The Grand Council of the Qing Court
Dear Delegates,
Welcome to North America Model United Nations 2017! I am delighted that you
have decided to join us in Toronto solve historical dilemmas that have affected people
through out the centuries.
My name is Elise Wagner and I’ll be chairing the Grand Council Committee in the
Boxer Rebellion Joint Crisis. I’m currently in my fourth year of my undergraduate degree
studying international relations at the University of Toronto. This is my second time chairing
a committee for NAMUN.
Below you will find a background guide regarding our committee. I urge you to
take a read through to better equip yourself to solve the problems of a crumbling
imperial regime in a tumultuous part of history. I’m looking forward to see what you
choose to do.
All the best,
Elise Wagner, Chair
Introduction
Deep in the heartland of rural China, a small group of men sit together. Small and
thin from years of famine, they begin to assemble themselves in ordered rows. In the early
morning light they begin their exercises, throwing punches at fictional foes. Up the dirt
path come two European priests. They walk side by side, speaking quietly while watching
the men with a mix of curiosity and disdain. They are on their way to their newly built
church to deliver a sermon to their newly converted Chinese parishioners. As the priests
pass by, the men stop their practice and stare at the priests. As the priests pass by the still
figures, one of them mumbles under his breath, “boxers”.
Back in China’s capital of Peking, you stroll through the bustling courtyards of the
Forbidden City. The bright orange roofs of the palaces glow warmly and the ornamental
ponds reflect the early morning light. You’re on your way to the Dowager Empress’s
palace. She has convened an emergency Grand Council meeting at this early hour. You
have heard rumours that radicals have convened on Peking, eager to cause trouble. These
so called Boxers have been riling up the foreign powers with their anti-Western
sentiments. It is now up to you, as one of the Dowager Empress’s most trusted advisors, to
offer her your wisdom on how to deal with these peasants. Surely it will be a simple
matter?
***
The Boxer Rebellion is a pivotal moment in Chinese history. It had major effects on
international relations between East Asia and Europe and the balance of power in Asia.
Most importantly, the movement signalled the beginning of the end of Chinese imperial
rule. The subsequent political change would shape the history of Asia and eventually, the
world. As part of the Qing Grand Council, delegates will need to grapple with both the
long history of the dynasty they serve as well as the implications of modern weapons,
technology, and economics on Chinese society.
Historical Background
The Qing dynasty came to power in 1644 after a successful conquest from the
north to the southern parts of what is modern day China, replacing the Han dynasty that
had ruled for centuries before.1 The Qing made their capital city Peking, which roughly
translates to “southern capital” (the city name would later be changed Beijing in the 20th
century). There the emperor lived in the Forbidden City, a massive compound of buildings
that housed himself and his advisors.2
Civil service in the Qing dynasty closely resembled that of their predecessors, the
Ming. Around the country, appointments were largely based on merit.3 A standardized
exam was held once every couple years in order to find the best candidates for the job, a
practice that lasted from the 17th century to the early 1900s.4 In order to stop the spread
of corruption, officials were rotated to different parts of China every three years.5 The
imperial administration within the Forbidden City differed. In 1729, the Grand Council
was created in order to aid the emperor in the myriad decisions he had to make over the
course of the day.6 The positions on the Grand Council were not formalized and the
trusted advisors on the Council held official posts elsewhere in the complex Chinese
bureaucracy.7 However, the Grand Council was not necessarily the most powerful imperial
body. Its power ebbed and flowed with the successions of various emperors, depending
on whether or not the emperors were too young to rule, and how much sway regents and
wives held.
Over the course of many centuries much of Chinese foreign policy largely did not
change. China was known as a very insular power that lacked significant geographical
Evelyn Rawaski, et al., “China,” Encyclopedia Britannica, last modified August 12, 2016.
https://www.britannica.com/place/China/The-Qing-empire#ref590435
2 The emperor also had at his beck and call many concubines, young women that were chosen for their
beauty to service the emperor’s sexual needs. The emperor had a wife but could take several wives if he
chose. These second and third wives were typically concubines that bore him a male heir.
