
probability
costs
collisions
orbits
are most
of 100 cataloged
of collision--second
and other benefits
highest
to design-
than in semisynchronous
and
1
to the orbital
plane of a spacecraft
in these areas.
orbits
poles
Although
are subjected
with respect
and frequently
all spacecraft
to the harsher
to the Earth's
used for remote
encounter
sensing.
equator.
The orbital
the path of this orbiting
environment
for longer
High
periods
debris
debris,
at increased
of collision.
with much
remains
low-Earth,
over the Earth.
impact
are close to the Earth's
in high inclination
likelihood
in all orbital altitudes.
and do not offer standards
in LEO are 100 times
geosynchronous
OPERATIONS
structures.
1400 to 1500 km. Although
ers, spacecraft
those
with debris
of impact
material
altitude
longitude
Hypervelocity
is the most important
heavily
are from
constant
ON SPACE
areas include
areas offer benefits
tests are case specific
data exist for composite
DEBRIS
is found
dense
of collision
of time in orbit.
components
Debris
frequently-used
images
and length
OF ORBITAL
size and length
area exposed
in orbit increases
on LDEF
of time in orbit are also important
to the environment
the possibility
after 69 months
is more likely
of impact.
in orbit.
Figure
collision
to encounter
5 shows
factors.
significant
impact
damage
A large spacecraft
debris.
The longer
to a silver
Teflon
it
TM
_ : 111I
Figure
5. Orbital
debris
impact damage
to silver
,j
Teflon
TM
blanket
on LDEF.
DESIGNING
Inevitably,
passive
spacecraft
and active
ing components
ties. These
ways
to detect
or close
shutters
procedure.
impact.
Whipple
to breakup
the monolithic
pressure
an impending
to protect
during
debris
sensitive
protect
against
components.
impacts
impacts
the majority
of orbital
of particles
in insignificant
damage
than 10 cm) could
probability
of impact
numerous
than small
spacecraft
and possible
craft mission
LEO velocienergy
and
the resulting
debris
protection
uses sensors
and warning
to allow
spacecraft
time to change
This is an extremely
debris
are small
cause
result
is low. The challenge
failure
craters
in total breakup
medium
demanding
levels
Most debris
of a spacecraft,
is more
Partial
of damage
in surfaces.
to spacecraft
debris
of mission.
several
(less than 1 mm).
such as micron-size
debris,
cratering
spallation
wave
surface.
moves
Figure
continue
degrade
through
6 shows
structural
Total
a surface,
cloud
position
and not widely
designers
dangerous
structure
severely
shock
penetration
materials
damage
environment
sure pulse
to spacecraft
encounters
Collision
but these
used
is medium
penetration
structures
are expected
with large
objects
and could
are infrequent
debris.
cause
to
objects
Although
significant
by medium
and
less
damage
size particles
to
has
surface coatings,
thermal
properties
required
for space-
to cause
a thin sheet
such as a space
and an extremely
in the shape
circuits,
in a structural
thermal
station,
bright
Perforation
depending
severe
damage
damage,
For a high-pressure,
rupture
to separate
to a surface
or penetrate
liquid-filled
structural
is a phenomenon
through
wall
in which
from the back
on LDEE
a
of the
This particle
other
structures
tank, the possibility
the tank due to the hydraulic
damage
by hypervelocity
radially
perforation
more
of an aluminum
Spallation
of material
of spallation
catastrophically
of a wall can cause
explosions,
70 percent
exists
ram created
to
that a
within
the
wave.
electrical
components.
approximately
on the back of that wall.
causing
properties.
could
wall is penetrated
and particle
through
front and rear views
strength
impact
tank by the impact
structural
that extends
from the material
into the spacecraft
nonperforating
internal
are
success.
Particle
can create
could
at typical
the particle
there
or augment-
size and velocity,
many possible effects on a spacecraft.
