IB Visual Art @ AIS
Student Handbook
This Handbook contains a lot of essential information.
Keep it safe and refer to it often!
1: The Basics
During the IB course you will produce:
Studio Work: 60%
Drawings, paintings, prints, sculptures, collages, design work, mixed media work,
digital artwork, photography, models, textiles and more. Your Studio Work must show
your personal interests and artistic skills through a range of different media and
techniques.
Investigation Workbooks (IWBs): 40%
Investigation Workbooks are like sketchbooks, but so much more! Your IWBs will
contain written notes, photos, exhibition leaflets, postcards, sketches, experiments
with different media, written analysis of artworks, brainstorms, as well as more
‘finished’ drawings and paintings. You can basically put anything you want into your
IWB as long as it supports the development of your artistic ideas and skills. Your IWB
is the ‘net to catch your ideas’ and will be a great support in your studio work.
You will need to complete 5 or more IWB pages each week. Most of this will be done
in your study periods or at home. Some weeks you will be able to do more than 5
pages because of your wonderful ideas. Excellent – but that does not mean the next
week you do not have to do any! Holidays are a great opportunity to collect
information, sketch, record and develop ideas, especially if you are in another
country. By the end of the course, you should have at least two thick IWBs
completed.
Self-Assessment
You will be involved in assessing your own work every month, referring to the IB
assessment criteria in detail. You will also receive comments from me that are useful
in showing both your strong points and areas for improvement. There will be regular
opportunities to discuss and explain your work and ideas in group discussions and
critiques. You will be asked to comment upon other IB students work.
Summary:
Investigation Workbook
At least 5 pages every week – that means homework!
Studio Work
At least one quality finished piece per month.
Self-Assessment
Every month!
2: Getting Started
Equipment:
During the school day, you will have open access to the Art Studio and equipment.
However, much of your work will also be done outside school, during the evenings,
weekends, and holidays. Due to this, you must collect as wide a range of art media
as possible, to help you develop and practice your skills in your own time.
A suggested starter list would be:
2B, 4B and 6B sketching pencils
Good quality eraser
Glue Stick
Essential items
Pack 12 x color pencils (preferably watercolor pencils)
Markers and drawing (ink) pens - Black, blue and red
Acrylic paints (at least primaries, secondaries, white,
black)
A small range of quality brushes in a variety of sizes
(e.g. No. 5, No. 9 and No. 20)
Art supply case (for storing and transporting supplies)
Recommended items
Try to get as many of these items as you can, and add to your supply of art materials
when you are able to. The first three items on the list are urgent purchases – please
buy these as quickly as possible! Collect as many ‘free’ items as you can to build up
your art supplies, such as different papers, tissues, magazines etc.
Work Space
Setting up a workspace at home is not absolutely essential but it would be highly
advantageous if you were able to create a ‘mini-studio’. It is much easier for you to
work if your have a space and your art equipment is out and ready, also wet work
can be left to dry overnight etc. A basic workspace should include:
A large flat table and comfortable chair.
A good source of natural light. Working at
night can be troublesome if you do not have
good lighting, as overhead lights can cast
annoying shadows on work and alter
perceived colors.
A 12” mirror, if you’re interested in producing
self-portraits. A full-length mirror would be
ideal for figure drawing.
You may wish to purchase
daylight bulbs or additional
lamps to prevent directional
shadows when working at
night.
3: IB Visual Arts Assessment
Criteria:
Studio Work
Studio work will be developed and evaluated according to several key criteria. Some
of them overlap and should be considered parts of a holistic approach. They are:
A
Understanding
This refers to the degree to which the artwork reflects an
understanding of how one can express concepts and ideas
in the visual image, as well as how well the student grasps
the technical and formal methods through which these can
be conveyed.
B
Relevance
This refers to the degree to which the artwork reflects or
conveys personal elements (Where are YOU in the work?);
the degree to which it shows an awareness and an
understanding of socio-cultural issues and concerns; and
the degree to which it shows evidence of well-developed,
complex ideas and approaches to given theme(s).
C
Development
This refers to the level of development of both ideas and
technical competence with chosen media or mode of
expression.
D
Sensitivity to
materials
This criterion concerns the ability to use and in some cases
develop novel uses for materials. It refers most importantly
to the ability to review and modify use of materials, so that
work shows evidence of increasingly well-informed
resolutions of concepts and the ideas that can be conveyed.
E
Technique
This is related to criterion A and D. It refers to the mastery
and understanding of the media chosen to explore. A
student in the IB Art program can choose whatever medium
they wish, but must be able to demonstrate competence in
the handling, potential and limits of that medium.
F
Confidence
This criterion refers to the degree to which work shows
evidence of a confident, inventive and wholly personal
approach to image-making, one that does not rely heavily
on existing art, historical precedent or teacher guidance.
G
Independence
This criterion looks at the degree to which work shows selfdirection and use of the student’s own judgment.
Ultimately, artwork must be entirely one’s own and should
show the arrival of the visual statement it makes on one’s
own accord. This has a great deal to do with criterion F.
Investigation Work
The Investigation Workbook will be developed and evaluated according to several
key criteria. Some of them overlap and should be considered parts of a holistic
approach. They are:
This refers to the degree to which the workbook shows that
the student has analyzed, considered, compared and
reflected upon art from other cultures and time periods,
especially its function and significance, both within its
original context and today. All art is interrelated.
This criterion references ability to display careful records of
skill development and awareness of techniques and
processes that led to the creation of studio pieces. It also
refers to work that shows that the ability to understand and
discuss the techniques and methodologies of other artists.
A
Cultural /
Contextural
Research
B
Technical /
Process
C
Investigation
This refers to evidence in the workbook that develops clear,
coherent strategies for investigating the visual qualities,
ideas and their contexts, and various approaches to ways of
formulating art. It also shows evidence of connections
between all these things.
D
Depth and
Breadth
This refers to the degree to which the workbook shows
evidence that research and investigations took in a broad
range of influences, ideas and inspirations that helped
formulate a successful synthesis of these in the studio work.
E
Vocabulary
F
Acknowledgement
This criterion examines the evidence in the workbook that
indicates the student has learned and became familiar with
an effective and accurate specialist vocabulary in the visual
arts. A good artist uses the proper terminology to refer to
his or her work and the work of others.
This criterion considers the degree to which the student
accurately and consistently cites the sources used in the
workbook.