3 “Chinese Civil Service,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, accessed Oct 1, 2016
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chinese-civil-service
4 Ibid.
5 Ibid.
6 Evelyn Rawaski, et al., “China,” Encyclopedia Britannica.
7 Ibid.
1
knowledge of the majority of the globe for many years.8 It operated on a basis of
ethnocentricism; those that were not Chinese were considered barbarians and not worth
the time or energy of the Manchu people.9 Foreign relations for China thus consisted of
nearby East Asian states as well as the nomadic hordes that still roamed Western Asia,
visiting Peking to pay tribute to the emperor.10 By the time the Qing dynasty came to
power however, this was a largely ceremonial venture. In fact, the Emperor’s court paid
for the tributaries’ travel expenses as well as the lavish gifts they bestowed upon the
emperor.11
From the Age of Discovery to the
19th century, the Chinese excelled at
keeping Europeans out of its mainland
territory. Western merchants were eager to
trade and the Qing, sensing their upper
hand, created terms of trade that decidedly
benefited China.12 Traders were not
allowed to make port in any city except
Peking. Once landed, they were not
allowed inside the city walls, instead being
forced to sleep and trade away from the
central markets. Chinese merchants would
meet their European counterparts and offer
them porcelain, tea, and silk and in
exchange be offered textiles, wool, steel,
and silver pieces.13 However, there was no
chance for haggling. Trade agreements
between China and European states forced
Chinese traders to offer one price and the
Map of provinces within China under Qing imperial rule circa
1890. Source: R.H. Macy & Co., Macy's Atlas of the World (New
York: R.H. Macy & Co., 1896)
Suisheng Zhao, Power Competition in East Asia, (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997), 15.
Ibid, 16, 25.
10 Ibid, 18.
11 Zhao, 18-22.
12 Ibid, 25.
13 Ibid, 26.
8
9
Europeans could take it or leave it. Europeans became frustrated with the system,
not only for being on the losing end of the deal but also of the Chinese demands. Silver
was heavy, expensive, and liability in an ocean voyage.14 European merchants much
preferred to trade goods for other goods yet had difficulty finding a commodity that had
high demand in the East. That is, until the British brought opium grown in their Indian
possessions. They could sell this Opium in Chinese ports for the silver that they would then
use to buy Chinese goods without having to transport large quantities of silver all the way
from Europe.15
Historians indicate that British traders did not maliciously bring opium to China in
hopes of ensnaring the population with its addictive qualities.16 Ultimately, however,
addiction was widespread. In an attempt to curb the consumption of opium, the Chinese
government burned several British storage facilities to the ground and refused to
compensate the merchants. Several months of escalating tension went by before the British
government declared war in 1840, the first
Opium War.17 After destroying the Chinese
navy, the British successfully took control over
large amounts of territory. Once they were able
to threaten Peking, the Chinese government
surrendered, signing the Treaty of Nanjing in
1842.18
The resulting treaty heavily favoured the
British, and caused indignation in China. The
Chinese were forced to open five cities to British
trade: Canton (today named Guangzhou), Amoy
(Xiamin), Fuchow (Fuzhou), Ningpo (Ningbo), and
Shanghai. The Chinese were also forced to cede
A map of Peking detailing the where the foreign legations
were established. Source: Wikimedia Commons.
Ken Pomeranz and Bin Wong, “The Silver Trade Part 1,” China and Europe 1500-2000 and Beyond,
accessed Oct 31, 2016, http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/chinawh/web/s5/s5_4.html
15 Zhao, 25-27.
16 Ibid, 26.
17 “The Opening of China Part I,” Office of the Historian, US Department of State, accessed Oct 31, 2016
https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/china-1
18 Ibid.
14
the island of Hong Kong to the British.19 The treaty legally held that the Chinese could not
place tariffs on certain items, forcing them into free trade agreements. The most important
provision of the treaty was that foreigners who travelled to China would not be subject to
Chinese law, but to the laws of their country of origin.20 The Treaty of Nanjing became the
precedent that many European nations chose to follow; they would threaten Peking with
superior technology and military strength and consequently sign their own unequal treaty
granting them access to trade and land.21 Europeans subsequently set up embassies and
residences in Peking, known as the Western Legation, and was situated in between the
Forbidden City and the Peking city walls.
The Western powers, however, were not finished. They wanted more concessions
from the Chinese, including increased access to Chinese ports and the legalization of the
opium trade. Britain declared war in 1857 by attacking Chinese trading ports. The
conflict, known as the Second Opium War, concluded in 1859 with another unequal treaty.