The smaller cratering
can degrade
materials,
and windows
or mirror surfaces and affect thermal and optical
stress
However,
shielding
Active
them.
enough
includes
and distribute
in particle
early
lifetime.
protection
on impact
wall behind
impact
their functional
Passive
bumpers
debris
ENVIRONMENT
1
Hypervelocity
(greater
debris
over a large area. Due to the reduction
systems
result
orbital
DEBRIS
them from damage.
are designed
does not penetrate
because
THE ORBITAL
encounter
to protect
to withstand
bumpers
momentum
FOR
insulation,
the expanding
flash of light.
of fuel tanks,
could
severe
a debris
than partial
cloud
weaken
or other delicate
debris
cloud
Secondary
batteries,
the vessels
the wall
results
could
mass
Because
of energy
could
of pressure.
of high
wall
could
In a liveable
is accompanied
vessels
a
broken
by a pres-
be fire and explosions
pressure
and the amount
itself.
When
and spreads
components.
of particles
and other
penetration.
is created
of a cone (fig. 7). This spreading
on the fluid or gas inside
wall
more
particles,
reentry
of
lead to more
A very
loads,
large
this is
9
1 mm
Figure
especially
simply
6. Front
important
cause
(left)
to vehicles
a single
critical,
or catastrophic.
manned
modules
and rear (right)
required
component
station
the only air tank left or the pressure
failure
might
would
be labeled
Figure
"critical."
the Earth's
perforation
would
damage
atmosphere.
on the component,
of a small,
probably
to cause
to LDEF
Finally,
this failure
low-pressure
be labeled
is high enough
If the disorientation
of photographs
components
and hypervelocity
are redundant
to reenter
of spallation
is too severe
surface.
perforations
could
failure.
could
be functional,
air tank stored
a "functional"
sufficient
i
outside
the
However,
if it is
thrust
to disorient
the station,
to allow
an attitude
recovery,
this
it
"catastrophic."
7. Series
Many
analysis
be labeled
views
to fail. Depending
For example,
of a space
I mm
and failure
as 1-cm projectile
of a spacecraft
impact
are considered
test show
of one cannot
impacts
cause
otherwise.
failure
a target
critical
and produces
to the mission,
The exception
to any other.
a debris
cloud.
until an M/OD
damage
to this may be if the components
One must be very careful
in evaluat-
ing redundancy.
Electrical
components
are sometimes
said to be redundant
when there is a primary and
secondary
component.
However,
if they are in the same container
the debris cloud created when the box
is penetrated
could
Many
tions
10
penetration
are empirical,
The great
severely
majority
based
damage
predictor
both.
equations
on a significant
of published
In this case the components
equations
have been
number
developed
of tests,
are for metallic
are not redundant.
over the last 40 years.
and applicable
materials.
only to those
Prediction
equations
Many
materials
equatested.
for composite
material
structures
and
multi-plate
tion
Program
aluminum
penetration
launch
tures.
The
spacecraft.
variety
Figure
Whipple
and
as the ballistic
The
expected
to totally
orientation,
and
orbital
The
and
curve
curve.
debris
station
the
perforating
size
and
Notice
are used
the
and
and
velocity
These
to assess
improvement
of thermal
blankets
thermal
or aluminum
that
nonperforating
combinations
curves
along
in stopping
each
not totally
areas
above
with
the
of mission
power
from
Sta-
spaced
plates.
and
tiles.
blankets
lithium
materials
one
Nextel
beneath
will
the probability
and
plate,
with
velocity
particles
Space
of two
the two
of structures
shield
For the
for advanced
aluminum
Whipple
size
or those
the configuration.
variety
cloth.
for single-
for a combination
to composite
for a single
type
of particle
particle
duration
impacts.
as the
to stop
separating
The
perforate
mission
is as endless
published
between
penetration
equations
bonded
one
equations
suspended
predict
predictor
systems
for a space
combinations
fabrics
are
for ceramic
predictor
Program
curves,
Equations
penetration
cloth
are deriving
protection
is expected
limit
Shuttle
predictor
the third
are planned.
multilayer
strength
needed
three
tests
the penetration
high
Space
thermal
configuration
the configuration.
and
researchers
8 shows
the plates.7
the
and
of equations
shield,
between
for the
metallic
build
development
contain
ceramic
vehicle
including
ticles
papers
with
developed
Reusable
and
for metals
published
plates
Equations
tiles,
are needed
and
substrucused
to
for a two-plate
and
Kevlar
fabrics
curve
are those
perforate
the
of the graph
the curves
spacecraft
are
from
the more
of
is known
those
orbit,
failure
par-
last wall
altitude,
meteoroid
advanced
shield
systems.