G
Presentation
This criterion looks at how work is presented in the
workbook. It considers effective and creative writing
regarding work and the degree to which the student
demonstrates thoughtful, critical evaluations of work.
H
Integration
This criterion refers to the workbook’s relevance to studio
work. All workbook entries should reference studio work.
This criterion evaluates the level to which studio work is
emphatically evolved, supported, justified and explained in
the workbook. It is imperative that this be seen as a
developmental process – it should be continuously taking
place as work is developed, not simply after the fact.
of sources
4: Investigation Workbooks
A closer look:
Essential Information
You will be provided with an A4 sketchbook for use as an IWB. Clearly write ‘If found
please return to:’ and follow with all information listed in the box below on the inside
front cover of your IWB – in the event that your IWB is ever misplaced you must
provide as many details as possible in order for it to be returned.
Full name, address (or school address), home or mobile number, school phone
number, email address, class, teacher name, classroom number.
Investigation Workbook Guidelines
You are to record the date of each entry you make in your IWB, including the year.
This is so that your progress throughout the course can be clearly seen.
Your work should be neat, show good craftsmanship and a sense of good art
aesthetics. Use only black pen when writing in your IWB and write clearly and legibly.
Your teacher will need to read your IWB and photocopied pages will sent to the IB
examiners. Whilst your IWB should be visually interesting you must also be aware of
clarity. Writing in colored pens is distracting they do not photocopy well.
You will use both sides of all pages and all pages are to be numbered. Go through
your workbook numbering pages in advance, with black pen, placing numbers on the
bottom right of each A4 page. Numbering pages allows you to easily refer back to an
idea, though or work. Ideas will keep recurring, but also developing. Sometimes the
development can be stimulated by an exhibition or another piece of work you are
doing, or something you have been researching. On page 60 you might sketch an
idea and remember you did something similar before and write - “The idea/sketch on
page 25 has possibilities for a painting, see notes of ‘x’ exhibition on page 57.” Also
remember to cross-reference on pages 25 and 57. In addition, if ideas or concepts
change from page to page, make connecting statements.
Sources of information must always be acknowledged, always write down the full
reference in your IWB – you may need to find the information again at a later date.
This also applies to magazine articles, television programmes, films and postcards
from exhibitions. When using the Internet, the format for referencing is the full web
address and the date you accessed it. For books, the author, title, publisher and
edition date and page numbers. For periodicals, the name of the magazine, issue
number and date, page number, author and title of the article. The same idea goes
for television programmes and films.
When you sketch an idea, or when out drawing from observation, always sign or
initial your sketch/drawing and date it. This is for copyright/provenance reasons.
When drawing from observation include as much information as possible for future
reference. Write down where the subject is and why you have chosen to draw your
subject. Make notes on the weather, light, sounds, surrounding environment, your
thoughts etc. Photographs of the subject you are drawing are essential for
development of an idea or sketch. Always take your camera with you and record
images, scenes, textures and colours etc that you think are interesting. Place these
into your ‘image bank’ for possible development in your IWB.
Good Working Practices
Work in your IWB every day and make this a habit. Several good IWB sessions
spread throughout the week are always better than hours of rushed work late at night
– and the difference is noticeable in both your IWB and your studio work.
Never cut or rip pages out of your IWB. Don’t stick pages together even if you believe
you have made a mistake or a terrible drawing. Your IWB has to show mistakes as
well as your good work and most importantly it must show your development as an
artist over a period of time.
If you are using pencil, colored pencil or charcoal to draw with, always fix it – ‘firm
hold’ hair spray works for this and is a cheaper alternative to purchasing artist
fixative. Watercolour or acrylic paints do not need fixing as the paints contain an
adhesive.
If you are using oil pastels, glue in a sheet of tracing paper, greaseproof or OHT
along the bound edge of the page to cover it, protecting your artwork and the facing
page.
Writing in your Investigation Workbook
There should be written comments on every page of your IWB, even if you just write
the date. Think about a visually interesting balance between images and text and do
not full a page with text only.
Make comments on your feelings, how your work is progressing and what successes
you have had. You should also write about any difficulties and research or technical
problems you have encountered and how you have solved these.
Make notes on which materials you have used in your studio work experiments. The
type of paper, the type of medium, what type of glue gives the best results, which
clay you used and how wet it was, etc. This will also save you time later when you
need a specific result.
When trying out any new medium, experiment with it, find out what you can do with it
(by drawing in your IWB) and make notes about what you discover.
Write about any connections you might see between Art and your other IB subjects.
Make links across the curriculum and follow up your ideas, for instance, studying
blood cells in Biology might inspire prints of tiny natural objects, contour lines or grids
in maps from Geography might be combined into landscape drawings etc.
Make comments on your attitudes about life, social, cultural and political concerns.
Think about the world outside school and IB. The IWB is yours, so it should reflect
your thoughts and beliefs. These comments can be related to art you are researching
or artwork that you are producing.
Language and writing style
When you are writing in your IWB you must be aware that IB is an academic course
and that your written notes should reflect that. Describe your feelings, successes and
failures, comment on your progress, and your ideas about life etc but do not use
slang or informal English. Your writing must be clear, concise and grammatically
correct.
Although this is your Investigation Workbook, it is not being written as your personal
diary or for your friends – remember an IB examiner will be reading and grading it.
Read and learn Art vocabulary and always incorporate this into your writing in your
IWB. You should have access to a good dictionary as well as an Art-specific
dictionary (see section 9 of this booklet for further information).
5: IWBs
Quick tips:
Revised from Subject Guide IB Visual Arts, April 1996, 2002, 2009
The purpose of the Investigation Workbooks (IWBs) is to encourage adventurous and
critical research. During the course, workbooks will be produced as a highly personal
record of the student's research in the appreciation and history of art and design. The
IWBs will contain both visual and verbal information and will have the appearance of
working journals. Equal space should be given to illustrating the thought or creative
processes and to the research conclusions.
The IWBs should reflect the student's personal interests. It is not necessary to follow
a particular theme. The IWBs can be a wide-ranging personal investigation into many
fields- critical, historical or aesthetic. They should also include the student's own
original work in the form of sketches, diagrams et cetera.
Photographs and cut-outs from magazines are acceptable only if they are relevant
and accompanied by an explanation or critical comment. Information may be
recorded by any means such as photocopies and reproductions. Sources, however,
must always be attributed.