Following in the footsteps of Britain, the rest of the Western powers renegotiated their
original treaties in order to obtain the new concessions. The Chinese government signed
these treaties under the threat of foreign invasion.22
The First Sino-Japanese War also struck a blow to China’s hegemony in the East.
After a period of modernizing its military, Japan began to act on its imperial ambitions. Its
initial focus was Korea, a traditional client state of China. In 1875, Japan forced Korea to
open to foreign trade, which was a direct threat to Korean client relation with China.
Tensions continued to mount in the region for almost two decades when the Japanese
declared war in 1894. The Chinese believed that with their superior numbers, they would
be able to be successful against the Japanese military. However, the lack of Chinese
reforms and the Japanese modernization that had taken place years early meant that the
Japanese forces were superior.23 After defeating pro-Chinese supporters from Korea, the
Japanese occupied Shandong province and Manchuria. The war came to a swift end in
Treaty of Nanjing (Nanking), 1842. Accessed from http://www.international.ucla.edu/asia/article/18421
Zhao, 28.
21 Ibid, 28.
22 “The Opening of China Part II,” Office of the Historian, US Department of State, accessed Oct 1, 2016
https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/china-2
23 “Sino-Japanese War,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, accessed Oct 1, 2016
https://www.britannica.com/event/Sino-Japanese-War-1894-1895
19
20
1895.24 Japan held on to Manchuria, which would later become one of the main areas of
contestation in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905).
Opium and trade were not the only things that Europeans brought to the newly
opened China. Jesuit missionaries began travelling to China in the 17th century while the
Ming dynasty still ruled. Missionaries established schools and hospitals and eventually
began establishing churches.25 After the Opium Wars opened up China to foreigners,
Christian missionaries made significant inroads in converting local populations, with many
churches popping up throughout the Chinese countryside.26 However, Christianity’s
influence on China was not always peaceful. In central and southern China, the Taiping
Rebellion raged from 1850 to 1864 after government officials began persecuting
Chinese Christians in the region. Hong Xiuquan, a charismatic and deeply religious man
who believed he was the brother of Jesus Christ, developed a cult following in central
China and was able to amass a large army to march on Peking. 27 Over 20 million people
died over the course of the rebellion, but the Chinese Imperial Army eventually put it
down.28 While ultimately defeated, the Taiping Rebellion showed that many Chinese
people viewed the Qing dynasty unfavourably and internal stability in China was lacking.
The results of the violence, imperialism, and westernization converged at the outset
of the 20th century. A peasant organization emerged called the Righteous and Harmonious
Fists. Young men met and practiced callisthenic and martial arts exercises, prompting
Western missionaries to name the group ‘Boxers’.29 The rituals of the Boxers were steeped
in a traditional understanding of ancient Chinese history; they believed that the exercises
would make them invincible. More importantly these ultranationalists despised the military
superiority and cultural imperialism of the West.30 As the movement grew, so did the
violence. At first, Boxers targeted Christian missionaries and their parishioners. Then they
Ibid.
Serene Fang, “A Brief History of Christianity in China,” PBS, accessed Oct 1, 2016.
http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/china_705/history/china.html
26 Ibid.
27 “Taiping Rebellion,” Columbia University, last modified 2009.
http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1750_taiping.htm
28 Fang, “A Brief History of Christianity in China.”
29 “Boxer Rebellion,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, last modified Oct 27, 2015,
https://www.britannica.com/event/Boxer-Rebellion
30 Ibid.
24
25
attacked foreign railroad workers, engineers, and businessmen.31 The movement gained
significant following and by 1900, the Boxers were ready to march to Peking.
As the Taiping Rebellion began to rage and the Boxer Rebellion was decades
from forming, a beautiful sixteen-year-old girl named Cixi was busily preparing for her
wedding. The daughter of a mid-ranking city official, Cixi was born and raised in Peking
and lived a fairly comfortable life. However, this all changed when she was one of the
few young women chosen to be the Xianfeng Emperor’s (r. 1851-1861) new consorts.
Consequently Cixi left her family and fiancé behind and entered the Forbidden City as
concubine, never to leave.32 It was several years before the emperor requested Cixi for a
night but not long after their first night together Cixi bore the emperor a son in 1854,
prompting her elevation of rank to empress.
