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Dear Distinguished Delegates:
It is our honor to be the first to welcome you to NYUMUNC VIII. You are lucky enough to be
representing the Byzantine Empire, the greatest committee in the Historical JCC. The Byzantine
Empire will be pitted against five other civilizations, all of which are trying to make their
respective empires great again. However we, the Byzantine Empire, have always been great and
will continue to be great (we have an eagle on our flag to prove it). Other committees may make
outrageous claims, arguing they are the most powerful and relevant to the JCC. Fear not,
however: you all will be creating history throughout this conference. It is through NYUMUNC
VIII that you will prove your knowledge and power over the others. It is through this conference
we fight back.
The five other civilizations you will be interacting with are: the Holy Roman Empire and
Kingdom of France to our West; the Seljuk Turks, the Fatimids, and the Abbasids to our East.
Being in the geographic center of this JCC universe, the Byzantine Empire will be fighting a
battle on two fronts, only this time, it will be us who wins and gets to form a treaty in a random
town in France without inviting the loser.
We, the chair and crisis director, will serve as your messengers in your quest to fulfill your
aspirations: be it making money, getting girls, or taking over the entire empire. Your chair will
be Janet while your crisis director will be Lee. Janet will be working directly with you all in the
conference room, whilst Lee will be working in the backroom and communicating with you all
through Systems.
We wish you the best of luck in your quest to achieving your objectives and we will see you on
the other side.
May the odds be ever in your favor,
Janet
Byzantine Empire Chair
[email protected]
Lee
Byzantine Empire Crisis Director
[email protected]
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History
In 324, Constantine I defeated and
killed his pagan imperial colleague and
rival, Licinius of the Eastern Roman
Empire, marking the first time since 293 CE
that the empire was united under a single
ruler. Constantine I founded the city of
Constantine as the new capital of the
Roman Empire on May 11, 330 CE. The
city—popularly referred to at the time as
“New Rome”—was rebuilt on the site of
Byzantium, which was located halfway
between the Mediterranean and the Black
Sea. Constantine served as a natural transit
point between Europe and Asia Minor
(Anatolia). Though Constantine I ruled over
a unified Roman Empire, it soon divided
again after his death. Valentinian I split the
empire in 364 CE and ruled the west while
his brother, Valens, ruled the east.
After the West Roman Empire fell in
476, the Byzantine Empire became the only
remains of the Roman Empire, and every
Byzantine Emperor since then has been the
sole ruler of what is left of the Roman
Empire. Justinian I rose to power in 527,
beginning a new dynasty within the
Byzantine Empire. Justinian I’s reign can be
divided into three periods: (1) an initial age
of successful conquest and cultural
achievement lasting until the 540s; (2) a
decade of crisis and near disaster during the
540s; and (3) a final decade of hostile
political and social environment.
Justinian I survived a revolt
stemming from the Nika riot in
Constantinople of 532, an event which
threatened his life but strengthened his
position on the throne. A year later in 533,
Justinian I launched and eventually
succeeded in fighting the Vandal War,
aimed at reconquering Africa from the
Vandals. However, invasions by the
Germanic Lombards in Italy—along with the
Slavs and Turkic Avars in the Balkans—
offset many of such territorial gains.
In 551, the empire recovered the
fortress of Petra from the Persians, but
combat between the two empires continued
in Lazica until a 50-year peace treaty was
signed in 561. The treaty stipulated that
Justinian I had to continue paying a tribute
of 30,000 solidi a year whilst Khosrow
needed to abandon his claims to Lazica and
refrain from persecuting his Christian
subjects.
The most lasting and prosperous
period of the Byzantine Empire began with
the ascension of Basil I (r. 867-886), who
came from a family of Armenian descent
known as the Macedonians. During this
Second Golden Age, the empire experienced
territorial expansion, economic prosperity,
and artistic innovation. The apex of power
and prestige occurred during the reign of
Basil II (976-1025), who is known as “the
Bulgar-Slayer” due to his conquest of
Bulgaria.
Although Byzantine territory in the
east could only be reclaimed by military
conquest, diplomacy and evangelization
were used for reclamation in the Balkans
and Greece. Thus, the Slavs and Bulgars
were brought under Byzantine influence
through conversion to Christianity.
The Russians were granted trading
rights in Constantinople in 911. However,
led by Prince Igor, they eventually returned
in 941 and 944 to attack the empire. Both
attempts were successfully repelled, and
Romanus I used diplomatic and commercial
contacts to break down Russian hostility
and isolationism.
The Komnenian Restoration refers
to the military, economic, and territorial
recovery of the Byzantine Empire during the
Komnenian, or Komnenos, dynasty, which
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began with Alexios I’s reign in 1081 CE and
lasts till today. Though the Seljuk Turks had
become an increasing threat on the empire
during the early 11th century– especially
after their defeat of the Byzantine at the
Battle of Manzikert in 1071, which resulted
in the permanent loss of most of Anatolia
(Asia Minor), Alexios I was able to recover
some territory in Anatolia with the First
Crusade and restore Byzantine prestige. His
successors, John II and Manuel, stabilized
Byzantine-Turk borders in Anatolia through
campaigning and diplomacy but were not
able to restore any additional territory of
significance.
Manuel I, the youngest son of John
II and the current emperor of the Byzantine
Empire, rose to the throne in 1143 after his
father’s death. Though his older brother
Isaakios was next in line, Manuel I’s
supporters were able to gain control of the
palace, thus allowing Manuel I to enter
Constantinople
and
be
crowned
emperor.Early in his reign, he fought wars
against the Serbs and the Hungarians in the
Balkans; however, after his alliance with
Hungarian king Bela III, Manuel became
overlord of Serbia, Bosnia, and Croatia,
while also gaining significant influence in
Hungary as well. In comparison to that of
his father and of his grandfather, Manuel I’s
foreign policy was the most wide-ranging of
the Komnenian dynasty. Emperor Manuel I
wishes to restore the Byzantine Empire to
its former glory and sees conquest as a
priority while providing enough support on
Byzantine defense to halt invasions.