Personal reports of visits to museums and galleries, local artists and designers
should be included.
Relevant material from other disciplines (mathematics, music, theatre arts, literature,
et cetera) is suitable.
Unedited coursework should not be included, and material should never be added
merely to fill space.
Workbooks should look like working journals; they are neither scrapbooks nor
sketchbooks. Students should not spend time on elaborate or complicated layouts.
IWBs are intended to record the student’s progress since the beginning of the
course.
6: Writing about Art in your IWB
Do’s and Don’ts:
Don’t……
Do……
Write essays on the artist’s life
history
– (D.O.B, favourite sports team
etc..) Anyone with Encarta could do
this. A few biographical details are
useful, but not essential.
Make notes on why you’re looking at
this artist
– what you admire, what you don’t, how
this artist’s work relates to your Studio
Work. Make your research personal to
your particular project.
Photocopy loads of artworks
– and stick them into your IWB with
no written analysis or other
information.
– and forget to write the titles down!
Choose one or two good artworks
– annotate them and make copies of
them (to practice brush technique, color
mixing or something similar).
– include the artist’s name, title of work,
year, style, medium and where you found
it (web address or book title/page).
Treat your IWB like an exercise
book
– producing large blocks of writing,
underlined, with no interest or
visual consideration.
Think about research in a visual way
– use colour, headings and images to
complement your notes. Compose the
pages so that they look interesting and
varied.
Write without checking the facts
– make sure that you are accurate
about dates, media used and
essential information about your
chosen artist.
Use the correct vocabulary
– i.e. ‘tone’ is more accurate that ‘light
and shadow’. Remember that at IB level,
you will be assessed on the quality of
your written work. Don’t be afraid to use
adjectives, especially when evaluating an
artwork (giving your opinion).
Plagiarize
– use or include quotations from
other writers as if they are your own
words. This is always obvious to
the reader.
Include one or two relevant quotations
– e.g. the artist writing about his / her
ideas OR a well-known critic. Always
use quotation marks and include the
name of the person who you are quoting
and where you found it.
7: Writing Terms and Techniques
Tasks you will be asked to complete:
To record
To make brief notes on basic information – i.e. credit line with
artist name, title and size of work, style and historical facts.
To annotate
and describe
To make short notes explaining or clarifying a point or drawing
the viewer’s attention to something of relevance (e.g. ‘the wide
range of tones adds drama and interest’).
To analyze
(see section 10
for more detail)
To look closely and in detail at an artwork, noting down as
many points as you can about the piece. These points might
cover things like composition, use of colour/tone, medium
used, mood/emotion created, content/narrative, issues etc.
To compare
and contrast
To analyse two or more artworks at once, focusing on the
similarities and differences between them. This is often easier
than analyzing a single artwork.
To evaluate
To make personal judgments about the artwork and to give
your reasons i.e. Do you like the artwork? Why? What is good
about it? What is not so good? The reasons for this will, of
course, come from your analysis.
8: IB Glossary
Be familiar with:
Action verb
Definition
Students are asked to do the following:
Analyze
Break down in order to bring out the essential elements,
structure, underlying assumptions and any interrelationships
involved.
Describe two (or more) situations and present the similarities
between them.
Contemplate carefully and reflectively with regard to taking some
action or forming an opinion.
Describe two (or more) situations and present the differences
between them.
Prove or make clear by reasoning or evidence, illustrating and
explaining with examples or practical application.
Present the characteristics of a particular topic.
Compare
Consider
Contrast
Demonstrate
Describe
Discuss
Evaluate
Examine
Explain
Explore
Identify
Interpret
Investigate
Present
Offer a considered and balanced review of a particular topic.
Opinions or conclusions should be presented clearly and
supported by research evidence and sound argument.
Make an appraisal by weighing up the strengths and limitations
of different evidence and arguments.
Consider an argument or concept in a way that uncovers the
assumptions and interrelationships of the issue.
Describe, giving reasons.
Study, analyze or examine systematically through a process of
discovery.
Recognize and state briefly a distinguishing fact or feature.
Use knowledge and understanding to explain, represent
symbolically and where appropriate, draw inferences and create
meaning.
Observe, study, or make a detailed and systematic examination,
in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions.
Offer for observation, examination or consideration, to show or
display a creative art.
9: Glossary
Language of Art:
abstract Art that looks as if it contains little or no recognizable or realistic forms from
the physical world. Focus on formal elements such as colors, lines, or shapes. Artists
often "abstract" objects by changing, simplifying, or exaggerating what they see. The
term is also used to describe art that is nonrepresentational.
Abstract Expressionism An art movement, primarily in painting, that originated in
the United States in the 1940s and remained strong through the 1950s. Art that
rejects true visual representation. It has few recognizable images with great
emphasis on line, color, shape, texture, value; putting the expression of the feelings
or emotions of the artist above all else.
action painting A style of nonrepresentational painting that relies on the physical
movement of the artist in using such gestural techniques as vigorous brushwork,
dripping, and pouring. Dynamism is often created through the interlaced directions of
the paint. A subcategory of Abstract Expressionism.
aesthetics The philosophical study that explores questions about "what is art?" or
"what is beauty?"
alla prima the paint is applied in one layer only; there are no under-layers or overworking. The work of the Fauves was often alla-prima; their energetic, spontaneous
style suited this method of working.
analogous colors Any set of three or five adjacent or neighboring colors of the color
wheel. An example of such a set would include blue, blue-green, green - or- blue,
blue-green, green, yellow-green, yellow. Because each set of colors shares similar
colors, there is a harmony to analogous colors. Also known as harmonious colors.
armature In sculpture, a skeleton-like framework to support material being modeled.
Art Nouveau A style that originated in the late 1880s, based on the sinuous curves
of plant forms, used primarily in architectural detailing and the applied arts.
assemblage A three-dimensional collage created from a group of everyday objects,
many times pre-made and put together in a specific way.
avant-garde French for advance guard" or "vanguard." Those considered the
leaders (and often regarded as radicals) in the invention and application of new
concepts in a given field.
background In a painting or drawing, the area that seem most distant, as if in the
back of the picture. Often this is referred to as negative space.
balance An equal arrangements of specific elements within a composition
deliberately organized by the artist. Elements could include color, line, shape, or
texture etc. for example. Major types are symmetrical and asymmetrical. See
symmetry.
