Definition of Anthropometry
Anthropometry is the science which deals with the measurement of the size, weight,
and proportions of the human body (Dorland's Medical Dictionary). This lecture will
concentrate on non-invasive techniques of determining these parameters.
Return to Lecture Outline.
Size, Structure, Composition
Body measurements can be used to describe the size, shape (form or structure),
and composition of individuals. The measurements in the AN325 practical sessions
have been chosen because of their relevance to the description of the size and
proportions of individuals and samples of the whole population. Basic measurements
are used to describe individuals or populations, while some measurements are used
for correlation with performance in sport; others are used in public health and
nutrition surveys. For a general introduction to anthropometry, read Kippers (1996).
Examples of SIZE measurements include height, length, mass, volume, and surface
area.
Examples of STRUCTURE measurements include:
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sitting height/standing height
shoulder width/hip width
thigh length/leg length
neck length/neck circumference
Examples of COMPOSITION measurements include percent body fat, lean body
mass (L.B.M.), water content, and ash content.
Return to Lecture Outline.
Heath-Carter Anthropometric Somatotype
All ten measurements are direct measurements of size of the body and different
parts of the body (eg. height, mass, epicondylar diameter, calf girth etc.). When they
are combined they can provide an indication of the structure (shape, form,
proportions) of the body (eg. humeral epicondylar diameter/height, calf girth/height
etc.). The final three digit result is more of an indication of composition as we shall
see from the definitions of somatotype components later.
Measurements for Heath-Carter Anthropometric Somatotype
Skills
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observation (surface anatomy)
palpation (surface anatomy)
protocol
Concepts in measurement
Protocol - follow instructions exactly left/right differences (Martorell et al 1988) eg IBP
(Europe etc = L) vs Heath-Carter (USA = R)
"Reliability of measurement refers to the degree to which the test yields the same
results when given on two [or more] different occasions or by the different examiners
to the same group of individuals." (Gogia & Braatz 1986). The reliability and accuracy
of measurement is summarised in Carter (1980, p 2.2-2.3), Lohman et al (1988, pp
83-86) and Norton & Olds (1996, pp 78-96). Determined statistically by correlations
plus t-tests, or regressions. Using a regression between the first and second
measure, good reliabilty would exhibit the following characteristics:
1. slope of 45 degrees
2. constant of zero
3. correlation coefficient > 0.90
Using the expression y = mx + c
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What does it mean if the coefficient of x (m) is not equal to one?
What does it mean if the constant (c)is not equal to one?
What does it mean if the correlation coefficient equals zero (r = 0)?
Sources of error (Mueller & Martorell 1988, Woerman & Binder-Macleod) - Error is
universal in biological measurement. Sources of error may include inappropriate
techniques (eg stature in children) or inaccurate equipment (pay high price for good
instruments but all equipment must be calibrated periodically).
Anthropometry is more error prone than osteometry to additional biological errors
(compared with osteometry, cf AN327) because of the following biological and
technical factors (Bennett & Osborne 1986):
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5.
subject posture and movement variation
instrument application pressure
differential tissue thickness
diurnal variation
location of bony landmarks by palpation
Reliability in females is poorer than in males, mainly due to error sources 3. and 5.
Accuracy is the extent to which an observer achieves the "true" value of a
measurement: cf well trained observer (always check observer error periodically
within an anthropometric study; refer to Wally Wood's criterion measures in Menzies
Study)
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random error (above and below "true" value)
constant error (check protocol/technique/equipment)
eg. tendency for R > L but R - L = D where D is usually < measurement error
(Martorell et al 1988)
"Validity constitutes the degree to which an instrument measures what it is purported
to measure and the extent to which it fulfills its purpose" (Gogia & Braatz 1986).
Mention face validity and predictive equations (expand later).