Government
The Byzantine government is a
complex administrative system representing
a combination of bureaucracy and
aristocracy, where the emperor is
considered the divinely ordained sole ruler
(Autokrator). Such a title is hereditary as it
passes on from generation to generation.
Furthermore, the emperor has a whole staff
of officials and bureaucrats who serve and
fulfill the complex administrative tasks of
the Byzantium. In addition to staffers, his
subjects or friendly rulers are constantly
and consistently awarded honorary titles.
Although his decision making process is
influenced by his advisors, staffers, and
bureaucrats, the emperor has the final
governing power on all empire affairs.
Like the Roman Empire, the
Byzantine Empire regards the Senate as an
honorary council with no actual political
power nor legislative authority. The empire
was originally governed by different
administrative units of province—the
intention being to distribute the burden of
the heavy administrative and bureaucratic
workload. However, by the mid-7th century,
the governing unit of Themes, or districts,
replaced the provinces system. The different
themes ensured that the empire territories
can be controlled in smaller regions, while
still under the overall power and impression
of the central government located in
Constantinople.
By origin, themes are created from
encampment areas of field armies. Under
themes, individuals known as the
Strategos—who are not part of the far away
central government—exercise core civil and
military administration decisions. Despite
its complexity, the Byzantine bureaucracy is
capable of reconstituting and restructuring
itself when faced with different situations or
crises. Officials are arranged in strict order
around the emperor to optimize maximum
service.
One critical aspect of the Byzantine
government is the mixture of administrative
and military officials in the court. Both sides
attempt to sway and gain influence of the
emperor to benefit their respective
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constituents. Such competition between the
civil and military officials resulted in
numerous internal feuds, drastically
decreasing the overall effectiveness and
efficiency of the empire. Faced a magnitude
of crises during its tenure, the Byzantine
governing system is constantly changing
and adjusting to ensure its continuation.
The Byzantine’s formidable military
consists of its army and navy. The senior
staff officers, Domestikos, are among the
highest ranked officials in the Byzantine
army. Also working under the overall civil
government, they function as commanders
of the military as well as liaisons or advisors
to the emperor. Strategos are the military
and civil leaders responsible for their
respective themes, thus playing crucial roles
in stabilizing the empire. On the other hand,
the Megas doux is an important figure in
the Byzantine navy. As one of the superiors
of the military, the Megas doux takes on
more civil responsibilities which eventually
allows him to gain substantial power and
influence over the navy and civil
government. Furthermore, the Ethnarches,
commander of foreign troops and
mercenary, helps the Byzantine military
upon the emperor’s request.
In order to properly maintain the
heavy administrative workload of the
empire, the civil government recruits
thousands of bureaucrats to resolve
financial, judicial, and legislative issues. The
Praetorian prefect, or supreme staff of the
Byzantine bureaucracy, aids in such
matters. He has his own treasury that
receives reports of the overall state of the
empire through various governors of
themes. The Logothetes act as secretaries
for various jobs—some responsibilities
including taxation, diplomacy, or postal
service.
To withhold and control large
territories while ensuring authority and
order, the empire establishes various laws
and codex. The Byzantine law is a
continuation of Roman law with heavy
Christian emphasis and influence. The
earliest adoption of civil law was the
Justinian Code, or Corpus Juris Civilis,
established in 529 by Justinian. The
Justinian Code remains the most prominent
and crucial legal standards in the empire,
and is what many later law codes and codex
are all largely based on. The Code was
written in Latin—a fatal weakness as the
declining use of Latin caused its eventual
abandonment.
Facing
relaxed
legal
standards, Leo III issued and established
the Ecloga in 726. The Ecloga was the first
major Byzantine legal code issued in Greek
and referred to both civil and criminal law.
The Farmer’s Law and the Sea Laws were
both introduced between 600 and 800. The
Farmer’s Law focused specifically on cases
relevant to rural property; the Sea Law
operated to provide complete maritime and
trading protocol, regulating vessel action
and other matters. In addition to the
different civil and criminal laws, the judicial
system also employs Ecclesiastical law
established by the Religious community.
The great connection and influence of the
Christian Church ensures that religious
interpretation of the law remains valid
throughout. Although many different codes
and codex were added and implemented,
none were as significant as the previous
laws. The law system of the Byzantine
empire today establishes itself as one with
comprehensive detail and depth.18
The final component to the
Byzantine empire is its relations with
foreign nations and tribes. An economic and
trading powerhouse in the strategic location
of the Mediterranean sea, the Byzantine
empire shares and extends significant
diplomatic relationships with many trading
nations and neighboring tribes. Treaty
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making, assimilation of social attitudes,
values, and institutions are all under the
wide sphere of Byzantine diplomacy.
Diplomatic strategies, such as embassies
both in the empire and foreign nations, are
heavily practiced and utilized by the empire
to to gain advantages during diplomatic
encounters. The soft power offered by
diplomacy ensured the Byzantine empire to
resort to military power only when
necessary when dealing with conflicts and
crisis.19
Economy
The Byzantine trade system include
routes and areas that act as settings for
cultural exchange where merchants,
mercenaries, nomads, and pilgrims are in
constant contact. Such people trade all types
of goods—from the most luxurious such as
silk to the most simple such as crops—
stimulating
the
Byzantine
Empire’s
economy. Coinage is the basic form of
money in the Byzantine Empire, along with
other forms of credit such as archival
documents and banking. Relative flexibility
in the monetary system allowed for many
successes for the empire in the past. In its
creation of the monetary system by
Constantine, the pivot was a golden solidus
and the economy thrived under such an
arrangement. Yet, the economy was not
always so successful; the empire had many
failures before coming to the point it is at
today.