Baroque The seventeenth-century period in Europe characterized in the visual arts
by dramatic light and shade, turbulent composition, and exaggerated emotional
expression.
Bauhaus German art school in existence from 1919 to 1933, best known for its
influence on design, leadership in art education, and a radically innovative philosophy
of applying design principles to machine technology and mass production.
calligraphy Elegant, decorative writing, developed to an artform itself, used to
enhance the artistic appeal and visual beauty of handwritten papers and
manuscripts.
canvas A cotton-like cloth stretched over a wooden frame. Usually primed with
gesso, the fabric surface is ideal for painting with oils and acrylics.
carving A subtractive process in which a sculpture is formed by removing material
from a block or mass of wood, stone, or other material, using sharpened tools.
ceramics The art of making objects such as pottery out of clay. This term is used to
decribe these objects as well.
charcoal Compressed, burned wood used for drawing.
chiaroscuro Italian for "light-dark." In drawing or painting, the treatment and use of
light and dark, especially the strong contrasting of light and shade to produce the
effect of modeling. Highly developed by Renaissance painters.
classical The art of ancient Greece and Rome. More specifically, Classical refers to
the style of Greek art that flourished during the fifth century B.C. 2. Any art based on
a clear, rational, and regular structure, emphasizing horizontal and vertical directions,
and organizing its parts with special emphasis on balance and proportion. The term
classic is also used to indicate recognized excellence.
collaboration To work together in an artistic undertaking.
collage From the French word "coller" which means "to paste". A collage is any
artistic composition made by gluing assorted materials to a flat surface.
color field painting A movement that grew out of Abstract Expressionism, in which
large stained or painted areas or "fields of color evoke aesthetic and emotional
responses.
complementary colors Colors which appear opposite one another on a color wheel.
When placed next to one another, complementary colors are intensified and often
appear to vibrate. When mixed, brown or grey is created.
composition The bringing together of parts or elements to form a whole; the
structure, organization, or total form of a work of art. See also design.
Conceptual art Art that focuses on the idea expressed and the process of creating
the work. This trend developed in the late 1960s, in part as a way to avoid the
commercialization of art.
content Meaning or message contained and communicated by a work of art,
including its emotional, intellectual, symbolic, thematic, and narrative connotations.
contour A visible border of a shape or figure. An outline that creates the illusion of
mass and volume in space.
contrast The amount of darkness or brightness between colors.
cool colors On one half of the color wheel are the cool colors, from yellow-green to
violet. Psychologically, cool colors are calming.
Cubism The most influential style of the twentieth century, developed in Paris by
Picasso and Braque, beginning in 1907. The early mature phase of the style, called
Analytical Cubism, lasted from 1909 through 1911. Cubism is based on the
simultaneous presentation of multiple views. It was an attempt to capture , on a flat,
two-dimensional surface, all aspects, points of view, and angles of what the artist
sees in three dimensions. Color is limited to neutrals. By 1912 the more decorative
phase called Synthetic (or Collage) Cubism, began to appear; it was characterized by
fewer, more solid forms, conceptual rather than observed subject matter, and richer
color and texture.
criticism The process of describing, analyzing, interpreting, and judging works of art.
Dada A movement in art and literature, founded in Switzerland in the early twentieth
century, which ridiculed contemporary culture and conventional art. A movement
which often tried to shock the public into realizing the destruction and inhumanity so
apparent during WWI. The anarchic spirit of Dada can be seen in the works of
Duchamp, Man Ray, Hoch, Miro, and Picasso. Many Dadaists later explored
Surrealism.
De Stijl Dutch for "the style," a purist art movement begun in the Netherlands during
World War I by Mondrian and others. It involved painters, sculptors, designers, and
architects whose works and ideas were expressed in De Stijl magazine. De Stijl was
aimed at creating a universal language of form that would be independent of
individual emotion. Visual form was pared down to primary colors, plus black and
white, and rectangular shapes. The movement was influential primarily in
architecture.
dimensions A means of measuring the amount of space an object occupies. Usually
these are measured in height, width and depth.
diptych A two paneled art structure (often a religious painting) joined at the center
like a screen.
distort To deliberately exaggerate or manipulate an image to the extreme. This is
often done to draw attention to a feeling or mood of the work of art.
dominant An area, element of art or principle of design that is a main focal point in a
work of art.
drawing Representing an image on a surface by means of adding lines and shades,
as with a pencil, crayon, pen, chalk, pastels, etc.
dry brush Lightly touching the surface with a brush coated in ink, paint or other
medium. This lends itself to a scratchy, textured effect.
Earth art; earthworks Sculptural forms of earth, rocks, or sometimes plants, often
on a vast scale and in remote locations. Some are deliberately impermanent.
earth colors Those colors obtained naturally from the earth including many shades
of tans, browns and reds. These colors are often used in the works of indigenous
artists.
edition In printmaking, the total number of prints made and approved by an artist,
usually numbered consecutively. Also, a limited number of multiple originals of a
single design in any medium.
egg tempera A medium created by mixing pure, ground pigments with egg yolk.
This was a very common medium before the invention of oil paints.
Elements of Art The language of art of the basic elements used when producing
works of art. Those elements are color, value, line, shape, form, texture, and space.
They can be used to descrbe a work of art.
elongate Stylizing an image by stretching it to distort the overall image.
emboss A decorative technique usually used with paper that creates raised patterns
or lines by pressing the underside of the paper. This creates an interesting visual and
tactile texture.
Emphasis The principle of design that appears to be the dominant, or the most
noticeable quality of a work of art. Artist deliberately manipulate the elements of art to
create such emphasis.
engraving A printing process in which a metal plate is coated. Images are scratched
into the coating revealing the metal surface. An acid is used to cut into the metal
surface revealed by the scratches. The coating is removed. These grooves are then
filled with ink, the excess removed, and paper is pressed into the grooves. Each print
pulls up a drawing of the lines and scratches.
Environment art Refers to art which involves the creation or manipulation of a large
or enclosed space, many effectively surrounding its audience. Architectural (including
landscape architectural) design might be said to qualify as environment art, although
the term usually refers to artworks which do not function as either of these kinds of
environmental design typically do.
etching An etching is a print produced by the printing method known by the same
name. It is done by coating a copper or zinc plate with a wax or similar protective
shield and then the drawing is produced on the surface with a needle. Only the
coating is cut, not the plate. When the drawing is complete, the plate is submerged in
an acid bath and the areas that were exposed by the needle are cut by the acid.
