Durham E-Theses
The British parliament and the American Civil War
Good, Timothy S.
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Good, Timothy S. (1993)
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Abstract
D u r i n g t h e 1860s, no one n a t i o n a t t r a c t e d as much
a t t e n t i o n from t h e B r i t i s h than t h e U n i t e d States o f
America as t h e American C i v i l War proved t o be one o f
t h e most d i v i s i v e t o p i c s i n Great B r i t a i n .
I n one
p a r t i c u l a r forum - t h e B r i t i s h P a r l i a m e n t - t h e
d i v i s i v e n e s s c o n c e r n i n g t h e war was c l e a r l y e v i d e n t .
T h i s t h e s i s examines t h e p a r l i a m e n t a r y debates on
t h e n e u t r a l i t y p o l i c y from 1861 t o 1863.
I n the
debates, b o t h t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s and t h e n e u t r a l i s t s
e x p l o i t e d numerous i s s u e s i n t h e i r attempts t o persuade
t h e i r f e l l o w members t o support i n t e r v e n t i o n o r
neutrality.
The i s s u e s i n c l u d e t h e blockade, t h e
c o t t o n s h o r t a g e , s l a v e r y , s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n , and t h e
f e a r o f war w i t h t h e U n i t e d States i f i n t e r v e n t i o n
occurred.
P r e v i o u s s t u d i e s o f Anglo-American r e l a t i o n s have
concluded t h a t c o t t o n was t h e major reason f o r
i n t e r v e n t i o n w h i l e s l a v e r y was t h e major reason f o r
neutrality.
This t h e s i s contends t h a t s l a v e r y and
c o t t o n were n o t t h e most common reasons f o r b u t simply
two o f many issues which were discussed.
The B r i t i s h Parliament and the American C i v i l War
by
Timothy S, Good
M.A.
U n i v e r s i t y of Durham
The copyright of this thesis rests with the author.
No quotation from it should be published without
his prior written consent and information derived
from it should be acknowledged.
- 2 J U L 1993
The a u t h o r would l i k e t o acknowledge
the help
which was f r e e l y p r o v i d e d by Dr. Donald J. R a t c l i f f e .
His guidance was g r e a t l y a p p r e c i a t e d .
Table o f Contents
Introduction
1
P a r l i a m e n t , t h e Cabinet, and N e u t r a l i t y
4
The Blockade
30
The Economic Issues
46
The Issues o f M o r a l i t y
63
Realpolitik
86
Conclusion
108
Bibliography
110
Introduction
"I
s a i d on a former occasion t h a t i t was d e s i r a b l e
t h a t i n t h e House we s h o u l d n o t o n l y pass laws and v o t e
E s t i m a t e s , b u t [we] s h o u l d a l s o be t h e organs and
f e e l i n g s o f l a r g e masses o f t h e community," Palmerston
once commented i n r e f e r e n c e t o P a r l i a m e n t ' s r o l e as a
forum f o r p u b l i c o p i n i o n . ^
Indeed, t h e aroused p u b l i c
o p i n i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e American C i v i l War was r e f l e c t e d
i n t h e P a r l i a m e n t a r y debates.
However, d e s p i t e t h e passage o f t h e Great Reform
Act over two decades b e f o r e , t h e m a j o r i t y o f those
Members o f P a r l i a m e n t who were e l e c t e d i n t h e 1859
e l e c t i o n were from t h e upper c l a s s and t h e a r i s t o c r a c y ,
and t h u s t h e y were n o t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t h e B r i t i s h
public.^
American
Furthermore, t h e i r a t t i t u d e s towards t h e
C i v i l War were n o t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f B r i t i s h
p u b l i c o p i n i o n , as a m a j o r i t y o f t h e Members o f
P a r l i a m e n t tended t o support t h e South.^
Yet
P a r l i a m e n t never s a n c t i o n e d a a l t e r n a t i o n i n t h e
n e u t r a l i t y p o l i c y although the i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s
d e s p e r a t e l y a t t e m p t e d t i m e and t i m e again t o convince
^. Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 165, 1862,
D.389.
^. E.J. Evans, The Great Reform Act (London: Methuen
and Company, 1983), pp. 37-41; Michael B e n t l e y ,
Politics without Democracy (Oxford: B a s i l B l a c k w e l l ,
1984), p. 94.
. M u r i e l Chamberlain, Lord Palmerston (London:
Longmans, Green, and Company, 1987), p. 114; Donald
Southgate, The Most English Minister (New York: S t .
M a r t i n ' s Press, 1966), p. 258.
t h e i r f e l l o w members t h a t B r i t a i n should i n t e r v e n e on
b e h a l f o f t h e South.