There is little record of economic
transaction in the Byzantine Empire for
before the sixth century. The Eastern
Roman economy, although deteriorated,
suffered much less than the Western Roman
economy in response to the constant
Barbarian raids. However, both economies
declined until 476 CE, at the fall of the
Western Roman Empire. Justinian I
temporarily recovered Italy, North Africa,
and parts of Spain, but the damage done to
the economy was undeniable.
In the sixth and seventh centuries,
the economy was one of the poorest due to
the negative development factors the
surrounded the empire. Such unfavorable
events included the great plagues of the
sixth century, loss of eastern provinces, and
general instability. In the sixth century
especially, the empire was constantly in a
state of unrest. It was during this time that
Slavic incursions and settlements in the
Balkans affected the Byzantine by draining
the empire’s revenue. The seventh century
was more permeated by military conflict,
starting from the temporary Persian
conquest of Syria-Palestine-Egypt in the
early of the century, until the Arabs quickly
took away the area from Persia and also
conquered North Africa. Furthermore, there
were constant Arab incursions into the Asia
Minor and during the Byzantine-Arab Wars,
which resulted in the concomitant decline in
population. Such unrest in both the external
and internal affairs of the Byzantine Empire
caused its economy to decline.
In the seventh and eighth centuries,
the Byzantine economy was still at its low
point. Constantinople became the prime
hub in the trading network for merchants
and mercenaries, but such political and
military
unrest
created
negative
consequences. Land routes were cut off
between
Constantinople
and
other
countries, such as Thessalonike, Thessaly,
Greece, and the Peloponnese. Sea routes, on
the other hand, stayed open for the majority
of time. Furthermore, because there was so
much war that took place on land, the
agricultural infrastructure and exchange
was close to completely physically
destroyed. Foreign trade, therefore, was
limited. During the first half of the seventh
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century, Byzantine merchants were only
able
to
legally
travel
between
Constantinople and Carthage, and Spain
and Gaul. In addition, Venice—which was
still part of the empire—was the most
advantageous area as it had trading activity
through most objects at the time: salt, wood,
iron, slaves, and luxurious products.
However, it is inaccurate to say that war was
only detrimental to the empire, as the
unrest also led to some unexpected
blessings and benefits: the Byzantine
Empire needed to administer gold coinage,
farming, and general resourcing to the best
of its ability to meet the military’s constant
demands. Thus, economic exchanges
included that of grains, silk, slaves, and
other items. Thessalonike and Chios were
primarily in charge of grain exchange. Silk
was a means of payment and diplomacy. In
fact, after the reign of Justinian I in 565, the
silk industry became a state monopoly.
Manufacturing increased significantly in the
600s. Slaves were often traded not through
the government but through private
individuals. Thus, little to no transactions
are recorded, but personal diaries and
journals of individuals demonstrate slavery
did exist. Other items of exchange included
olive oil, wine, and salt. Salt was extremely
valuable as its export outside the frontiers of
the Byzantine was forbidden. However, it is
clear that the empire was self-sufficient
despite its terrible political and military
state.
It is around that time that the social
organization of production was arranged
into two poles: the estate and the village.
The village social structure was set aside for
the empire under insecure conditions while
the estate social structure was used once the
empire was stable once more. The clear
difference between the tenants and village
inhabitants was principal: tenants owed
dues to the master whereas inhabitants
owned the land and thus paid taxes to the
state. Slaves and wage laborers worked on
the land, while cultivators on the estate only
sometimes worked.
It was in the eighth and ninth
centuries that the Byzantine Empire began
to slowly improve in noticeable ways as it
placed itself in the international scene. The
global wealth of empire increased in various
manners: state revenues, sizes of the
internal market, and potentials of exchange.
If in previous centuries, the Byzantines lost
resources due to war and unrest, the reverse
now happened. The empire gained
resources from other countries along with
its place and power. In terms of economic
exchange, the Byzantine Empire produced
much of the same material: silk, grains, and
other items of exchange; however, the way
in which the goods were treated varied. The
purchase and sale of silk was now extremely
controlled, as it became an even more
luxurious good. Grains, on the other side of
the spectrum, were common goods and thus
did not experience any changes in price; it is
hypothesized
that
the
Byzantine
government controlled such prices. The
other items of exchange in the economy
extended to oil, wine, salt, fish, meat,
vegetables, timber, wax, and salt fish. Other
goods also included ceramics, linen, and
woolen cloth. In terms of trade, sea routes
became risky after the conquest of Crete in
827. Pirates operating from Cilicia, Crete,
and North Africa endangered sea traders
from theft. The islands of the Aegean often
acted as relay stations. However, despite the
lack of trade from the sea, trade onland
enabled the Byzantine Empire to expand.
Between the ninth and tenth
centuries, the Byzantine Empire was at its
peak: it was both the wealthiest and most
luxurious it has ever been. The agriculture
sector especially thrived at this time due to
technological advances, at an annual
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revenue of 5,900,000 nomismata. Thus, the
current state of the economy is recovering
from its previous downfalls and reclining in
terms of global position and power.
Culture & Society
Ethnicity, Geography, and
Language
The Byzantine Empire is a
continuation of the old Roman Empire.
Although members of the Empire refer to
themselves as Romans, outsiders call them
Greeks as their land spans the Greekspeaking territories of the old Roman
Empire. Geographically, the area is
composed of the Balkan Peninsula to the
Danube River, Crete and Cyprus, Asia
Minor, Northern Africa and parts of
Southern Italy; ethnically, the area consists
of dominantly native Greeks and Hellenized
tribes. Although a variety of languages are
spoken, Latin and Greek are the prevailing
dialects among the Byzantines. Latin
remains the language of the administration.
However, Greek eventually became the
official language of the Empire by the
seventh century as it replaced Latin in court
decisions, universities, and legislation.
Education
Education in the Byzantine Empire
is divided into multiple stages: elementary,
secondary, and higher education. Because
elementary education is widely accessible,
literacy is much more common among the
people than in the past. This stage is fairly
rudimentary, teaching students how to read
and write—predominantly in Greek—as well
as use simple arithmetic. As students
proceed to secondary-school, they begin to
learn grammatical rules and advanced
vocabulary through the reading of Classical
Greek literature from the Hellenistic to
Roman periods, such as Homer’s Iliad.