Then the plate is cleaned and inked and then wiped so ink is only in the recesses.
The plate is then put in a press where it is pressed hard against a damp print paper.
The resulting print is a reverse of the original drawing on the plate.
Expressionism An art style that focuses on the emotions of the personal feelings of
an artist, not on formal composition, most often boldly executed and making free use
of distortion and symbolic or invented color. The broad term that describes emotional
art, More specifically, Expressionism refers to individual and group styles originating
in Europe in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. See also Abstract
Expressionism.
fantasy Fanciful or grotesque images and scenes of pure imagination such as those
of dreams, hallucinations, daydreams, etc.
Fauvism A twentieth century painting style emphasizing brilliant, often unnatural,
colors and the forms created by this.
figurative Artwork representing the human form or an animal.
focal point A specific area, element or principle that dominates a work of srt. The
viewer's eye is usually drawn there first.
folk art Often textile or decorative arts made by people who have had little or no
formal art training. Many of these folk arts are native to particular regions and have
been produced over many generations.
foreground The area of a painting or drawing, usually located near the bottom third
of a work, that represents the space "closest" to the viewer.
foreshortening A drafting illusion in which, depending on the viewer's point of view,
an object, or part of an object is distorted to imply the compacting of space.
form An element of art that is represented by three-dimensions (height, width, and
depth) and encloses space. For example, a triangle, which is two-dimensional, is a
shape, but a pyramid, which is three-dimensional, is a form. Cubes, spheres,
pyramids, cone, and cylinders are examples of various forms.
formal balance A work of art that when optically divided in half , each side is
arranged almost exactly as the other.
freehand Drawing without the use of any mechanical devices.
fresco A painting in which the artist applies pigments directly into wet or dry plaster
usually applied to a wall. As the plaster dries, the pigments are absorbed and
become permanently bonded with the plaster.
genre A style or category of art characterized by representing scenes of everyday
images of life.
gesso A mixture of glue and either chalk or plaster of Paris applied as a ground or
coating to surfaces in order to give them the correct properties to receive paint.
Gesso can also be built up or molded into relief designs, or carved.
gestural A loose, energetic application of paint which relies on the artist’s
movements to make expressive marks on the canvas. This is supposed to be a very
personal and unique way of working - almost like handwriting. Look at artists like Cy
Twombly or Antoni Tapies for examples.
gesture drawing Usually a quick and loosely drafted image used as a preliminary
effort before producing a much more details and accurate drawing.
geometric shapes Recognizably named areas based on straight lines, angles and
curves such as square, circle, triangle, etc.
glaze In ceramics, a glassy coating applied to seal and decorate surfaces. Glaze
may be colored, transparent, or opaque. In painting, a thin transparent or translucent
layer brushed over another layer of paint, allowing the first layer to show through but
altering its color slightly, also known as a wash. Many traditional painters like
Michaelangelo made use of this technique to create the subtle tones of skin or fabric.
For a more modern use of the glazing technique, look at the abstract, gestural
paintings of Helen Frankenthaler.
Golden Mean Rooted in Greek mathematics, the Golden Mean is a study of perfect
ratio of one area in proportion to another. This would meam 1 to 1.6.
Gothic A style attributed to the 12th - 16th centuries of architecture. The style is
recognizable by such architectural elements as flying buttresses, pointed arched
windows, stained glass, and the humanization of people in sculpture.
graphic design Commercial reproduction of artworks such as printing, including text,
decorative techniques and illustration.
grotesque Description of art images and sculptures that often use human and
animal images. These forms are distorted proportionately to produce ugly or fanciful
representations.
ground The background in two-dimensional works-the area around and between
figures. Also, the surface onto which paint is applied.
Harlem Renaissance In the 1920s, the Harlem, NY community became the
economic, political, and cultural center of black America. Various literary and artistic
works were created celebrating the African-American experience.
hard-edge A term first used in the 1950s to distinguish styles of painting in which
shapes are precisely defined by sharp edges, in contrast to the usually blurred or soft
edges in Abstract Expressionist paintings.
harmonious colors see analogous colors
harmony The principle of design that creates unity and harmony by stressing
separate but related parts. Repetition is one example of a way that harmony is
achieved.
hatching and cross-hatching Lines drawn with consistent, parallel strokes used to
emphasize shading. Often these lines would be drawn crossing as well as parallel.
hierarchal proportion The distortion of the sizes of things according to their
importance, rather than how they actually exist.
horizontal A straight line parallel to the horizon line.
horizon line The ever changing line that separates the sky from the land or sea. This
line changes depending on the line of vision of the viewer.
hue Another word for color.
icon A pictorial representation of a person. Originally referring to the images of
adoration of saints and religious leaders, the term has now become a pop culture
term referring to anyone or thing recognizable by the public masses.
illusion A misleading image visually represented .
imagination The mental creation of an idea or thought representative of a quality of
uniqueness.
impasto In painting, thick paint applied to a surface in a heavy manner, having the
appearance and consistency of buttery paste, often applied in several layers with a
brush or palette knife. Look at the dense, textural brushwork of paintings by artists
like Gillian Ayres or Frank Auerbach.
implied To express an intended meaning through suggestions or inferences.
Impressionism A style of painting that started in France during the 1860s. Artists
focused on everyday scenes and the effect of sunlight on objects.
installation An artistically designed environment constructed in a gallery. Often
these are photographed and archived, as the original structures are usually only
temporary.
intaglio Any printmaking technique in which lines and areas to be inked and
transferred to paper are recessed below the surface of the printing plate. Etching,
engraving, drypoint, and aquatint are all intaglio processes. See also print.
intensity A term referencing the brightness or dullness of a color. The purity of a
color is affected by adding other colors to the original, changing its intensity.
intermediate colors Intermediate (tertiary) colors are located between the primary
and secondary colors on a color wheel. When neighboring primary and secondary
color are mixed, an intermediate color is produces. If you mix red with orange, the
color red-orange is created.
judgment The final step in the Art Critiquing Process in which the viewer determines
the merit or success of a particular work of art.
juxtaposition The conscious positioning or arranging of objects.
Kinetic art Art that utilizes movement.
landscape A work of art that represents a view of natural scenery.
life drawing Drawing from a live model.
line A mark created by moving a point along in one direction.
logo Short for "logotype." Sign, name, or trademark of an institution, firm, or
publication, consisting of letter forms borne on one printing plate or piece of type.