When the Xianfeng Emperor died in 1860, Cixi’s son was his heir. However, the
emperor and Cixi’s poor relationship in his later years meant that the emperor decided
not to appoint Cixi as regent to her son.33 Cixi was incensed, and the regency council
planned to have her assassinated, a plot that she foiled. She led a coup against the
regency council and was successful in taking it over, culminating in the suicide of the
emperor’s appointed regent.34
Dowager Empress Cixi effectively ruled China for the rest of her life. While she
never held a powerful title, she would rule by other means. At first, it was through her son,
the Tongzhi Emperor (r. 1862-1875), who she continued to exercise power over even
after he reached the age of majority.35 However, the emperor passed away from
smallpox in 1875 at the age of twenty-one. A reformer in his late teen years, the Tongzhi
Emperor often butted heads with his mother, a staunch traditionalist who quashed reform
and didn’t believe in the power of modern weapons.36 After her son’s death, Cixi
nominated her three-year-old nephew, the Guangxu Emperor (r. 1875-1908), in order to
maintain her grip on the throne.
Walter LaFeber, “The Boxer Rebellion,” PBS, accessed Oct 1, 2016,
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/1900/filmmore/reference/interview/lafeber_boxerrebellion.html
32 Claudia Gold, Queen, Empress, Concubine. (London: Quercus, 2008), 208.
33 Ibid, 209.
34 “Cixi, Empress Dowager of China,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, accessed Oct 31, 2016,
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cixi
35 Ibid.
36 Gold, Queen, Empress, Concubine, 210
31
At the turn of the 20th century, the Guangxu Emperor attempted to make reforms
to Chinese bureaucracy and policy. Cixi, enraged, banished the emperor to a small
summer palace in the middle of the Forbidden City and placed him under house arrest.37
The reforms that brought down the emperor were known as the Hundred Days of Reforms.
The Guangxu Emperor issued over forty edicts that affected every part of Chinese
society.38 This included reforms to the military, national education system, and legal codes.
Their emphasis was on embracing Western knowledge and organization.39 These reforms
severely affected the conservative elite within China and thus they rallied around Empress
Cixi in order to successfully prevent the reforms from being implemented.40
Ibid, 211.
“Hundred Days of Reforms,” Encyclopaedia Britannica, accessed Oct 31, 2016,
https://www.britannica.com/event/Hundred-Days-of-Reform
39 Ibid.
40 Ibid.
37
38
Issues
As the Grand Council, you will be dealing with four key issues in this committee.
Internal Stability
First, you will need to deal with the political instability that the Boxer movement
has created in your country. This can be done in several ways. Foremost is making the
decision on your support of the movement. As the Grand Council, is supporting this
movement a viable policy? Alternatively, you may wish to address the underlying concerns
of the Boxers, such as the poverty and economic stagnation of the rural regions. You can
also address the underlying political concerns of the Boxers by passing edicts that affect
foreigners in your country. Do you limit their movements or let them continue on with their
daily tasks uninhibited? There is also the problem of foreigners spreading their Western
religion to your people. Do you allow them to worship in peace or do take note of the
Boxer’s views and double down on traditional worship?
International Relations
Even after the Opium Wars and the unequal treaties that followed, the world powers such
as the Russian Empire, Germany, and France are eager to gain more power and territory
in the East. Russia has made aggressive movements in the North and the British gunboats
are docked close by in Hong Kong. How will you decrease the tension between you and
the international community? Is war an option? How effective can your troops be? What
are the costs and benefits of co-operating with the Western world? Furthermore, consider
how your domestic policy actions will be seen by the other powers. They consider military
superiority to be their right as well as economic and cultural superiority. If you decide to
crackdown on the Christian missionaries operating in the countryside, you may be creating
an international crisis, regardless if it is in fact your right to dictate what goes on in your
country.
Modernization
Over the past half of a century, various individuals in the imperial government have
pushed for reforms the bureaucratic system, the military, and economic practices. Yet there
are other, equally powerful figures that believe that the best way to hold on to China’s
power is retain what has made it so successful over the past millennium. How will you, the
Grand Council face these challenges of the modern era? How will you compete with the
likes of Japan and the Western powers if you do not modernize? Yet how will you
assuage the fears of the ultranationalists that roam your countryside causing instability?
Maintaining the Dynasty
Most importantly of all you must ensure that the Qing Dynasty continues for another eon.