The P a r l i a m e n t a r y debates which r e s u l t e d from t h e
a t t a c k s on t h e n e u t r a l i t y p o l i c y r e v e a l t h e most common
i s s u e s which t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s and n e u t r a l i s t s
b e l i e v e d were t h e most p e r s u a s i v e f o r t h e i r
perspective.
I n t h e process, t h e debates answer t h e
q u e s t i o n o f why t h e Members o f P a r l i a m e n t decided t h a t
B r i t a i n should not i n t e r v e n e .
The answers t o t h i s q u e s t i o n d i f f e r from those
answers p r o v i d e d by former s t u d i e s , none o f which have
s y s t e m a t i c a l l y studied Parliament.
During t h e f i r s t
two years o f t h e war, t h e members c o n c e n t r a t e d on t h e
e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e Union's n a v a l blockade o f t h e
Confederacy, r a t h e r than on more g e n e r a l issues such as
s l a v e r y and c o t t o n .
Furthermore, t h e i s s u e o f t h e
c o t t o n shortage, which has been o f t e n considered as t h e
most common argument i n f a v o u r o f i n t e r v e n t i o n , was
never an e s p e c i a l l y p o p u l a r i s s u e w i t h t h e
interventionists.
I t s persuasiveness
i n favour o f
i n t e r v e n t i o n was m a i n l y undercut by t h e u n c e r t a i n t y o f
public opinion.
Instead, the r i g h t of s e l f -
d e t e r m i n a t i o n was one o f t h e most common reasons argued
f o r i n t e r v e n t i o n i n 1862 and 1863.
S l a v e r y , which has been c o n s i d e r e d a p o p u l a r
reason i n f a v o u r o f n e u t r a l i t y , never dominated t h e
n e u t r a l i s t s ' speeches as i t remained a c o n t e n t i o u s
i s s u e even a f t e r t h e issuance o f t h e Emancipation
Proclamation.
While a n t i s l a v e r y sentiment was s t r o n g
i n B r i t a i n and i n P a r l i a m e n t , t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e North
was f i g h t i n g a g a i n s t s l a v e r y was n o t .
I n s t e a d , concern
f o r B r i t a i n ' s n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y - b o t h i n terms o f a
p o s s i b l e war w i t h t h e U n i t e d States and i n terms o f
Napoleon I I I
- proved t o be a p o w e r f u l argument f o r t h e
continuation
of n e u t r a l i t y .
I . Parliament, the Cabinet, and N e u t r a l i t y
They were f i n a l l y u n i t e d .
I n 1859, B r i t a i n
w i t n e s s e d t h e t r i u m p h o f a new p o l i t i c a l p a r t y as
Whigs, P e e l i t e s , and Radicals amalgamated t o form t h e
Liberal party.
As some o f t h e Members o f Parliament
cheered t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a new e r a , few o f them
r e a l i z e d t h a t over t h e next f o u r years, t h e most
d i v i s i v e f o r e i g n p o l i c y i s s u e t h a t t h e y would debate
would be a war t h a t would be fought over 3,000 miles
away.
The U n i t e d S t a t e s , one year l a t e r , a l s o
witnessed
t h e t r i u m p h o f a young p o l i t i c a l p a r t y : t h e Republican
party.
I t was an amalgamation o f those who had been
members o f t h e Whig, Free S o i l , and Democratic p a r t y
who were brought t o g e t h e r mainly out o f o p p o s i t i o n t o
the extension of slavery.
As P.A.
T a y l o r , M.P.,
later
described the r e s u l t :
They
of
( t h e North)
would not a l l o w t h e a c t i o n
s l a v e r y t o be extended over a l l t h e States
of America and i n t o t h e new t e r r i t o r i e s .
South demanded t h i s ,
election
simple,
of
and
The
and t h e answer was t h e
o l d Abraham
indomitable,
Lincoln,
whose
rugged,
name
would
l i v e a f t e r t h a t o f many a smooth and p o l i s h e d
statesman was
forgotten.^
Indeed, t h e N o r t h answered, and t h e South seceded.
As t h e Americans p r e p a r e d t o bear arms a g a i n s t
each o t h e r , t h e B r i t i s h l o o k e d across t h e ocean i n deep
concern and a n x i e t y .
Many o f them b e l i e v e d i n a
s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h Americans and they wished
t h a t American b l o o d would not be s p i l t i n a c i v i l
war.
I n t h e P a r l i a m e n t a r y debates, these f e e l i n g s were
clear.
A d m i r a l M i l n e s and t h e S i r H.S.
Keating, the
S o l i c i t o r General, i n a debate o f March, 1862, b o t h
contended t h a t t h e r e was a sense o f b r o t h e r h o o d between
B r i t a i n and America.