Mannerism A style that developed in the sixteenth century as a reaction to the
classical rationality and balanced harmony of the High Renaissance; characterized
by the dramatic use of space and light, exaggerated color, elongation of figures, and
distortions of perspective, scale, and proportion.
mannequin A wooden or plastic jointed doll capable of very natural poses. These
are used by artists instead of live models when study of human movement is
necessary.
mask An artform designed to cover the face. Masks have a long history and many
styles can be indigenous to specific cultural groups
mass Three-dimensional form having physical bulk. Also, the illusion of such a form
on a two-dimensional surface.
matte A dull finish or surface, especially in painting, photography, and ceramics.
meander A line or site of view that follows a winding or rambling path.
Media/medium The plural form of medium - the material used to create a work of art.
Middle Ages The period of European history placed roughly between 1000s and the
1500s. This period is often referred to as the Dark Ages or the Medieval period.
middle ground The section of a drawing or painting that exists between the
foreground and the background. It is usually found in or near the middle third of a
picture.
miniature A work of art on a much smaller scale than is typical.
Minimalism--A style of art in which the artist reduces the work to a minimum of
elements.
mixed media A work of art utilizing more than one medium and/or material.
mobile A moving sculpture, usually suspended. The shapes and areas are balanced.
modeling Shaping or molding a three-dimensional form from a malleable medium
such as clay. Modeling can also be used to describe the degrees of tinting and
shading used to achieve a three-dimensional look on a two-dimensional surface.
Modernism Theory and practice in late nineteenth- and twentieth-century art, which
holds that each new generation must build on past styles in new ways or break with
the past in order to make the next major historical contribution. Characterized by
idealism; seen as "high art," as differentiated from popular art. In painting, most
clearly seen in the work of the Post-Impressionists, beginning in 1885; in
architecture, most evident in the work of Bauhaus and International Style architects,
beginning about 1920.
monochromatic Different shades and tints of a single color.
montage 1. A composition made up of pictures or parts of pictures previously drawn,
painted, or photographed. 2. In motion pictures, the combining of separate bits of film
to portray the character of a single event through multiple views.
mood A feeling inferred by an artist and felt by the viewer.
mosaic An artform consisting of patterns of small pieces of tile or glass inlaid in
cement or grout.
motif A design or designed image that is repeated over and over with little to no
differences.
movement An illusion created by the artist to convey action in a piece of stationery
art. This can be achieved by repetition, adding lines, or careful placement of objects.
mural A large painted picture extending over a wall or other monumental surface.
museum An organized space devoted to preserving, viewing and studying works of
art and other manmade elements.
naive art A style of painting often associated with folk art. The paintings are
generated by people who have not been formally schooled in art.
narrative art Art which visually tells a story or relays information about an important
event.
naturalism Representational art in which the artist presents a subjective
interpretation of visual reality while retaining something of the natural appearance or
look of the objects depicted. Naturalism varies greatly from artist to artist, depending
on the degree and kind of subjective interpretation.
negative space The empty space or seemingly unimportant background space, in
an artwork.
Neoclassicism New classicism. A revival of classical Greek and Roman forms in art,
music, and literature, particularly during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in
Europe and America. It was part of a reaction to the excesses of Baroque and
Rococo art.
neutral colors This color category encompasses whites, grays, blacks and browns.
non-objective art Art that has no recognizable subject matter.
nonrepresentational Art without reference to anything outside itself-without
representation. Also called nonobjective-without recognizable objects.
objectivity The ability to view something without influence of feelings or emotions.
oil paint A medium created in the 1500s. Ground powdered pigment was mixed with
linseed oil and compressed into a container (eventually this container became the
familiar tube of paint). These paints had a long drying time which meant that the artist
could rework the piece over a period of days.
one-point perspective A devised drafting technique using straight lines that
converge to a single vanishing point on the horizon line. This gave the illusion of
three dimensional space on a two dimensional surface.
opaque Impenetrable by light; not transparent or translucent.
Op Art Optical Art is a style in which visual illusions, usually of vibrational movement,
are created by careful placement of lines and colors.
optical color mixture Apparent rather than actual color mixture, produced by
interspersing brush strokes or dots of color instead of physically mixing them. The
implied mixing occurs in the eye of the viewer and produces a lively color sensation.
organic An shape having none of the geometric angularity associated with other
shapes such as squares, triangles, rectangles, etc.. Organic shapes are fluid and
often are associated with things that occur in nature.
overlap An important technique to achieving a sense of depth in a flat, twodimensional work. The objects appear to lie slightly on top of one another object. This
layering makes some objects look like they are behind others or placed further back
in the picture.
paint A generic name for any medium made up of grounded colored pigment
suspended in a liquid-like base. The base can be water, oil, or a synthetic material.
These mediums are usually applied with a brush.
painterly Painting characterized by openness of form, in which shapes are defined
by loose brushwork in light and dark color areas rather than by outline or contour.
palette 1. A wooden or plastic tray, used for mixing colors when making a painting
and a tool used by painters which affords them a surface they can hold from which to
apply and mix paints before stroking the canvas or painting surface. 2. The choice of
colors in a painting i.e. ‘van Gogh uses a pure and vivid palette in his Arles
landscapes’.
panorama A sweeping, unbroken view of an expansive scene, usually referring to
landscapes.
parody A work created when the artist closely imitates the work of another for the
purpose to ridicule or poke fun at the work or what the work represents.
parallel Lines or edges on the same plane that travel equidistant, in the same
direction.
pastels 1. Sticks of powdered pigment held together with a gum-binding agent. 2.
Pale colors or tints.
Performance art Art that employs live theatrical performances as an important
element of the work.
perspective A system for creating an illusion of depth or three-dimensional space on
a two-dimensional surface. Usually refers to linear perspective, which is based on the
fact that parallel lines or edges appear to converge and objects appear smaller as the
distance between them and the viewer increases. Atmospheric perspective (aerial
perspective) creates the illusion of distance by reducing color saturation, value
contrast, and detail in order to imply the hazy effect of atmosphere between the
viewer and distant objects. Isometric perspective is not a visual or optical
interpretation, but a mechanical means to show space and volume in rectangular
forms. Parallel lines remain parallel; there is no convergence.
Photography The art of mechanically capturing images on a light sensitive plate.