For centuries, your forefathers ruled and administrated this land. You cannot let political
instability and poor international relations make the dynasty appear weak. The power
you have is granted by the Celestial Heaven and no other. Yet there are people willing to
destroy centuries worth of work and take your power from you. Be careful, since some of
those people may be in the grand council room with you…
State of Affairs
On November 1, 1897, a group of Chinese villagers broke into the residence of
the local Christian clergyman in Juye County in Shangdong province. They murdered two
of the three German missionaries living there before local Christians became involved in
the fighting.41 Worldwide, this is known as the Juye Incident. Delegates of the European
powers will gather to discuss the issue of the murdered German missionaries, and other
earlier attacks on Christians and missionaries. These delegates will be making a decision
on what course of action they will now take within China. In Peking, delegates will need to
decide on the imperial governments next move in reaction to these killings.
A military confrontation between the 8 Nations Alliance and China is not
inevitable, but delegates should be aware of the rough military situation. Britain, France,
Germany and America can call on significant land and naval forces from their nearby
colonies42 on fairly short notice. Due to the proximity of Japan and Russia to China,
delegates from these countries could relocate large quantities of domestic forces to deal
with any conflict. As for Italy and Austria, military resources in the region are more limited,
as only a handful of their warships are nearby. However, delegates may choose to
dispatch more warships and military forces accordingly. A number of corporate and
mercantile parties who are interested in the outcome of this incident are also willing to
make their resources available to European governments.
As for the Qing military system, it is extremely complicated. The ancient formation
of the eight banners and green standard armies still exist, and are organized into medium
size formations spread throughout China. However, their combat effectiveness and indeed
loyalty and reliability is questionable. The Yongying corps, a far more effective and
modernized army, still exists, but is subject to the whims of the provincial governors who
pay them. Additionally, delegates should be mindful of the fact that the Qing government
has begun experimenting with Western equipped, drilled, and officered units of soldiers
following the Sino-Japanese war, who will be stationed much closer to Peking.
41
42
Joseph W. Esherick, The Origins of the Boxer Uprising, (Berkeley: University of California, 1987),123.
Colonies include British India, French Indochina, American Philippines and various German island territories.
Recommended Readings
à Esherick, Joseph W. The Origins of the Boxer Uprising. Berkeley: University of
California, 1987
à China and Europe 1500-2000 and Beyond: What is Modern?
http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/chinawh/index.html
à The Opening to China, Parts 1 and 2
Part 1: https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/china-1
Part 2: https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/china-2
Works Cited
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https://www.britannica.com/event/Boxer-Rebellion
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https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chinese-civil-service
“Cixi, Empress Dowager of China.” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Accessed Oct 31, 2016.
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cixi
Esherick, Joseph W. The Origins of the Boxer Uprising. Berkeley: University of California, 1987
.
Fang, Serene. “A Brief History of Christianity in China.” PBS. Accessed Oct 1, 2016.
http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/china_705/history/china.html
Gold, Claudia. Queen, Empress, Concubine. London: Quercus, 2008.
“Hundred Days of Reforms.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed Oct 31, 2016.
https://www.britannica.com/event/Hundred-Days-of-Reform
LaFeber, Walter. “The Boxer Rebellion.” PBS. Accessed Oct 1, 2016.
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/1900/filmmore/reference/interview/lafeber_boxerre
bellion.html
Pomeranz, Ken and Bin Wong. “The Silver Trade Part 1.” China and Europe 1500-2000 and
Beyond. Accessed Oct 31, 2016.
http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/chinawh/web/s5/s5_4.html
“The Opening of China Part I.” Office of the Historian, US Department of State. Accessed Oct 31,
2016 https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/china-1
“The Opening of China Part II.” Office of the Historian, US Department of State. Accessed Oct 1,
2016 https://history.state.gov/milestones/1830-1860/china-2
Rawaski, Evelyn et al. “China.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Last modified August 12, 2016.
https://www.britannica.com/place/China/The-Qing-empire#ref590435
“Sino-Japanese War.” Encyclopaedia Britannica. Accessed Oct 1, 2016
https://www.britannica.com/event/Sino-Japanese-War-1894-1895
“Taiping Rebellion,” Columbia University, last modified 2009.
http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1750_taiping.htm
Treaty of Nanjing (Nanking), 1842. Accessed from
http://www.international.ucla.edu/asia/article/18421
Zhao, Suisheng. Power Competition in East Asia. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997.