For an anthropometric survey follow certain guidelines:
1. practise techniques prior to commencement of measurement sessions (refer
to Menzies Study)
2. determine reliability (refer to Menzies Study)
3. determine order of measurements in an effort to achieve maximum efficiency
(stations in Menzies Study)
4. have separate recorder who is also a trained measurer (can pick up mistakes
at source - basis of Quality Control)
For quality control follow these guidelines (Johnston & Martorell 1988):
1. hold initial training sessions to achieve standardization to a qualified measurer
(Wally Wood in Menzies Study)
2. perform a set of "dry runs" at the outset of the survey (YES)
3. perform periodic checks using repeated measurements of the same subjects
(YES)
4. hold periodic retraining sessions (YES)
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Always perform the repeat measurements "blind". Do all measurements once
in order, then repeat all measurements in the same order (can't remember
initial results - refer to QCA study - longitudinal design).
Return to Lecture Outline.
Concepts in Proportionality
Size measurements must be taken to calculate shape and it is the combinations
which add much more meaning to the raw figures by highlighting differences which
often have a functional relationship.
Head Height/Stature =
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1/2 at eight weeks after fertilization (towards end of embryonic period)
1/4 at birth
1/8 in adulthood
eg indices - length/width
thoracic index - quadrupeds vs bipeds
apes vs human
thoracic index = about 100 during the first year (during infancy ribs are nearly
horizontal)
decrease below 100 from year 1 onwards (ribs slope downwards in both anterior and
lateral directions)
cephalic index - head shape (Aboriginal vs Asian)
trunk length - lower limb relationship = sitting height /standing height
rapid growth during puberty which can be divided into two stages
Stage 1 - rapid growth in stature due mainly to lower limb length growth (refer to
sitting height in QCA Study)
Stage 2 - relative increase in transverse diameters (eg. chest transverse diameter,
biacromial diameter) (refer to biacromial diameter in QCA Study)
The Androgyny Index illustrates the relative widths of the shoulders and pelvis.
Androgyny Index = 3 X Biacromial Diameter - Biiliocristal Diameter (all
measurements represented in centimetres)
The average non-athletic male adult has an Androgyny Index of 91 while a typical
female shotputter has an Androgyny Index of 89 (Malina Zavaleta 1976). Typical nonathletic women have an Androgyny Index of 80 so it is a good indicator of sexual
dimorphism. The relative pelvic breadth is greater in females at birth, while relative
shoulder breadth differences appear after puberty when is a relatively large increase
in boys (some boys in QCA Study had 3cm increase in biacromial diameter and 0.5
cm increase in biiliocristal diameter compared with previous year).
Also sexual dimorphism in sitting height/stature which appears at puberty
Ethnic differences
eg. In a Japanese longitudinal study on medical students since WW II (Ohyama et al
1987), the cephalic index, which was already high, has increased; and the relative
sitting height, which was high previously, has decreased, almost exclusively due to
increase in lower limb length during the last 40 years. This is an example of secular
trend, in which there are changes from one generation to the next.
Dimensionality
Height = length
Area = length (cf muscle CSA - strength)
Volume = length3 (highly correlated with body mass)
A direct relationship between height and mass is not suitable because a "length" is
being correlated with a "volume".
The Quetelet Index is a "squared" relationship and the Body Mass Index (BMI) is
commonly used in nutritional surveys.
BMI = Height (in cm) / square root of Mass (in Kg)
The Ponderal Index is a "cubic" relationship and is used in the Heath-Carter
Anthropometric Somatotype for the calculation of the third component (endomorphy).
For growth, actually a power of the height-mass relationship is about 2.5-2.6.
As an example, consider a baby girl at birth who is about 50 cm long and is 3 kg.
A typical adult female is about 150 cm tall and has a mass of 51 kg, so she is now
birth length * 3 and birth weight * 17. Assuming a "squared" relationship (32 = 9) she
should weigh 27kg, but assuming a "cubic" relationship (33 = 27), she would weigh
81kg.
Return to Lecture Outline.
Human Composition
The human body is composed of;
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skin
fat
muscle (mainly skeletal muscle)
bone (and other connective tissues)
nervous tissue (brain etc.)
organs (heart, liver etc.)
In the typical anthropometric two-component model of the human body, it consists
of lean and fat tissue, each with an assumed density.