Higher education brings about the study of
rhetoric and debate in addition to
philosophy, including the works of Plato
and Aristotle. Education beyond such a
level—such as medicine, legal studies, and
architecture—are available to a select few.
Although the works of the Bible are studied,
they are not emphasized as much as in the
churches.
Architecture
Architects and engineers utilized
Greek and Roman thoughts and ideas in
developing Constantinople. Along with
paving roads for safer and quicker
transportation—something
that
is
unconventional to other civilizations—
Constantinople created some of the most
cherished works of architecture. One of the
Constantinople’s largest attractions is the
Hippodrome of Constantinople, an outdoor
stadium. The stadium is used for chariot
racing, a favorite pastime for Byzantine
citizens. Byzantine architects also invented
the pendentive dome: a roof dome held up
by
triangular
supports
known
as
pendentives. The best example illustrating
the use of pendentive domes is the Hagia
Sophia, Constantinople’s cardinal Christian
Church and most renowned architecture.
Infrastructure
Justinian I sought to establish a citywide sewer system in order to create a more
sanitary lifestyle within the Byzantine
Empire. The Constantinople sewer system
proves to be successful and water became
much more regulated compared to the water
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in states in Europe, where the lack of
sufficient sanitation led to the spread of
Cholera and Dysentery. Along with having
the most modern sewer system of the time,
the empire also lauds itself for having access
to clean water—especially in their home and
almost all public spaces. People credit the
success of Constantinople’s drainage
infrastructure—which extends the average
lifespan of humans about 10 to 20 years—to
Byzantine’s interest in science.
The Byzantines, as many successful
civilizations—including the Romans—do,
archives many of the kept records from
previous civilizations. Constantinople places
dedication in storing the literary works of
Ancient Greece and those of Western Rome,
leading to the creation of one of the largest
libraries in the world: the Imperial Library
of Constantinople. The Imperial Library is
used as a tool by scientists and scholars and
served as a platform to spur the Byzantine
Renaissance which paved the way for the
empire’s evolution in architecture and
technology.
Science and Medicine
Medicine in the Byzantine Empire is
a field that—to a degree—is an expansion of
Greek practice. The Byzantine Empire is the
center of medicine, due to the combination
of Greek medicine and tools and practices
extracted from Islamic culture. Many
Byzantine doctors and physicians worship
the works of Hippocrates and Galen and
apply their theories in science and medicine.
Mathematicians and architects also find
inspiration in Ancient Greek thinkers and
apply entities moldable into Byzantine
culture. Isidore of Miletus—who created the
first compilation of Archimedes work—used
complex mathematical equations with
Anthemius of Tralles to create the Hagia
Sophia upon the request of Justinian I.
Military
The
greatest
expansion
in
technology under Justinian I was in military
technology.
The
Byzantine
Empire
conquered the Balkans, Egypt, Syria, and
Asia Minor in the 5th century and expanded
even further in the early 6th century under
the Justinian dynasty. The Byzantine army
rely heavily on brain power and dedicates
much of its time to meticulously planning
their course of action. Similar to
architecture, war is also seen as a science,
and generals and analysts use equations and
logic to map out how a strategy would play
out in battle. However, it is not only the
brains of leaders that lead to Byzantine
conquest, but also Byzantine weaponry,
which is in the upper echelon of military
technology.
The army of the Byzantine empire
mostly relies on calvary, evidenced by the
large portion of the army being dedicated
solely to such. Cavalrymen mount
themselves on horses and sport multiple
weapons for multiple ranges from a bow to a
broadsword to a dagger. Troops are also
armed with long lances and short shields,
mostly used against other cavalrymen.
Infantrymen wear longer armor and carry
lighter weapons to be more protected yet
agile. Some of the infantrymen's’ favorite
weapons are the longbow and the dagger.
Outside of the regular cavalryman and
infantryman is the tactician, who serves to
put war into a science, and spies, who serve
under the Bureau of Barbarians, the
empire’s primary source for espionage and
intelligence gathering.
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Byzantine Defense
The Byzantine Empire commissions
warships to patrol the Mediterranean, to
protect the empire’s sea traders, and the
warships were armed with advanced
weaponry that could be used in the event of
an attack. Most notable among these is
Greek Fire, which is the greatest weapon of
the Byzantine Empire because it is
inextinguishable and burns even on water.
Dromon warships, 2-sailed galleys with a
pointed edge that are powered by oars are
used to administer Greek Fire. Other
weapons used by the Byzantines include
battering rams, siege towers, and catapults,
in addition to close combat weapons such as
spears, bows, axes, and swords.
Diplomacy and
Fortification
However, despite the Byzantine
Empire’s successes in battle, the Byzantines
are known for focusing on diplomacy as the
first line of defense. The Byzantine Empire
sees the importance and value in remaining
a part of both the Eastern and Western
world and believes that negotiations can
lead to the most beneficial payoff. However,
the leaders of the Eastern Roman Empire
are aware diplomacy is not always the likely
outcome and that Constantinople is a
precious target for many surrounding
civilizations.
Byzantine Leaders are skeptical of
the level of protection that surrounds
Constantinople. The Roman capital was
already targeted by many large-scale
attacks, so the Byzantine Empire expanded
the Wall of Constantine and built a wall of
unprecedented scale. This fortification is
known as the Theodosian Wall and consists
of an inner and outer wall—both of which
continues deep into the ground—and a moat
that surrounds the edge of the city. Archers
shoot arrows and spears from the outer wall
into troops attempting to pass through the
moat.
One of Byzantine Empire’s famous
inventions is Greek fire. Greek fire is used
along with arrows and spears in
bombarding
oncoming
armies.