These images can be reproduced over and over from this plate.
photorealism A style of painting that became prominent in the 1970s, based on the
cool objectivity of photographs as records of subjects.
pictorial space In a painting or other two-dimensional art, illusionary space which
appears to recede backward into depth from the picture plane.
picture plane The drawing or painting surface of a flat, two dimensional picture.
pigment Various minerals and matter ground up and mixed with a fluid medium to
create paints and colorants. Pigments can come from mined stones, plants or even
from clays.
Plein-aire a painting which has been made outside, often quite quickly, to cope with
changing weather, light effects etc. The Impressionists were the first artists to paint
outdoors, rather than in their studios. Before this, however, many artists had
sketched outdoors in preparation for painting; the oil sketches of Constable are an
excellent example.
plane A flat and level surface that can stretch out in any direction.
Pointillism A painting technique in which pure dots of color are dabbed onto the
canvas surface. The viewer's eye, when at a distance, is then expected to see these
dots merge as cohesive areas of different colors and color ranges when seen at a
distance.The system of painting using tiny dots or "points" of color was developed by
French artist Georges Seurat in the 1880s. Seurat systematized the divided
brushwork and optical color mixture of the Impressionists and called this technique
divisionism. Georges Seurat’s work is the most famous example of this almostscientific technique. Look also at the paintings of his pupil, Paul Signac.
point of view The angle from which the viewer's eye is looking at, up or down on an
object or setting.
polychromatic Having many colors; random or intuitive use of color combinations as
opposed to color selection based on a specific color scheme.
Pop Art An art movement in which artists frequently incorporated the mass media
advertising images into their works. It developed in the late 1950s and early 1960s, in
Britain and the United States.
portfolio A collection of works done by a single artist. Usually organized in a flat
cloth or leather case for protection. These works often display the abilities and range
of an artist and are necessary when a student is considering entering an art program
in college.
portrait A rendering of a person in any medium.
positive space The area(s) of a work of art that are filled with meaningful intentions.
Often, it is the positive space that contains the image the viewer is expected to
recognize.
Post-Impressionism An art movement that relied on the impact of the paintings to
express feelings and ideas.
Post-Modern An attitude or trend of the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, in which artists
and architects accept all that modernism rejects. Post-Modern is characterized by an
acceptance of all periods and styles, including modernism, and a willingness to
combine elements of all styles and periods.
primary colors The three colors, blue, red and yellow, from which most other colors
can be made. Primary colors cannot be mixed from other colors.
prime In painting, a first layer of paint or sizing applied to a surface that is to be
painted.
print (artist's print) A multiple-original impression made from a plate, stone, wood
block, or screen by an artist or made under the artist's supervision. Prints are usually
made in editions, with each print numbered and signed by the artist.
Principles of Design The rules by which an artist organizes the Elements of Art to
create a work of art.
Printmaking The process by which a work of art can be recreated in great quantity
from a single image usually prepared from a plate.
profile The side view of an object or person.
propaganda Psychological images and rhetoric developed to specifically persuade
the masses to a particular point of view. Propaganda is usually seen as a form of
political and/or religious advertisement.
proportion The size relationship of parts to a whole and to one another.
radial balance An organized pattern or design emanating from the center of a
circular format. This design usually has some symmetrical properties.
Realism An art style popular in the mid 1800's in which artists painted ordinary
objects, people and scenes as they actually were. The artists made no attempt to
romanticize the figures or add drama to the settings.
registration In color printmaking or machine printing, the process of aligning the
impressions of blocks or plates on the same sheet of paper.
relief printing A printing technique in which the parts of the printing surface that
carry ink are left raised, while the remaining areas are cut away. Woodcuts and
linoleum prints (linocuts) are relief prints.
relief sculpture A sculptural art form in which the top surface of the art work
demonstrates some carving or three dimensional qualities.
Renaissance Period in Europe from the late fourteenth through the sixteenth
centuries, characterized by a renewed interest in human-centered classical art,
literature, and learning. See also humanism.
repetition A series of repeated elements.
reproduction A mechanically produced copy of an original work of art; not to be
confused with an original print or art print.
rhythm The regular or ordered repetition of dominant and subordinate elements or
units within a design.
Romanticism 1. A literary and artistic movement of late eighteenth- and nineteenthcentury Europe, aimed at asserting the validity of subjective experience as a
countermovement to the often cold formulas of Neoclassicism; characterized by
intense emotional excitement and depictions of powerful forces in nature, exotic
lifestyles, danger, suffering, and nostalgia. 2. Art of any period based on spontaneity,
intuition, and emotion rather than carefully organized rational approaches to form.
rhythm A Principle of Design that refers to the visual movement created by repeating
specific Elements of Art.
right brain A theory in which the two different sides, or hemispheres, of the brain are
responsible for different manners of thinking. The right side of the brain is believed to
be the creative side, responsible for producing art and making spatial decisions as
well as holistic thinking, while the left side is responsible for analyzing verbal tasks
and logical thinking.
satire A work (whether verbal or visual) that uses humor and wit.
scale The size of an object as compared to other objects or to its environment, or as
compared to the human figure.
screenprinting (serigraphy) A printmaking technique in which stencils are applied
to fabric stretched across a frame. Paint or ink is forced with a squeegee through the
unblocked portions of the screen onto paper or other surface beneath.
Sculpture A three-dimensional work of art made by carving (cutting in wood, stone,
etc.) modeling (a building up of a soft material such as clay or wax), or making a
construction or arrangement of material such as an assemblage.
Scumbling A thin glaze of paint dragged over a different color, so that both layers of
paint can be seen, giving a luminous, glowing effect. Abstract painters like Mark
Rothko made use of this technique.
secondary colors The colors obtained by mixing equal amounts of two primary
colors. The secondary colors are orange, green, and violet. Yellow and red create
orange. Yellow and blue create green. Blue and red create violet.
self-portrait A portrait an artist makes using himself or herself using a mirror.