A dissection study of 25 cadavers (Clarys et al 1984) indicated the following body
compositions for males and females:
Males
Common
28.1% fat
Females
40.5% fat
skin = 8.5% LBM
muscle = 50% LBM
bone = 20.6% LBM
undifferentiated tissues constitute rest of body
Differential growth eg. brain vs reproductive (head size vs secondary sexual
characteristics and associated growth of musculoskeletal system)
Return to Lecture Outline.
Somatotyping
The somatotype describes a particular category of body build, determined on the
basis of certain physical characteristics ie. it is a shorthand method of describing
physique (Bailey et al 1982). Revise somatotypes from AN228/229 lecture.
An "endomorph" is an individual having the type of body build in which tissues
derived from the endoderm prodominate. There is a relative preponderance of soft
roundness throughout the body, with large digestive viscera and accumulations of fat,
and with large trunk and thighs and tapering extremities, as contrasted with
ectomorph and mesomorph (Dorland's Medical Dictionary).
An "ectomorph" is an individual having a type of body build in which tissues derived
from the ectoderm predominate; there is a preponderance of linearity and fragility,
with large surface area, thin muscles and subcutaneous tissue, and slightly
developed digestive viscera, as contrasted with endomorph and mesomorph
(Dorland's Medical Dictionary).
A "mesomorph" is an individual having a type of body build in which tissues derived
from the mesoderm predominate. There is relative preponderance of muscle, bone,
and connective tissue, usually with heavy, hard physique of rectangular outline. This
somatotype is classified between the ectomorph and the endomorph (Dorland's
Medical Dictionary).
The Meaning of the Heath-Carter Anthropometric Somatotype
The FIRST COMPONENT indicates endomorphy in which measurements of three
skinfold thicknesses (triceps, subscapular, suprailiac) are combined to indicate the
amount of fat in the body. It is corrected for height because the surface area-volume
relationship changes with height. How?
Let's discuss the prediction of body fat percentage using anthropometric
measurements. This is a good example of validity.
To test validity, there must be at least two alternative measurements taken:
One is the criterion measurement (in the case of % body fat this has traditionally
been the "Gold Standard" of underwater weighing).
The second measurement (usually a group of measurements) is the "predictive"
anthropometric measurement/s.
Criticisms of prediction of % body fat using anthropometric measurements include:
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underwater weighing provides a measure of body density, NOT % body fat.
underwater weighing may not provide an accurate measure of body density
because of problems with air trapped in the respiratory and digestive tracts.
people are so light when floating in water that any "small" errors will be
relatively large (eg 0.5 kg error in measurement of 3 kg).
% body fat is calculated assuming a two-component model of body
composition with fat and lean tissues having assumed densities.
If these criticisms are accepted, then the criterion measure is suspect and the validity
of any predictive equation is obviously questionable (eg. some Afro-American
footballers have been found to have negative body fat which is physiologically
impossible! How did this happen?). Many authors now recommend use of only the
raw skinfold thicknesses data for comparisons, eg. "investigators should utilize
anthropometers directly instead of using them to estimate whole body composition"
(Johnston 1982). As far back as 1969, Katch & Michael compared six different
prediction formulae and found constant errors ranging between -10 and 122% and
predictive errors of between 25 and 37%.
The SECOND COMPONENT indicates mesomorphy in which measurements of
bone diameters and muscle circumferences (corrected for skinfold thickness) are
compared with the person's height to provide an indication of general
musculoskeletal development. Two upper limb and two lower limb measurements are
used and the rating form allows observation of the relative development of each of
the four components.
The THIRD COMPONENT indicates ectomorphy in which measurements of height
and mass are combined to provide an indication of "linearity". A cubic relationship (cf
Ponderal Index) is used for the Heath-Carter Anthropometric Somatotype.
The three components of the Heath-Carter Anthropometric Somatotype are plotted in
two dimensions on a cam-shaped "graph", called a somatochart.
Click here to revise the plotting of the three somatotype components on a
somatochart, and the normal adult variation.