The
Byzantine Empire also created some of the
oldest grenades and flamethrowers by
making Greek fire portable. Because Greek
fire still burns people in water, the invention
combined with the 22 ft deep moat is a
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deadly
combination
that
protected
Constantinople from the Turks, the Arabs,
and even Attila the Hun.
Rashidun
Caliphate
and
Umayyad
Caliphate, the Abbasid Caliphate.
Arab Conflict and the
Byzantine Empire
Origin of Conflict & 7th-Century
Arab-Byzantine War
The
Arab-Byzantine
Wars,
sometimes referred as the Byzantine-Arab
Wars or Saracen Wars, is a series of wars
between the Byzantine Empire and Muslim
Caliphates and is currently the largest war
the Byzantine Empire is facing. The wars
ignited in the early 7th century during the
rise of the Islamic Empire under
Muhammad. After Muhammad’s death, Abu
Bakr became the caliph of the new Rashidun
Caliphate in 632, and the Caliphate would
expand the influence of Islam into Anatolia,
heightening tension between the Islamic
Empire and the Byzantine Empire. Being
exhausted from the Byzantine-Sassanid
Wars, the Byzantine Empire lost Egypt,
Syria, and the Levant to Rashidun Caliphate
by 650, which would mark the end of the
Byzantine golden age, and the beginning of
a dark period for the empire. The struggle
for Eastern Anatolia and Egypt, which
lasted between 629 and 644, would later be
referred as the 7th century Arab-Byzantine
War. The Arab-Byzantine War that ended in
644 should not to be confused with “The
Arab-Byzantine Wars”, which is an
overarching title for the series of wars
involving the Arabs and Byzantines starting
from 629 and lasting until today, nor
confused with the the “Byzantine-Arab War”
that began in 780 and would arise from the
effects of the 7th century Arab-Byzantine
War and involve the successors of the
Figure 2: The expansion of Muslim
Caliphates
(Muhammad in darkest tone, Rashidun
Caliphate in medium tone, Umayyad
Caliphate in lightest tone)
Byzantine-Arab War of 780
The Byzantine-Arab War of 780 is
the current war in the series of conflicts
between the Byzantines and the Arabs and
erupted after the rise of the Abbasid
Caliphate. The Abbasid Caliphate rose to
power in 750 after the fall of the Umayyad
Caliphate and moved the Islamic capital
from Damascus to Baghdad. The new
dynasty believed in a more diplomatic
approach to interstate conflict, similar to
that of the recent Byzantine Empire, and the
two empires became trading partners and
both respected old Greek culture. However,
this more peaceful relationship did not stop
another war from breaking out in 780 when
border raids between the two states became
more and more prevalent. Much of the wars
that would ensue was seen as an
opportunity for the Byzantine Empire to
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take back much of the land and influence it
lost in its defeat in early Muslim conquest.
The war began tipping in the
Byzantine Empire’s favor until other
civilizations began to rise to power in the
region. In 909, a Shia Islamic faction
formed the Fatimid Caliphate in the region
surrounding the Sinai peninsula and Red
Sea, placing itself in the center of the
Byzantine-Abbasid conflict. Remnants of
the Roman Empire also began to rise in the
form of the Holy Roman Empire and the
Kingdom of France, which both remained
committed to the Roman Catholic Faith.
However, it was the rise of the Seljuk Turks
in 1037 that shifted the pace of the war
against the Byzantine Empire. The Turks
rose to become a dominant power in the
Asia Minor and Arabia, rivaling the military
strength of the Abbasid Caliphate and even
the Byzantine Empire. Because of constant
invasions from Seljuk Turks in the 11th
century, the Byzantine Empire would begin
to decline and lose much of its influence in
East Anatolia. The decline would give rise to
the Komnenian Dynasty in 1081 that would
serve as a small stabilization in wealth and
military strength.
Soon, the expanding conflict would
manifest within the growing tensions
between the Arab Caliphates and the
Catholic States, which would in turn lead to
the Great Crusade at the end of the 11th
century. The Byzantine Empire would
exploit the Crusade to allow Western
civilizations to weaken the Abbasids,
Fatimids, and Seljuk Turks in order to
regain its grasp on land in Eastern Anatolia.
However, despite the Byzantine Empire’s
efforts, the conflict still remains between the
empire and Arab states.
Current State of Conflict
Currently, the Byzantine Empire is
dedicating resources towards maintaining
the Theodosian Walls that protect
Constantinople by land. Naval bases and
ships are also receiving much of the funds
that is generated from the trade going
through Byzantine ports. However, the state
of the Byzantine empire under the new
Komnenian dynasty is neither dire nor
prosperous, meaning that large scale
uprisings against the ruling class such as the
ones from the end of the Macedonian
dynasty. Yet the empire is still in a fragile
position where maintaining one of the
world’s greatest military is difficult and
money rarely reaches people in the lower
class. Due to fears of losing Constantinople
to the Turks or Arabs, Emperor Manuel I
focuses Byzantine wealth towards defense to
ensure that Constantinople is well protected
and that the military remains on of the
strongest in Eurasia, although this means
taking funds away from humanistic uses
such as health and education. The
resurgence of Arab states after the Great
Crusade and the destabilization of the
Catholic empires might give way to a new
growing conflict between East and West that
could either tip the war to Byzantine’s favor
or finally be the downfall of Constantinople
and the Byzantine Empire.
Piracy and the
Byzantine Empire
The practice of piracy, robbery or
illegal violence at sea, is one that played a
significant role throughout the history of the
Byzantine Empire. Because the Empire was
one of immense economic prosperity, it
unfortunately attracted a number of wealthdriven pirates. A collection of distinct pirate
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groups raided throughout Byzantine’s
expanse during the Middle Ages. Vikings,
Scandinavian seafaring warriors, extend
their influence throughout rivers in Eastern
Europe to Black Sea and into Persia. Red
Sea Byzantine trade companies lure
members of African and Arabian tribes
along the coasts of the southern Red Sea
and the Gulf of Aden to participate in
piracy. The Mediterranean Sea, however,
remains the predominant focus for many
pirates as well as for the Byzantine Empire.