Typical Ballistic Limit Curves
(0.188" Aluminum Wall, With Added Aluminum Shield,
or With Aluminum Shield and Kevlarand Nextel)
E
,.z
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
-- -- Whipple Shield
-StuffedPlate
Whipple
Shield
- - - Single
Equation
1.1
E
--_
•E
,,
E
•-_
E
=
1,0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0.0
_\,
V
7"
I
I
I
5
10
15
Impact Velocity, km/s
Figure
8. Typical
ballistic
limit
curves.
11
Hypervelocity
hypervelocity
various
launch
ranging
shields
materials
Hypervelocity
impact
for space
and structural
Test Facility
projectiles
vehicles
includes
near orbital
and structures.
configurations.
debris
two-stage
velocities.
9. Hypervelocity
White
Gas Guns
Typical
(3) targets
at White
and qualification
performance
compressed
for
hydrogen
are (1) impactor
that can produce
tests per year. Figure
Sands
models
of
Test Facility(WSTF)
test requirements
up to 700 successful
Test Facility
Sands
that use highly
impact
up to 7.5 km/s,
and (4) large test volume
Test Facility.
Figure
Light
characterization,
Tests characterize
The NASA
from 0.4 mm to 19 mm, (2) velocities
or explosive
results,
WSTF Hypervelocity
12
tests are used in the development,
Test Facility.
toxic,
9 shows
to
sizes
reactive,
the
ORBITAL
To reduce
guide
programs
released
1700.8
debris
in minimizing
in space
defines
of programs
debris
the orbital
additions
and lowering
the "Policy
relative
generation
debris
during
to on-orbit impacts with existing
Associate
Administrator.6
1740.14,
provides
to be performed
and prior
details
to the Critical
Orbital
normal
Design
In the assessment,
Debris
Review
guidelines
has established
by reducing
breakup.
NASA
conditions
Orbital
the assessment
cycle:
the number
requires
Instruction
assessment
programs
to consider
the
as well as their susceptibility
Headquarters
Debris,"
required
to
of objects
Management
rests with the NASA
for Limiting
policy
and calls for a formal
This policy
and malfunction
a program
NASA
Generation"
potential.
Procedures
during
operations,
environment
Final approval
on how to perform
at least twice
space
of accidental
generation
debris.
and Assessment
MITIGATION
to the M/OD
for Limiting
potential
to future
the possibility
to orbital
"Guidelines
threat
DEBRIS
NASA
by NASA
Safety
policy.
prior to the Preliminary
Program
Design
Standard
Assessments
Review
are
(PDR)
(CDR).
concerning
debris
generation
potential
are provided
in the follow-
ing events:
Normal
greater
OperationsmPrograms
than
components,
objects
launching
during
and Intentional
operations
so resulting
programs
lants and pressurants
On-Orbit
other
space
Providing
failure.8
vehicle
shrouds,
they will not remain
and size of orbital
passing
through
and others.
debris
GEO
with diameter
including
This is achieved
in orbit or attaching
have
BreakupsmPrograms
and after the mission
debris
due to debris
low altitudes
of objects
objects
staging
by releasing
such as lens caps
to the craft until reentry.8
mission
planned
where
limit the number
lifetime
mechanisms,
at low altitudes
with lanyards
Explosions
must
1 mm and the orbital
has a short
clouds
lowers
the probability
acceptable
decay
systems
the spacecraft
to systems
the risk of accidental
Intentional
It is necessary
larger
explosions
also to assess
than 1 mm. Expelling
of accidental
explosion.
Intentional
explosion
must be
risks to other
remaining
explosions
propelin
times.8
must assess
and design
shielding
reduce
is complete.
lifetime.
and to limit objects
Collisions_Programs
proper
orbital
must
the probability
to withstand
and components
of collision
expected
guards
against
with large
orbital
debris
fragmentation
debris
or
impacts.
and mission
13
Post-Mission
Disposal---After
to not hinder
designing
Survival
14
it to decay
within
of human
Removal
25 years,
Systems---The
must be limited
The total debris
probability
its functional
operations.
of Reentering
atmosphere
debris.