Sfumato literally means ‘smoked’ in Italian; the use of heavy, dark tones to suggest
mystery and atmosphere. Rembrandt’s late self portraits are a superb example of
this technique in practice.
shade Adding black (or other dark color) to a pure color to darken it. More black
creates darker shades.
shape An object represented in two dimensions.
sketch A rough drawing capturing the most important features of a chosen subject
and is usually used as a preliminary study, often made in preparation for the ‘final
version’. See also ‘plein-aire’.
space As an Element of Art, space is created by the emptiness between, around,
behind or within a given object or group of objects. Space defines shapes.
split complements One color plus the two colors that are on either side of its
complement on the color wheel. For example, the complement of orange is blue, and
the two colors on either side of blue are blue-green and blue-violet. Therefore the
split complements of orange are blue-green and blue-violet.
style An artist's personal way of using the Elements of Art and Principles of Design
to convey his/her feelings and ideas. Style is also used to classify groups of artists
who shared similar artist expressions.
stylized Simplified or exaggerated visual form which emphasizes particular or
contrived design qualities.
still life A grouping of inanimate objects usually in a pleasing composition. Most
often we associate still lifes with bowls of fruit, vases of flowers or an arrangement of
personal effects on a table top.
subdue To make less intense.
subject The image that viewers can easily recognize in a work of art.
subtractive sculpture A sculptural form in which material is removed from the whole
to achieve a finished product.
support The physical material that provides the base for and sustains a twodimensional work of art. Paper is the usual support for drawings and prints; canvas
and panels are supports in painting.
Surrealism A movement in literature and the visual arts that developed in the
mid1920s and remained strong until the mid1940s, growing out of Dada and
automatism. Based upon revealing the unconscious mind in dream images, the
irrational, and the fantastic, Surrealism took two directions: representational and
abstract. Dali's and Magritte's paintings, with their uses of impossible combinations of
objects depicted in realistic detail, typify representational Surrealism.
symbol Something that stands for or represents something else.
symmetry A special type of formal balance in which a work of art can be mentally or
visually divided into two identical halves, a mirror image.
tactile Having the ability to be explored with the sense of touch.
technique The way in which an artist uses a material to achieve a desired effect.
template A pattern or guide used in making a specific design.
tessellation A design achieved through the repetition of at least one exact shapes
that occupy all existing positive space.
texture An element of art which refers to how a surface feels or looks like it would
feel.
three-quarter view A view of a face which is half-way between a full and a profile
view.
tint Adding white to a color to lighten the value of that color. The more white that is
added, the lighter the tint.
tondo A painting in the shape of a circle.
translucent A surface that allows light to pass through it, but one cannot see through
it.
transparent Light passes through the surface and one can see through it as well.
trompe l'oeil A type of painting, usually referring to examples painted on wall with
such realism that the viewer actually believes the objects in the painting exist.
two-dimensional Any object or area having height and width, but no depth; flat.
two-point perspective Another perspective guide using two vanishing points as
references on the horizon line.
three-dimensional Having height, width, and depth.
tint A hue with white added.
two-dimensional Having the dimensions of height and width only.
typography The art and technique of composing printed materials from type.
unity The quality of wholeness achieved by such manipulation of the Elements of Art
to achieve simplicity and repetition.
value The lightness or darkness of tones or colors. White is the lightest value; black
is the darkest. The value halfway between these extremes is called middle gray.
vanishing point In linear perspective, the point on the horizon line at which lines or
edges that are parallel appear to converge.
viewer The person who looks at a work of`art.
volume 1. Space enclosed or filled by a three-dimensional object or figure. 2. The
implied space filled by a painted or drawn object or figure. Synonym: mass.
warm colors Colors whose relative visual temperature makes them seem warm.
Warm colors or hues include red-violet, red, red-orange, orange, yellow-orange, and
yellow. See also cool colors.
wash A thin, transparent layer of paint or ink.
watercolor Paint that uses water-soluble gum as the binder and water as the
vehicle. Characterized by transparency. Also, the resulting painting.
weight The psychological or visual importance of an area or element.
woodcut A type of relief print made from an image that is left raised on a block of
wood.
10: Analyzing Artworks
A Step by step guide:
Your own drawings/copies of the artwork should accompany ALL written analysis.
Follow these steps, answering all questions when analyzing artworks. The
more you do this the more accomplished at it you will become and
eventually you will be able to do it without this guide.
1: First Reaction
Write down your first response to the artwork
Do you like it? How does it make you feel? Does it remind you of anything
you have seen before?
2: Description
List what you can see in this artwork
Figures, colors, shapes, objects, background etc. Imagine you are
describing it to a blind person, do this in as much detail as possible.
3: Formal Analysis
Write down observations in detail, looking at specific aspects
Colors: Which type of palette has the artist used: bright or dull, strong or
weak? Are the colors mostly complementary, primary, secondary or
tertiary? Which color(s) are used most/least in this artwork? How have
colors been applied?
Tones: Is there a use of light/shadow? Where is the light coming from?
Where are the shadows? Is there a wide range of tonal contrast (very light
highlights and very dark shadows) or is the tonal range quite narrow (ie
mostly similar tones)?
Use of media: What medium has been used (oil paint, acrylic, charcoal
etc)? How has the artist used the medium – i.e. paint applied thick or thin?
Was it painted, drawn, sculpted quickly, or slowly and painstakingly? What
makes you think this?
Composition (organization of shapes): What type of shapes are used in
this artwork (i.e. rounded, curved, straight-edged or geometric shapes)? Is
there a mixture of different types of shapes or are all the shapes similar?
Does the whole composition look full of energy and movement, or does it
look still and peaceful? What is the centre of interest in the composition?
How does the artist draw your attention to it?
Mood / Emotion: What do you think the artist wanted you to feel when
you look at this artwork? What has he/she used to create a mood? (think
about color, shape, tone etc.) How has he/she succeeded in creating this
mood? (For example, strong vivid colors might be used to create a joyful
or angry mood in an artwork, depending upon how the artist has used
them).
4: Interpretation
Write down your personal thoughts about the work
What do you think the artist is trying to say in this artwork? What does it
mean? What is the main theme or idea behind this piece? If you were
inside this artwork, what would you be feeling / thinking? Does the artwork
have a narrative (tell a story)? Is it a religious artwork? Is it abstract? Is it
realistic? Why? How would you explain this artwork to someone else?
5: Evaluation
Based on observations write your own opinions of the work
You must give reasons to support your opinions. E.g.:
“The overall mood of this drawing could be improved if Kathe Kollowitz
had used strong, dramatic shadows, instead of just pale tones. Dark
tones would develop the feeling of fear and loneliness in this image.”
“Picasso has used sharp, stabbing, geometric shapes in some areas of his
composition to create a sense of violence and distress within ‘Guernica’.
These make the figures and animals seem more vulnerable, as if in pain
and suffering while under attack.”