Both Turkish and Arab pirates partake in
raids throughout the Mediterranean Sea, as
do many of the Empire’s other enemies.
Weapons used by pirates include knives,
swords, arrows, barbs, and hooks. Many of
their pirate’s tools are modified weapons on
land that can be useful when out at sea and
the purpose of these weapons is to instill
fear in those they planned to raid.
City of Constantinople
Constantinople attracts the majority
of pirates that include freelancers,
Sassanians, Arabs, Bulgars, Turks, steppes
barbarians, and even fellow Christians. It
was founded as a strategic location, sitting
at a center of strategic land that many sea
trading
routes
passed,
guarding
communications between the Black Sea and
the Mediterranean, and acting as the bridge
between Europe and Asia across the narrow
channel of the Bosporus.” As a result,
Constantinople is center for global trade
that raised money through tariffs and trade
companies to fund the government and
military Its natural appeal is clear, but
luckily, the empire’s powerful navy protects
it against pirate intrusion. The city is
additionally supported by its massive walls
that are virtually impenetrable. Its multiple
levels of protection help to ensure economic
stability. Because the city of Constantinople
remained the central hub of the Byzantine
Empire’s economy, successful attack by
pirates would mean economic collapse for
the Byzantines.
Christianity and the
Byzantine Empire
Religion—especially that of Christian
Orthodoxy—plays a significant role in the
Byzantine Empire. Faith is seen as
Byzantium’s greatest strength as it held the
empire together—through the sense of unity
religion provides and organization religious
systems create—for more than 1,000 years
against invaders from both the East and
West. The church is conducted by five
patriarchs, who resided in Alexandria,
Jerusalem, Antioch, Constantinople, and
Rome. However, the emperor—considered
to be divine—remains the ultimate head of
church, appointing bishops and adopting
religious laws. Such theological power
eventually destroyed the Empire’s Christian
unity, as eighth century Byzantine emperors
denied the holiness of icons and prohibited
worship or veneration.
Iconoclasm
“Icon” is the Greek word for image
or painting. Thus, the art of the Orthodox
Christian Church—often religious images on
wooden panels used for prayer and
devotion—were
considered
icons.
Iconoclasm is the destruction and tones of
hostility against such religious visual
representations. Paintings of Jesus and
other
religious
personages—many
considered magnificent works of art—were
popular in the Byzantine Empire. The
subjects of the pieces were encouraged and
called for reverence.
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Ideas of iconoclasm first appeared in
the Byzantine Empire during the reign of
Emperor Leo III. Although he ruled from
717 to 741, he began the policy of iconoclasm
in 726. There was a volcanic eruption in the
Aegean Sea, which he interpreted to be
God’s anger over the use of icons. He
publicly took position against the use of
icons religiously and implemented the
removal of icons from all churches,
emphasizing the destruction they caused.
Religious artwork was destroyed and remote
use of anything was prohibited in the
church. After the rule of Emperor Leo III,
Constantine V ruled the Byzantine Empire
from 741 to 775 as Emperor Leo III’s son.
Constantine V was also an iconoclast, and
opened the severe persecution of icon
venerators. Empress Irene reign came after
Constantine V’s in 787. However,
iconoclasm was condemned and the use of
images was reestablished. Not long after her
reign, the iconoclasts regained power under
the rule of Leo V in 814. By 815, the use of
icons was once again forbidden. The final
emperor battling iconoclasm was Emperor
Theophilus. Upon his death in 842, his
widowed wife restored icon veneration in
843. Iconoclasm was thus officially
abandoned on this day after over a century
of riots and protests within the empire.
Evidently, iconoclasm played a
significant role in the religion in the
Byzantine Empire. It is unclear and
uncertain as to why iconoclasm was so
emphasized by the rulers. One theory
suggests emperors sought to integrate the
Muslim and Jewish populations. Both
communities perceived Christian images as
idols and in direct opposition to the Old
Testament. Another theory suggests rulers
wanted to restrain the growing wealth and
power of monasteries. The final theory
advises emperors were iconoclasts just in its
rudimentary form: for religious reasons.
Those who were Iconophiles—people who
approved of the use of icons in religion—
argued iconoclasts were just confused. Two
such figures include St. John of Damascus
and St. Theodore the Studite. They claimed
icons were not supposed to depict the divine
and humanistic characteristics of nature
and
religion.
Rather,
the
artwork
represented the concrete person, Jesus
Christ when he became man.
Such hostilities between iconoclasts
and iconophiles caused civil wars within the
empire. The wars shook the political, social,
and religious spheres of the empire. Often
times, the emperor and certain higher
church
officials—such
as
bishops—
supported iconoclasm while the other
bishops, lower clergy, laity, and monks
defended the use of icons.
The Great Schism of
1054
The Great Schism—also known as
the Great Eastern Schism or Schism of
1054—was the separation of the Roman and
Byzantine branches of the Christian church.
The causes of the schism lie in deep rooted
political, cultural, economic, social, and
theological differences between the East and
West.
Although Christianity has many
parallels with the Jewish religion, the
Byzantine attempted to harmonize with
cultural Greek traditions, such as
philosophy. Thus, it ended up building its
own cultural and religious traditions on
classical Greek foundations, rather than the
classical Latin foundations of the Western
church. In fact, Byzantine monasteries were
dedicated to piety and devotion, unlike
Western European tradition where churches
were centers of education and scholarship.
nyumunc viii
Such a relationship between the Western
Europeans and Byzantines led to uprisings
and riots that have caused great unrest
across. Nationalism has never been
stronger, and many have resorted to
irrelevant hate crimes against the opposing
side.