M i l n e s a s s e r t e d t h a t he had
"always regarded a d i s r u p t i o n of t h e American Union as
a g r e a t c a l a m i t y f o r t h e w o r l d , b e l i e v i n g , w i t h De
T o c q u e v i l l e , t h a t i t would do more t o d e s t r o y p o l i t i c a l
l i b e r t y and a r r e s t t h e p r o g r e s s o f mankind t h a n any
o t h e r event t h a t can be p o s s i b l y imagined."
The
A d m i r a l b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e "Americans are our f e l l o w countrymen; I s h a l l always c a l l them so; I see i n them
our own c h a r a c t e r , reproduced w i t h a l l i t s m e r i t s and
a l l i t s d e f e c t s " and he c o u l d "never, f o r a moment,
d i s a s s o c i a t e t h e f o r t u n e s o f Great B r i t a i n from t h e
f o r t u n e s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s of America."
The
S o l i c i t o r General s t a t e d i n r e f e r e n c e t o Americans:
"They are men
o f t h e same b l o o d , language, and
Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 168,
p.572.
1862,
r e l i g i o n , t h e c h i l d r e n o f our f o r e f a t h e r s , who
u n i t e d t o us by a l l t h e bonds t h a t u n i t e man
are
and
man
together.
W i t h t h e e r u p t i o n o f h o s t i l i t i e s , people on b o t h
s i d e s o f t h e A t l a n t i c a n x i o u s l y w a i t e d f o r news as t o
whether B r i t a i n would support t h e N o r t h or t h e
South.
Through t h e i r q u e s t i o n s t o t h e M i n i s t r y , t h e Members of
P a r l i a m e n t sought t o d i s c o v e r t h e answer.
On A p r i l 29, 1861,
j u s t two weeks a f t e r P r e s i d e n t
L i n c o l n had c a l l e d f o r t r o o p s , t h e f i r s t of many
debates on t h e American c i v i l war commenced i n t h e
Houses o f P a r l i a m e n t .
The E a r l o f Malmesbury i n t h e
House o f Lords rose t o speak i n f a v o u r o f o b t a i n i n g
" a s s i s t a n c e i n seeking t o p u t a stop a t t h e o u t s e t t o a
c i v i l war" and he f u r t h e r q u e s t i o n e d whether Her
Majesty's Government had "made any attempt t o prevent
the
q u a r r e l between t h e d i f f e r e n t S t a t e s o f t h e
American Union from coming t o a bloody i s s u e . " ^
Lord
Worehouse, speaking f o r t h e Government, answered,
"However g r e a t t h e i n t e r e s t which we may
f e e l i n the
w e l f a r e of her people, and however anxious we might
be
t o rescue them from t h e m i s f o r t u n e which appears t o be
impending
over t h e i r heads, we y e t t h o u g h t t h a t a g r e a t
and independent
n a t i o n might not welcome advice g i v e n
2, Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 165,
Dp.1204, 1224.
^. The a s s i s t a n c e t o which he r e f e r r e d would have been,
most l i k e l y , a c o n c e r t o f European n a t i o n s u r g i n g t h e
Americans t o a v o i d a d i v i s i v e and d e s t r u c t i v e war.
w i t h r e s p e c t t o her i n t e r n a l a f f a i r s , i f t h a t advice
were p r o f f e r e d w i t h o u t b e i n g s o l i c i t e d . " ^
On May 2, 1861, almost t h r e e weeks a f t e r t h e f a l l
o f F o r t Sumter, Lord John R u s s e l l , t h e F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r
i n V i s c o u n t Palmerston's
Cabinet, gave t h e f i r s t
i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e p o l i c y which would d i r e c t B r i t a i n i n
her r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e U n i t e d States and t h e
Confederate
States.
I n answering a q u e s t i o n concerning
t h e ominous American c r i s i s , t h e statesman
insisted,
"We have n o t been i n v o l v e d i n any way i n t h a t c o n t e s t
by any a c t o r g i v i n g any advice i n t h e m a t t e r , and, f o r
God's sake, l e t us i f p o s s i b l e keep out o f i t ! " ^
B e g i n n i n g on May 6 and l a s t i n g u n t i l t h e f o l l o w i n g
week, t h e Members o f P a r l i a m e n t , b o t h Northern and
Southern
sympathisers, c o n t i n u e d t o press
their
government f o r a p r o c l a m a t i o n concerning B r i t a i n ' s
approach t o t h e American C i v i l War.
On May 9, Mr.
F o r s t e r , r e a l i z i n g t h e danger t o B r i t i s h seaman who
might become i n v o l v e d i n t h e war, r a i s e d t h e concern
t h a t Her Majesty's Subjects may p a r t i c i p a t e on
privateers.
S i r George Lewis announced t h a t a
p r o c l a m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g B r i t a i n and t h e American war
was i n t h e works.