future
or transferring
number
in order to reduce
casualty
area
injury to 0.0001
lifetime
is achieved
the spacecraft
by retrieving
it to a disposal
and size of systems
the risk of human
may not exceed
per reentry
eight
event.8
square
must be removed
the craft within
from orbit
10 years,
orbit.8
reentering
casualties
meters.
the Earth's
caused
by falling
This reduces
the
NASA
NASA
lishing
METEOROID
has addressed
a Meteoroid
Analysis
Rodriguez.
technologies
reviews,
M/OD
threat
of results
Basic
developed
or Broad
general
include
guidelines,
Depth
once
problem
of increased
frequency
with micrometoroids
particles
traveling
is a crucial
factor
missions
in design
• On-Line
Database
for Orbital
Impacts
• Review
• Total
and Assessment
System
staffs
resources,
for future
spectrum
providing
independent
needed
tools,
do not have
independent
missions.
providing
and breaking
debris
between
that will provide
of spacecraft.
assessment
review
to complete
as the orbital
and collisions
Understanding
of the M/OD
Key
models
and
services.9
specific
spacecraft
performance
new ground
population
existing
and
in M/OD
continues
debris
devel-
models
result
to grow
in a
the effects
of impacts
with these tiny
TP include:
on Spacecraft
Tool for Simple
Effects
technical
specifications.
tasks
Impact
to new
debris. Another benefit of the M/OD TP is the increased
knowledge
As deep space exploration
advances,
spacecraft
enter environments
technology
• Meteoroid
exper-
accessibility
and methodologies
This includes
and analysis
up to 250 km/s.
Design
offers
by
into two categories:
performance,
and offering
is recognized
but often
to cover a broad
the capabilities
of current
M/OD
and chaired
the Agency
enhance
development
standards,
on design
Examples
• PC Based
by estab-
by the Systems
(MSFC)
TP will coordinate
TP are divided
is identified.
of space
greater density of small and medium
of the micrometeoroid
environment.
spacecraft
Center
from across
design
M/OD
information
design
of this Program
Flight
resources
spacecraft
are tools,
a database
supporting
tests, developing
technologies.9
because
M/OD
will develop
an M/OD
The importance
studies.
test capabilities,
Technologies
opment
debris
and scientific
improving
in preliminary
Technologies
creating
to orbiting
organizations.
for cost-effective
under
Based
engineering
programs
orbital
necessary
combined
PROGRAM
TP), managed
Space
with members
These
is addressed
of relevant
Technologies
Group
development
usually
and assessments
Working
debris
Program(M/OD
at the Marshall
disciplines.
TECHNOLOGY
and orbital
Technology
(SAIL)
M/OD
for all spacecraft
The
the benefit
in many
DEBRIS
of meteoroids
Debris
Laboratory
The Program
tise and experience
ORBITAL
the threat
and Orbital
and Integration
Mr. Pedro
AND
Spacecraft
Geometries
Model
Services
Risk Analysis
Tool.
15
CONCLUSION
Meteoroids
need
and orbital
to maintain
smaller
debris
observations
debris,
design
by particle
of current
spacecraft
orbital
size. Large
most objects
adequately
threat
populations
to survive
tracked
but normal
however,
typical
significant
Designing
to space
operations.
as well as develop
debris
amount
impacts,
This primer
addresses
new ways to better
and follow
debris
NASA
the
monitor
guidelines
Instruction
1700.8
to provide
survivability
spacecraft
Meteoroid
and Orbital
Space
Flight
If you have
and Integration
at 205-544-2350.
bumpers,
to curb
measures
Safety
necessary
when
that require
Debris
Technology
at 205-544-7006.
questions
Laboratory,
or comments
Electromagnetics
and small
interruption
prevents
In 1996 NASA
concerning
environment.
contact
Pedro
this primer,
coatings.
and Areospace
Rodriguez
debris,
with passive
Developing
is also possible.
proliferation.