Tensions between the East and West
grew consistently. Rudimentarily, the two
had differences politically, socially, and
especially theologically. Eastern theologians
objected the shaved beards of Western
priests and use of unleavened bread for
mass. There were also discrepancies
between the worship techniques and
wordings of teachings—some examples
including the relationships between God,
Jesus, and the Holy Spirit. In the iconoclast
movement, in which the West believe icons
were helpful to religion while the Byzantine
resented the Romans’ efforts to use such
artwork. Communication between Greek
East and Latin West broke due to language
barriers, worsening the situation and
relationship between them. Byzantine
Patriarchs argued that all Christian
jurisdictions were autonomous while Popes
of Rome argued that they were the sole
authority for all Christendom. Artwork and
masterpieces have been destroyed from
both sides, worsening the already terrible
relationship that stands between them.
Ultimately, in the Great Schism of
1054, the Patriarch of Constantinople and
Pope of Rome each excommunicated the
other as both parties refused to recognize
the other’s as Christian. The final separation
became watershed in church history,
between Eastern Christian churches led by
patriarch
Michael
Cerularius
of
Constantinople and Western Church led by
Pope Leo IX. The Great Schism has led to a
massive downturn of not only the tolerance
and acceptance of other ideas and practices,
but also the economic output today.
Peasants have been forced to join the
military, resulting in few to work the land
and workshops. There has also been a
weakening of overall morale, as the
population has been increasingly weary of
the war and has started to revolt against
their respective governments as well.
Armenians and the
Byzantine Empire
Origin and Background (428)
The Kingdom of Greater Armenia,
before its assimilation into the Byzantine
Empire, was a monarchy that existed from
321 BC to 428 AD. Most of the former
Armenian Kingdom territories lie in modern
day Turkey, and its unique geographic
location connected the three major
continents of Africa, Asia, and Europe.
Armenia’s unique and crucial geographic
location would be critical to its history and
culture. The Armenian Kingdom utilized
Greek and Aramaic Alphabets as the
primary language until 405 AD when the
Armenian alphabet was created and would
persist as the enduring and official language
of any Armenian population. During the
Byzantine-Sassanid Wars (387 AD - 428
AD), the Byzantine Empire would acquire
the western territories of the Kingdom of
Greater Armenia while the Sassanid Empire
would devour the remaining Eastern
territories.
There were major obstacles initially
for the proper integration of Armenian
territories into the Byzantine Empire. As
Armenia was forcefully conquered and
acquired, the people of Armenia held no
representation or bureaucratic employment
in the Byzantine Empire. Another critical
barrier was that Armenia and the Byzantine
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Empire shared different languages, as the
Byzantine Empire’s official language was
Latin during the fourth century and
Armenia has already developed own native
tongue.
The first step that ensured the
integration of the Armenian people into the
Byzantine Empire was the recruitment of
military
personnel
from
Armenian
territories. As the Byzantine Empire was
under constant military threats and
harassments from neighboring kingdoms
and barbarians, the need and demand of a
strong military is consistently high. The
Armenians would gradually contribute more
and more to the Byzantine fighting force
over the course of the fourth century. By the
fifth century, the Armenians would
constitute as the majority of the Byzantine
Empire military force. Among the diverse
Byzantine military, Armenian units are
often the most well trained and profession
and earned great praises from both
Byzantine and Arab historians. The capable
fighting force of the Armenians military
personnel allowed many Armenians to rise
up in the ranks within the Byzantine chain
of command.
Another critical and crucial catalyst
to the Armenian integration was the ArabByzantine war. The Arab Muslims initiated
the conquest of many Byzantine territories
from 634 AD, ranging mostly from
territories in Africa and Asia. By the Seventh
Century, many of the former Armenian land
were captured by the fierce Muslims
military, and this caused a great influx of
Armenian refugees into the inner territories
of the Byzantine Empire, such as the capital
Constantinople. The greater incursion of
Armenian nobles to critical locations such
as Constantinople allowed Armenians to
slowly consolidate many government and
bureaucratic positions within the Byzantine
Empire. As more Armenians and Armenian
descendants constitute and sustain key
Byzantine bureaucratic and military
positions, the influence of the Armenians in
the overall empire started to rise
exponentially.
Power and Control and the
Macedonians (711 - 1056)
Philippikos Bardanes was the first
Armenian descent to be crowned as the
emperor of the Byzantine Empire during 711
AD. However, Emperor Bardanes’s reign
was short lived as he died in 713 AD, just
two years after his gained his title. Although
the first Armenian Emperor reign was
fleeting, it still allowed the Armenians to
gain a glimpse and taste of the highest
power of the Byzantine Empire. Philippikos
Bardanes’s short lived reign didn’t deter any
Armenians, rather, it only encouraged more
Armenian descent to compete and fight for
the title of Emperor.
During the late periods of the
Seventh Century, Emperor Leo IV was
forced to release thousands of Armenians in
the direct pathways of the Bulgarian soldiers
in order to protect Constantinople's flank
from Bulgarian raids. Numerous Armenians
were taken as prisoners of war back to
Macedonia that the Armenians would earn
another nickname for themselves in the
coming future, Macedonians. In 867, a
Macedonian named Basil made his way into
Constantinople. Through brilliant political
maneuver and brutal tactical might, Basil
was able to kill the reigning emperor and
take the throne for himself. Basil I would
found the great Macedonian Dynasty and to
this date Basil is considered as one of the
greatest Byzantine Emperor of all time . The
Macedonian Dynasty, lead by a total of
sixteen Armenian-Macedonian Emperors,
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would rule the Byzantine Empire for almost
190 years.
The Macedonian Dynasty was able to
successfully bind all of the previous
untapped Armenian power and influence
into one organized Byzantine central
government. Almost all of the crucial seats
in the Byzantine military and government,
including
generals,
administrators,
governors, bureaucrats, and historians were
all of Armenian descent. Even the former
Roman descendants were forced to respect
and bow down under the great power of the
Armenians.
The Armenians was also responsible
for the greatest cultural renaissance of the
Byzantine Empire, as the Macedonian
Renaissance saw the greatest proliferation
and expansion of literature, education, and
trade throughout the Byzantine timeline.