Then, t h e f o l l o w i n g day, t h e E a r l o f
Derby r a i s e d t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f
B r i t i s h seaman and a l s o asked whether b o t h t h e North
and t h e South were t o be c o n s i d e r e d b e l l i g e r e n t s .
Like
^. Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 162, 1861,
g.1280.
I b i d , p.1377.
Lewis b e f o r e him. E a r l G r a n v i l l e answered t h a t a
p r o c l a m a t i o n was b e i n g prepared by t h e government.^
I n t h e end, B r i t a i n supported n e i t h e r s i d e .
The
p r o c l a m a t i o n , which was i s s u e d on May 13, determined
t h a t b o t h t h e U n i t e d States and t h e Confederate
would be c o n s i d e r e d b e l l i g e r e n t s w h i l e Great
States
Britain
would adhere t o a p o l i c y o f n e u t r a l i t y towards b o t h
parties.
This was a disappointment f o r t h e North who
c o n s i d e r e d t h e Confederates
rebels, not b e l l i g e r e n t s .
For t h e South, t h i s was o n l y a p a r t i a l v i c t o r y as t h e
p r o c l a m a t i o n f a i l e d t o g r a n t t h e Confederacy
r e c o g n i t i o n as an independent
state.
The c r i t i c a l d e c i s i o n was made by t h e Cabinet,
which, i n t h e B r i t i s h s t r u c t u r e o f government,
t y p i c a l l y determined m a t t e r s o f f o r e i g n p o l i c y ;
P a r l i a m e n t more o f t e n d e a l t w i t h m a t t e r s o f domestic
legislation.
Palmerston
c l e a r l y believed i n the merits
of t h e s t a t u s quo as he had no d e s i r e t o have f o r e i g n
p o l i c y guided by d i r e c t P a r l i a m e n t a r y r e s o l u t i o n s .
In
response t o a motion by t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s ,
Palmerston
i n s i s t e d t h a t t h e y should "leave t h e m a t t e r
of such d i f f i c u l t y i n t h e hands o f r e s p o n s i b l e
Government" f o r he wanted t h e House t o "leave i t t o t h e
d i s c r e t i o n o f t h e Government. ""^
However, t h e Cabinet
and i t s p o l i c i e s c o u l d s u r v i v e o n l y w i t h t h e support o f
^. I b i d , pp. 1763, 1830. Lord Derby, t h e leader o f t h e
C o n s e r v a t i v e P a r t y , was, l i k e D i s r a e l i , a n e u t r a l i s t .
John V i n c e n t , The Formation of the Liberal Party,
(London: Constable and Company, 1966) p.75.
Hansard' s Parliamentary Debates, Volume 168, pp.570
-573.
t h e Members o f P a r l i a m e n t . P a r l i a m e n t d i d have t h e
power t o embarrass o r overthrow t h e Cabinet, even on
q u e s t i o n s o f f o r e i g n p o l i c y , and i t was p r e c i s e l y t h a t
power which t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s wanted t o harness.
Those Members o f P a r l i a m e n t who supported t h e
South most a r d e n t l y t h e n s e t upon a crusade i n order t o
f o r c e t h e B r i t i s h Government t o i n t e r v e n e on terms
f a v o u r a b l e t o t h e Confederacy.
The forms o f
i n t e r v e n t i o n which t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s advocated
included o f f e r i n g mediation, recognising the
Confederacy as an independent n a t i o n , o r f o r c i b l e
i n t e r v e n t i o n such as l i f t i n g t h e blockade.
Those Members who most vehemently opposed
n e u t r a l i t y h e l d a s t r o n g p a s s i o n f o r t h e South and were
u s u a l l y members o f t h e C o n s e r v a t i v e p a r t y .
These
i n c l u d e d such members as L o r d Campbell, Lord Robert
C e c i l , and W i l l i a m Lindsay.
S i r W i l l i a m Gregory,
a l t h o u g h n o t a member o f t h e C o n s e r v a t i v e p a r t y , was
a l s o a p a s s i o n a t e Southern sympathiser.
A l l four of
•James
these men became f r i e n d s o f John Mason, t h e Confederate
emissary i n London, and a l l
Independence
j o i n e d t h e Southern
A s s o c i a t i o n , an o r g a n i s a t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d
i n B r i t a i n f o r t h e s o l e purpose o f augmenting support
f o r t h e Confederacy.
Gregory's Southern sympathies
were e s p e c i a l l y s t r o n g due t o h i s v i s i t t o t h e South
b e f o r e t h e war. As one n o t a b l e N o r t h e r n sympathiser
w r o t e : "A Mr. Gregory, M.P. f o r Galway, who l a t e l y
t r a v e l l e d i n t h e South...has
r e t u r n e d w e l l humbugged by
10
the Southerners."^
Indeed, Gregory's p a s s i o n would
l e a d him t o a t t a c k t h e n e u t r a l i t y p o l i c y and support
t h e South more o f t e n than any o t h e r member.