The centre of the somatochart is "444" or "333" and represents the "unisex phantom",
while the bottom left, endomorphy, corner, is "711", the top, mesomorphy, corner is
"171", and the bottom right, ectomorphy, corner is "117".
The typical adult male is "353" while the typical adult female is "543".
A Canadian survey of almost 14,000 adults (Bailey et al 1982) showed the following
differences in somatotype:
Males
< 30 yrs
Females
over 30 years
< 40 yrs
over 40 years
3.5-5-2
4-5.5-2
4.5-4-2.5
5-4.5-2
(NB. 4-4-4 is rare in my experience - if both endomorphy and mesomorphy are less
than 4, you would expect ectomorphy to be greater than 4, however it is often still
less than 4).
Somatotypes do not provide information on asymmetry but there may be an interest
on left/right differences in particular studies. The Heath-Carter Anthropometric
Somatotype Recording Form allows this information to be analysed.
A study on left and right handers (Schell et al 1985) showed that there were
significant differences between the arm circumferences and biepicondylar humeral
widths for the right handers but not for the left handers.
Remember that a series of radiographic studies over 30 years on professional tennis
players have shown humeral size and bone density differences between the
dominant and non-dominant arm (Jones et al 1977). Observations would suggest that
these differences are reflected in anthropometric measures of muscle and bone size.
A study of Czechoslovakian males, aged 11-24 years, showed the changes in
somatotype during this period of maturation (Carter & Parizkova 1978). Two stages
of maturation are illustrated:
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Stage 1 = 11-15 years during which there is decreasing endomorphy and
increasing ectomorphy.
Stage 2 = 15-24 years during which there is increased mesomorphy and
decreasing ectomorphy.
Adult Differences in Size
In terms of height, the 50th percentile U.S. man is the same as the 95th percentile
Asian male (Miller & Suther 1983).
Return to Lecture Outline.
Kinanthropometry
Kinanthropometry is the scientific specialisation dealing with the measurement of
humans in a variety of morphological perspectives, its application to movement, and
those factors which influence movement, including:
i.
ii.
iii.
components of body build, body measurements, proportions, composition,
shape, and maturation
motor abilities and cardiorespiratory capacities
phhysical activity including recreational activity as well as highly specialised
sports performance
Defined as such, KINANTHROPOMETRY is a scientific specialisation closely allied
to;
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physical education
sports science and medicine
auxology (science of growth) plus paediatrics etc
human biology and physical anthropology
gerontology
ergometry
Return to Lecture Outline.
Applications in Sports Science
You may like to revise the somatotypes of different athletic populations.
"Javelin throwers and gymnasts have practically identical somatotypes, although the
javelin throwers, at 179.5 cm and 76.7 kg, are much bigger than the gymnasts, at
167.4 cm and 67.1 kg. Thus, kinanthropometric data on size and shape may be of
prime importance in biomechanical interpretation of various sport performances"
(Hebbelinck & Ross 1974).
Further information about anthropometric studies will be provided, including the study
of Junior Rugby Union players and the study of Cricket fast bowlers.
Return to Lecture Outline.
Questions
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What is anthropometry?
What is sexual dimorphism? What methods can be used to compare an
individual with the rest of the population on an anthropometric parameter?
How accurate might you expect self-reported heights to be? Explain your
opinion.
From what age can height measurements be taken? What alternative is
available for infants?
The average 80 year-old woman is about 7 cm shorter than the average 20
year-old woman. Discuss the factors that might explain this difference. [There
are three main contributing factors]
Distinguish between the terms "weight" and "mass". What are the units for
each?
How accurate might you expect self-reported masses to be? Explain your
opinion.
The Body Mass Index (BMI) is a "square" relationship whereas the ponderal
index is a cubic relationship. Discuss your expected relationship between
height and mass.
What are the major body tissues that may contribute to a high BMI? How
would you distinguish between the relative amounts of these tissues in the
body?
Why do you think the BMI is used in public health and nutrition surveys? Why
do you think the Heath-Carter Anthropometric Somatotype uses a cubic
relationship?