The
Byzantine
Empire
under
the
Macedonian Renaissance enjoyed an
unprecedented amount of economic,
intellectual, and artistic prosperity and
affluence. Among the greatest scholars of all
Byzantine era, three (Patriarch Photius,
John the Grammarian, and Leo the
Philosopher) were produced and all are
Armenians. The Macedonian Dynasty would
bring the Byzantine Empire to the height
and peak of its military, political, economic,
cultural, and intellectual prowess.
Decline (1056)
The last Emperor of the Macedonian
Dynasty was Constantine IX Monomachos,
which ruled from 1042-1055. During the
final days of Emperor Monomacho’s reign,
the
Byzantine
Empire
was
facing
magnitudes of internal and external crisis.
The continuous harassments and raids from
the Pechenegs in the Balkans and the Seljuq
Turk in the East, the internal revolts and
rebellions from the George Maniakes and
Leo Tornikios, and the Great Schism
between the patriarchates of Rome and
Constantinople, would slowly tear away the
remaining strength and power of the once
mighty Macedonian Dynasty.
The final straw that truly broke the
Armenia’s control over the Byzantine
Empire was the battle of Manzikert in 1071
AD, which the Byzantine Empire military
was crushed and its own Emperor was slain.
The Battle of Manzikert undermined the
overall strength and authority of the
Byzantine Empire over its territories, and it
served as a catalyst for further economic
crisis and internal conflicts. From this point
forward, the Byzantine Empire would a
continuous period of decline and decay until
its final and imminent collapse in 1453 AD.
International
Relations
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire sought to gain
more political power through its ties with
some other powerful empires at the time,
one of which was the Byzantine Empire in
Europe. In 963, King Otto deposed the
current pope John XII and chose Pope Leo
VIII as the new pope and formed military
ties with the ast when he married Byzantine
princess Theophanu. Not only did this
marriage allow Otto to expand the Roman
Empire’s power into the East, but it also
allowed his successor, Otto III, to inherit the
power struggle and series of regencies in
994.
The relationship between the Roman
Empire and the Byzantine Empire continues
into the 12th century when King John II
Komnenos, who ruled the Byzantine Empire
from 1118 to 1143, strengthened the alliance
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with the Byzantine Empire in order to
defeat the Pechenegs and the Turks in Asia
Minor. Through the alliance with the
Roman Empire already formed a strong
military coalition, the Byzantine Empire
continued to build up more defensive
systems against other threats around such
as the Hungarian or Serbian Empires in the
1120s and 1130s.
Kingdom of France
The Kingdom of France formed a
formidable relationship between two
kingdoms starting from the rule of
Andronikos I Komnenos. While Kingdom of
France and the Byzantine Empire’s
relationship was strong through military
exchanges, the Great Crusades were going
on across Eurasia in which the Byzantine
Empire was entangled with European
politics. Over time, the Kingdom of France’s
leaders at the time were growing impatient
at the mess in which the Byzantine Empire
got itself in. However, France and Byzantine
became close allies and was able to settle the
crusades.
Abbasid Caliphate
The Abbasid Caliphate’s relationship
with the Byzantine Empire is an
antagonistic one that started around the 8th
century. Al-Mahdi, the caliph to the
Abbasids, started the fighting with the
Byzantines and his sons continued the
conflict by going against the Byzantines for
the next one hundred years until Empress
Irene pushed for peace. Despite some
conciliatory steps from the Empress, the
fighting between the Byzantines and the
Abbasids continued throughout the Middle
East up until today.
While the Abbasid Caliphate was
fighting against the Byzantine Empire, the
internal machine of the caliphate itself
started to show some cracks when it faced
other challenges closer to home such as the
Persian Empire. As more and more factions
within the Abbasid Caliphate started to
disintegrate, the rebel forces under the
support of the Byzantine Empire started to
weaken the Abbasids for a long time before
the Byzantines came in to strike the weak
points as they did with Egypt.
Fatimid Caliphate
The Byzantine Empire’s relationship
with the Fatimid Caliphate is a negative one.
The Fatimid Caliphate built up a large
military buildup to make sure that it could
defend the itself whenever it was menaced
by dangers and threats. Although the
Byzantine Empire did try to invade the
Fatimid Caliphate, the resistance from the
Fatimid Caliphate was proven to be a lot
stronger than expected. The Fatimids
defensive prowess was demonstrated in an
expedition to Sicily in which the Byzantine
forces were defeated at the hands of the
Fatimid caliphs. As a result, the Fatimids
and Byzantines made peace with each other
to fight against Otto I of the Roman Empire.
The Fatimid Caliphate was also then
involved in a large-scale conflict against the
Byzantine Empire in the Arab-Byzantine
Wars, which lasted for more than 400 years.
With the combined forces from other
Muslim Caliphates, the Fatimid Caliphate
are able to keep control of the middle East
while the Byzantine Empire could not
achieve anything but a portion of the
Levant.
Seljuk Sultanate
The Seljuk Sultanate first invaded
the Byzantine Empire in 1068 under the
leadership of Alp Arslan. After some major
victories against the Byzantine forces, the
Seljuk Empire was able to neutralize the
Byzantine resistance from the Turkish
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invasion of Anatolia. In other words, the
Byzantine Empire’s military began to show
holes as the Seljuks became a major threat
to the Byzantines struggle on the Eastern
front.
The conflict between the Seljuk
Empire and the Byzantine Empire thickened
into a larger-scale war known as the
Byzantine-Seljuq wars. The Byzantine
Empire was able to make some gains into
some territories from the Seljuk Empire in
the first phrase of the war, but the Byzantine
Empire recently began to face internal
conflict, making the Byzantines more
susceptible to attacks from the Seljuks and
other enemies. The conflict continues to
grow after the first crusade as the Seljuks
are beginning to reconquer the land taken
by the Byzantines early in the war.
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