The most outspoken s u p p o r t e r s
o f n e u t r a l i t y were
m o s t l y members o f t h e f a c t i o n known as t h e R a d i c a l s ,
who supported
sympathies.
n e u t r a l i t y due t o t h e i r
Northern
John B r i g h t , W i l l i a m E. F o r s t e r and P.A.
T a y l o r were r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f t h i s persuasion
b e l i e v e d t h a t L i n c o l n was a g a i n s t s l a v e r y .
who
Taylor
became one o f t h e f o u n d i n g members o f t h e Emancipation
S o c i e t y which was founded i n 1862 i n response t o t h e
pro-southern
organizations.
The h a t r e d o f s l a v e r y was
e s p e c i a l l y p e r s o n a l t o F o r s t e r f o r h i s f a t h e r , a Quaker
m i n i s t e r , d i e d i n Tennessee i n 1852 w h i l e on a crusade
against slavery.
Proudly
c a r r y i n g on h i s f a t h e r ' s
cause, F o r s t e r would speak i n favour o f n e u t r a l i t y and
t h e U n i t e d States more than even B r i g h t d u r i n g t h e
f i r s t two years o f t h e c i v i l war.^
The
a t t a c k s on t h e n e u t r a l i t y p o l i c y by t h e
i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s came a t a few c o n c e n t r a t e d
d u r i n g t h e course o f t h e war.
moments
I n t h e f i r s t year - 1861
- t h e r e was r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e d i s c u s s i o n , e s p e c i a l l y
when compared t o t h e f o l l o w i n g years.
Most o f t h e MP's
^. Quoted i n T.Wemyss Reid, The Life of W.E. Forster
(London: Chapman and H a l l , 1888), pp.333, 338.
B e t t y F l a d e l a n d , Abolitionists and Working-Class
Problems in the Age of Industrialization (Baton Rouge:
L o u i s i a n a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1984), p. 393; Howard
Temperley, British Antislavery, 1833-1870 (London:
Longman, Green, and Company, 1972), p. 253.
11
b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e war would end i n n i n e t y days and thus
debated t h e n e u t r a l i t y p o l i c y
infrequently.
The d i s c u s s i o n on May 28 p r o v i d e d t h e f i r s t
i n d i c a t i o n t h a t some o f t h e Members were p a s s i o n a t e
Southern s y m p a t h i z e r s .
For on t h a t day, Gregory
announced t h a t he would b r i n g f o r w a r d a motion f o r t h e
recognition
o f t h e Confederacy as an independent n a t i o n
on June 7.
This m o t i o n was h i g h l y unusual f o r Gregory
was a t t e m p t i n g t o make f o r e i g n p o l i c y a g a i n s t t h e
wishes o f t h e Prime M i n i s t e r .
R u s s e l l d i d not d i r e c t l y
respond t o Gregory's warning, he o n l y concluded by
s a y i n g t h a t he hoped t o c o n f l i c t would be a s h o r t one
which would n o t i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e p r o s p e r i t y o f t h e
c o u n t r y . •'•^
On June 6 i n t h e House o f Commons, Mr. Crawford
asked whether Gregory's motion f o r Southern
recognition
would be on t h e t a b l e tomorrow and whether t h e F o r e i g n
S e c r e t a r y deemed i t d e s i r a b l e t h a t t h e s u b j e c t should
be debated.
Gregory responded d e f i a n t l y t h a t he d i d
i n t e n d t o b r i n g t h e motion f o r w a r d tomorrow and he
b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e F o r e i g n S e c r e t a r y was prepared t o
answer t h e q u e s t i o n .
R u s s e l l warned Gregory, " I cannot
say t h a t I t h i n k i t i s d e s i r a b l e t h a t i t should come
on."
The F o r e i g n S e c r e t a r y w e l l knew t h e d i v i s i v e n e s s
and t h e p a s s i o n which would be unleashed i f t h e motion
was d i s c u s s e d .
Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 163, p.188.
11. I b i d , p. 631.
12
On June 7, t h e members gathered f o r what was
expected
t o be an i n t e n s e debate.
Colonel
Wilson
P a t t e n rose t o i n q u i r e whether Gregory's motion, "To
c a l l t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e House t o t h e expediency o f
t h e prompt r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e Southern Confederacy o f
America," c o u l d be postponed.
Gregory, t o t h e r e l i e f
o f some and t o t h e c o n s t e r n a t i o n o f o t h e r s , agreed.