Why are the standards for skinfold measurements different for men and
women?
Why does the Heath-Carter Anthropometric Somatotype use a "unisex
phantom" as the standard for measurements?
What information do skinfold measurements provide that are not provided by
the BMI?
Should skinfold measurements be "corrected for height"? In other words,
would a 10 mm layer of subcutaneous fat all over a person 1.5 m tall indicate
the same relative volume of fat as for a person who is 2.0 m tall?
What do you think the elbow width indicates? What other measurements may
provide similar information?
Why would you expect elbow width to increase with height?
Would elbow width be most influenced by genetic or environmental factors?
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Why do you think the umbilicus is not used as a landmark for the
measurement of waist circumference (girth)?
Why are the greater trochanters of the femora not used as the landmark for
the measurement of hip (buttocks) circumference?
What are the health implications of a relatively high Waist-to-Hip
Circumference Ratio (WHR)?
What are the health implications of a relatively low WHR?
Which body regions are being measured in sitting height?
What differences in the sitting height ratio would you expect between eg. AfroAmericans and Asians.
Which group do you think would have the highest sitting height ratio?
Do you think there would be a difference between men and women in the
sitting height ratio?
How do you think the sitting height ratio might change during the period from
early childhood to maturity?
What tissues are included in the measurement of the flexed and tensed arm
circumference? Why is the measurement reduced by subtracting the triceps
skinfold thickness?
Would maximum arm circumference be most influenced by genetic or
environmental factors?
How is the maximum measurement of head length determined?
At which position is the maximum skull width most likely to occur?
How is the cephalic index used to describe head shape?
Describe differences in skull shape between that of the average Japanese and
Australian Aborigine.
Why should the subject stand relaxed when measuring biacromial diameter
(shoulder width)?
Which anatomical features contribute to the biacromial diameter?
Which anatomical features contribute to the bideltoid diameter?
Which anatomical features contribute to the biiliocristal diameter (pelvic
width)?
Define the term "androgynous".
What does a high androgyny index indicate in terms of body shape?
What does a low androgyny index indicate in terms of body shape?
What would you expect to be the differences in androgyny index, between
adult males and females?
Return to Lecture Outline.
ANTHROPOMETRY BIBLIOGRAPHY
(Basic anthropometry methodology, sexual dimorphism, adult variation,
and maturation & ageing, and some applications to
health & nutrition surveys, sports science, and ergonomics)
GENERAL
Carter JEL (1972) The Heath-Carter Somatotype Method. San Diego State
College, San Diego.
Carter JEL & BH Heath (1991) Somatotyping: Developments and Applications.
Cambridge University Press, New York.
Johnston FE (1982) Relationships between body composition and
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Kippers V (1996) Basic concepts of anthropometry. In B Abernethy V Kippers
LT Mackinnon RJ Neal & S Hanrahan: The Biophysical Foundations of Human
Movement. MacMillan Education Australia, South Melbourne, pp 57-67.
Lohman TG (1992) Advances in Body Composition Assessment. Human
Kinetic Publ, Champaign (Illinois).
Lohman TG (1992) New Developments in Body Composition. Current Issues
in Exercise Science, Monograph Number 3. Human Kinetics, Champaign
(Illinois).
Lohman TG, AF Roche & R Martorell (Eds.) (1988) Anthropometric
Standardization Reference Manual. Human Kinetics, Champaign (Illinois).
Norton K & T Olds (Editors) (1996) Anthropometrica: A Textbook of Body
Measurement for Sports and Health Courses. University of New South Wales
Press, Sydney.
Weiner JS & JA Lourie (1969) IBP Handbook No. 9. Human Biology: A Guide
to Field Methods. Blackwell Scientific, Oxford.
Return to Bibliography.
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Carter JEL (1980) The Heath-Carter Somatotype Method, 3rd Edn. San Diego State College,
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Department of Endocrinology, The Adelaide Children's Hospital (1989) Girls 2 - 18. Pharmacia
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