Technol-
and highabout
(ED 51), George
Branch,
the
Management
an M/OD
information
the MSFC
NASA
and minimize
is in NASA
of cost-effective
For more
Environments
debris
established
contact
is encountered
in diameter.
to assess
mitigation
impacts
Small
is possible
debris
management
on debris
to aid in the development
Program,
damage.
and
to be
since
Small debris
and upgraded
collisions
program
1740.14.
to the M/OD
Center
missions.
mission
shields,
information
Standard
to designers
out of the path of oncoming
in expected
technologies
exposed
without
are too small
from significant
long in length
classified
has a small population,
particles
challenge
entire
areas
monolithic
a spacecraft
in orbit. Additional
and NASA
ogy Program
collisions
it is customarily
in a collision,
the greatest
are extremely
not to breakup
mitigation
offers
and sizes,
because
and threatened
which
move
to spacecraft
most sensitive
to withstand
to actually
released
debris
protect
compositions,
is the most elusive
to spacecraft
to tethers
spacecraft
of debris
fatal damage
such as Whipple
crews
Designing
has developed
threat
sources,
debris
Medium
damage
spacecraft
systems
to warn
causes
Medium
and shielding
is a serious
systems
debris
has various
by sensors.
coating
protection
debris
are trackable.
have caused
16
pose a serious
proliferation.
Although
Marshall
debris
Systems
Steven
the NASA
C.
Analysis
D. Pearson
REFERENCES
National
.
Research
Washington,
DC,
The National
.
David,
Zwiener,
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"Space
James
Vaughan,
8.
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Frost,
W.W.,
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Niehuss,
Committee
on Orbital
Damages
K.O.,
and Effects
Debris."
French
National
on Transportation
Washington,
Military
Debris
Office
of Safety
Orbital
Debris."
NASA
NASA
Marshall
Space
and Alexander,
on Spacecraft."
Instruction
V.C.: "Meteoroid
Program."
Assessment."
Academy
Press,
DC,
Satellite."
Research
and
1995.
Space
News,
August
26-
Effects
on Materials."
NASA
Conference
1994.
NASA Management
Date TBD.
°
Report
Council
M.: "Micrometeoroids/Space
3257,
Solar Activity
.
A Technical
1, 1996.
Publication
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Debris
and Technology
"Interagency
Leonard:
September
"Orbital
1995.
Science
Development:
.
Council:
1700.8:
Damage
and Missile
Flight
NASA
"Policy
Assessment."
Assurance:
Safety
Standard
Center:
M.B.:
Publication
for Limiting
Orbital
NASA
1740.14,
Environments
Reference
"Guidelines
"NASA
"Spacecraft
Special
1396, November
Debris
Publication
and Assessments
|nteractions:
1996.
Generation."
8042,
Procedures
May
1970.
for Limiting
1995.
Meteoroid
and Orbital
Debris
Technology
1996.
17
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6. AUTHORS
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Marshall
Space
Space
Flight
Flight
Center,
Center
Alabama
35812
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13.
ABSTRACT
The
(Maximum
natural
space
to spacecraft.
tions.
space
environment
systems
is characterized
of these phenomena
become
and smaller,
environment
climate
words)
The effects
Space
materials
200
faster
increasingly
electronics
essential
are naturally
manmade
space
presented
of orbital
This primer
occurring
litter accumulated
debris
source,
is one in a series
and subtle
design,
to the space
mission
phenomena
development,
environment
makes
hostile
and opera-
as use of composite
an understanding
objectives,
especially
Flight
natural
space
14.SUBJECT
TERMS
environmental
debris
SECURITY
effects
source,
CLASSIFICATION
REPORT
Unclassified
7540-01-280-5500
and impacts;
size, lifetime,
18.
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OF
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in the natural
size, lifetime,
Reference
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Center,
space
of the natural
in the current
environment.
orbit from the exploration
distribution,
Space
Marshall
phenomena
of NASA
and Aerospace
NSN
spacecraft
This trend
overall
in Earth
Laboratory,
OF
increases.
to accomplish
the Electromagnetics
17.
impact
susceptible
complex
of better/cheaper/faster.
Meteroids
orbital
by many
environment;
meteoroids
and mitigation
Publications
Branch,
National
currently
Systems
Aeronautics
spacecraft
and orbital
of space.
Analysis
and Space
environment;
PAGE
Unclassified
debris
Descriptions
is
are
measures.
being
developed
by
and Integration
Administration.
15.
NUMBER
OF
PAGES
28
debris;
16. PRICE CODE
and mitigation
CLASSIFICATION
Orbital
A03
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OF
CLASSIFICATION
ABSTRACT
Unclassified
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