A f t e r two o t h e r MP's had spoken, Mr. Monckton Milnes
t h e n q u e s t i o n e d whether Mr. F o r s t e r would b r i n g f o r w a r d
h i s counter motion
"To c a l l t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e House
t o t h e inexpediency
o f i n t e r f e r i n g i n b e h a l f o f those
c i t i z e n s o f t h e U n i t e d States who a r e now i n
i n s u r r e c t i o n a g a i n s t t h e i r Government, by a r e c o g n i t i o n
of t h e Confederacy which t h e y have formed."
Mr.
F o r s t e r , l i k e Gregory b e f o r e him, d e c l i n e d t o b r i n g
f o r w a r d h i s motion because he b e l i e v e d t h a t " i t was
most u n d e s i r a b l e t h e r e should be a d i s c u s s i o n on t h e
m e r i t s o f t h e q u a r r e l between t h e States o f America."^^
The debate had been a v e r t e d .
Forster's l e t t e r
sheds more l i g h t on t h e r e s u l t as he wrote t h a t Gregory
" i n s i s t s upon p r o p o s i n g t o t h e House t h e absurd b u t
m i s c h i e v i o u s n o t i o n t h a t we should p r o m p t l y
J e f f e r s o n Davis's Confederacy.
of motion w i t h c o r r e s p o n d i n g
expected
recognize
I have met h i s n o t i c e
c o u n t e r - n o t i c e , and
t h e debate t o come o f f a week or two ago; b u t
^2. Quoted i n T.Wemyss Reid, p.333. B e t t y F l a d e l a n d
concluded t h a t " W i l l i a m E. F o r s t e r ' s motion a g a i n s t
Gregory was a s t r a t e g y developed by t h e B r i t i s h and
Foreign A n t i - S l a v e r y Society." Betty Fladeland,
Abolitionists and Working Class Problems in the Age of
Industrialization (Baton Rouge: L o u i s i a n a S t a t e
U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1984), p.388.
13
a t t h e p r e s s i n g s o l i c i t a t i o n o f t h e Government he p u t
it
off.
Most men o f i n f l u e n c e i n P a r l i a m e n t w i s h h i m
not t o p e r s i s t
d o i n g so
i n b r i n g i n g i t f o r w a r d , b u t he t a l k s o f
I w i s h i t h a d f a l l e n i n t o t h e hands o f a
member o f more e x p e r i e n c e
t o s t a n d up f o r t h e N o r t h and
t h e U n i o n ; b u t I must do what I c a n . "
Parliament,
The Members o f
l i k e most A m e r i c a n s , b e l i e v e d i n June, 1861
t h a t t h e war w o u l d e n d w i t h i n a few months and t h u s saw
no
reason
t o b e g i n a d e b a t e on such a d i v i s i v e
Their h e s i t a t i o n would l a s t u n t i l t h e f o l l o w i n g
Between t h e t w o p a r l i a m e n t a r y s e s s i o n s ,
topic.
year.^^
relations
b e t w e e n B r i t a i n and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s d e t e r i o r a t e d t o a
n a d i r due t o t h e T r e n t c r i s i s .
e n t i r e l y handled
The s i t u a t i o n was
by t h e Cabinet,
and s i n c e
Parliament
was n o t i n s e s s i o n t h e r e were few s u b s e q u e n t
on t h e c r i s i s . H o w e v e r ,
discussions of the c r i s i s
Member o f P a r l i a m e n t
United States
stated that
one o f t h e most n o t a b l e
i n Parliament
complimenting
f o r t h e i r conduct.
involved a
b o t h B r i t a i n and t h e
Admiral
Walcott
" B o t h c o u n t r i e s h a d done w e l l : E n g l a n d was
f i r m and r e s o l u t e ; America d i d j u s t i c e ,
and
references
though
tardily,
s u c h a peace was o f t h e n a t u r e o f a c o n q u e s t when
' b o t h p a r t i e s n o b l y a r e subdued; and n e i t h e r p a r t y
loser.'"^5
Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 165, p.759.
. A s p e c i a l war c o u n s e l , a s s e m b l e d on December 9,
1861, h a d recommended t o P a l m e r s t o n t h a t i n case o f war
w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s B r i t a i n should r a i d Union
s h i p p i n g , b r e a k t h e U n i o n b l o c k a d e o f t h e S o u t h , and
impose a c o u n t e r b l o c k a d e on t h e N o r t h . Norman B.
F e r r i s , The Trent Affair: A Diplomatic Crisis,
i K n o x v i l l e , 1977), p.65.
Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 165, p.92.
14
D u r i n g F e b r u a r y and March, 1862
s u c h as B e n j a m i n D i s r a e l i ,
numerous members
Gregory, t h e E a r l o f
M a l m e s b u r y , and Mr. Peacocke r e q u e s t e d i n f o r m a t i o n
the
blockade's e f f e c t i v e n e s s .
The p r e s s u r e c o n t i n u e d
as L o r d R o b e r t C e c i l p o i n t e d l y a s k e d ,
Papers
on
"How
soon t h e
w h i c h have been p r o m i s e d upon t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e
American
b l o c k a d e a r e l i k e l y t o be l a i d upon t h e
table?"
L a y a r d c o u l d o n l y r e s p o n d t h a t he "hoped t h e y
w o u l d be l a i d on t h e t a b l e b y t h e end o f t h e week."
F e b r u a r y 20, D a n i e l O'Donoghue, an I r i s h MP,
On
while
d e f e n d i n g t h e b l o c k a d e a l s o w i s h e d t o know t h e number
of
v e s s e l s which had b r o k e n i t . ^ ^
On M a r c h 7, one o f t h e g r e a t e s t d e b a t e s on t h e
American
war e r u p t e d i n t h e House o f Commons.
The
f i g u r e s on t h e b l o c k a d e ' s e f f e c t i v e n e s s had been
r e l e a s e d and t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s w a n t e d t o make t h e
most o f them.
This debate r e p r e s e n t e d the
e x t e n s i v e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e American
such, p r o v i d e d t h e f i r s t
first
C i v i l War
and
as
i n d i c a t i o n of the divisiveness
i n P a r l i a m e n t and t h e c o n f u s i n g n a t u r e o f t h e war.
The
i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s were p r e s s i n g f o r B r i t a i n t o o f f e r
m e d i a t i o n t o t h e N o r t h and S o u t h , t h e hope b e i n g t h a t
if
t h e o f f e r was
a c c e p t e d by b o t h s i d e s , t h e war
be ended w i t h t h e S o u t h e s t a b l i s h e d as a f r e e
could
and
. Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 165, pp.66,
435, 526. A l t h o u g h a n e u t r a l i s t , D i s r a e l i was a l s o a
s o u t h e r n s y m p a t h i s e r . As he w r o t e on Decemeber 8, 1861:
"What wondrous t i m e s a r e t h e s e ! Who c o u l d have supposed
t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f A m e r i c a w o u l d be t h e scene o f
an immense r e v o l u t i o n . . . They [ t h e e v e n t s i n A m e r i c a ]
m u s t , h o w e v e r , t e l l immensely i n f a v o u r o f
aristocracy."
Q u o t e d f r o m R o b e r t B l a k e , Disraeli
(London: E y r e and S p o t t i s w o o d e , 1 9 6 6 ) , p.419.
15
independent
nation.
Even i f t h e North r e f u s e d t h e
o f f e r , t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s then hoped t h a t
Britain
would r e c o g n i s e t h e South and t h u s i n c r e a s e t h e
t h a t the Confederacy
would endure.
attempt
Southern
failed.
The
However, t h e
s y m p t h i s e r s were unable
t o c o n v i n c e a m a j o r i t y of t h e members t h a t
was
more prudent
chances
than n e u t r a l i t y .
intervention
As John B r i g h t
r e c o r d e d i n h i s d i a r y t h a t evening, the "South
gained
n o t h i n g by t h e d i s c u s s i o n . " ^ ' '
From t h e middle
of March u n t i l the end of the
s e s s i o n . L o r d Campbell and Hopwood c o n t i n u e d t o a t t a c k
and q u e s t i o n t h e n e u t r a l i t y p o l i c y as R u s s e l l
Palmerston
defended
their policy.
and
However, t h e g r e a t
a n t a g o n i s e r would be L i n d s a y whose motion would s p a r k
a n o t h e r i n t e n s e debate.
On June 20, he announced h i s
i n t e n t i o n t o i n t r o d u c e a r e s o l u t i o n to r e c o g n i z e the
Southern
S t a t e s of America.
He agreed t o postpone h i s
motion u n t i l J u l y 11, a l t h o u g h he added t h a t
l o n g t h o s e s t a t e s must become an independent
As L i n d s a y was p u s h i n g
nation."^^
f o r r e c o g n i t i o n , Lee
d e s p e r a t e l y defending the Confederate
June,
"before
capital.
was
In
G e n e r a l George B. M c C l e l l a n had l a u n c h e d the Army
of t h e Potomac a g a i n s t G e n e r a l Robert E. Lee and t h e
Army of N o r t h e r n
Virginia.
I n t h e midst of t h i s
s t r u g g l e . L o r d Brougham, i n t h e House o f L o r d s , t w i c e
a p p e a l e d t o t h e Americans t o make peace by
insisting
t h a t w h i l e "the war might be e x p l a i n e d , i t c o u l d not
be
1''. R.A.J. W a l l i n g , ed.. The Diaries of John Bright
(London: C a s s e l l and Company, 1930), p. 255.
Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 167, p.810.
16
j u s t i f i e d o r even e x t e n u a t e d " and " c o u l d h i s v o i c e
r e a c h them, he would, as a f r i e n d , a f e l l o w
a fellow creature,
h o r r i b l e war."
" t h i s bloody
Christian,
i m p l o r e them t o make an end of t h i s
On t h e f i r s t
day of J u l y , he hoped t h a t
and f r a t r i c i d a l war would soon be brought
to a termination."
He u t t e r e d t h e s e words on t h e day
t h a t t h e Seven Days B a t t l e ended w i t h Richmond s a f e ,
McClellan retreating,
and America
having
suffered
30,000 more c a s u a l t i e s .
Two weeks l a t e r ,
on J u l y 18, L i n d s a y ' s motion on
b e h a l f of the Confederacy
was e x p e c t e d t o be d i s c u s s e d .
Even members o f t h e government were b e g i n n i n g t o t a k e
t h e i d e a o f some form of d i p l o m a t i c i n t e r v e n t i o n
seriously.
On t h a t v e r y day G l a d s t o n e had " P r e s s e d Ld
P. t o s a y n o t h i n g a g t [ s i c ] an o f f e r of m e d i a t i o n " i n
hoping
t h a t L i n d s a y would p r e v a i l .
However, Mr. C l a y
" r e q u e s t e d t h a t Mr. L i n d s a y not b r i n g forward
that
e v e n i n g t h e Motion which
He
supported t h i s
s t o o d i n h i s name."
r e q u e s t by n o t i n g t h e " s p e c i a l grounds
which he v e n t u r e d t o make h i s a p p e a l t o h i s hon. F r i e n d
were t h e c u r r e n c y of a rumour as t o a s u c c e s s of t h e
C o n f e d e r a t e s o v e r G e n e r a l M c C l e l l a n and h i s army."
J.C. Ewort
q u i c k l y seconded
t h e motion t o a d j o u r n .
S c u l l y and S i r Robert P e e l c o n c u r r e d .
harboured
end,
Lindsay
no w i s h t o postpone t h e motion but, i n t h e
he had no c h o i c e .
19. I b i d , pp. 1201, 1284.
20. I b i d , pp.503 - 504. G l a d s t o n e quote from H.C.G,
Matthew, ed., Gladstone diaries (Oxford: Clarendon
P r e s s , 1978), Volume 6, p. 136.
17
Later that
same day L i n d s a y
h u r l e d t h e Commons
i n t o an i n t e n s e d e b a t e on t h e war i n A m e r i c a .
He
p r o p o s e d " T h a t i n t h e o p i n i o n o f t h i s House, t h e S t a t e s
w h i c h have s e c e d e d f r o m t h e U n i o n o f t h e R e p u b l i c o f
t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , have so l o n g . m a i n t a i n e d
themselves
u n d e r a s p e c i f i c a n d e s t a b l i s h e d Government, and have
g i v e n s u c h p r o o f o f t h e i r d e t e r m i n a t i o n and a b i l i t y t o
support
their
Independence, t h a t t h e p r o s p e r i t y o f
o f f e r i n g mediation,
w i t h t h e view o f t e r m i n a t i n g
h o s t i l i t i e s between t h e contending p a r t i e s ,
of
i s worthy
t h e s e r i o u s and i m m e d i a t e a t t e n t i o n o f Her
Majesty's
Government. "^-^
Despite
of
t h e f a c t t h a t f i v e members spoke i n f a v o u r
t h e motion
- Lindsay,
Vane Tempest,
Gregory, and F i t z g e r a l d - t h e motion
withdrawn
due t o l a c k o f s u p p o r t .
Whiteside,
h a d t o be
The speeches b y
T a y l o r , F o r s t e r , and e s p e c i a l l y P a l m e r s t o n
t h e MP's
t o c o n t i n u e on a n e u t r a l c o u r s e .
r e f e r e n c e t o t h e d e b a t e on L i n d s a y ' s
i n f o r m e d Queen V i c t o r i a t h a t
convinced
But,
motion,
" I t was i n d e e d
in
Palmerston
manifest
t h a t t h e f e e l i n g o f t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e House i s
d e c i d e d l y i n f a v o u r o f t h e S o u t h , on t h e g r o u n d t h a t
t h e y a r e now f i g h t i n g
f o r t h e i r i n d e p e n d e n c e on t h e
v e r y same p r i n c i p l e s on w h i c h b o t h N o r t h and S o u t h
acted i n t h e i r
s e p a r a t i o n from
England."*^
21. Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 168, p . 5 1 1 .
22. Q u o t e d f r o m B r i a n C o n n e l l , e d . , Regina v.
Palmerston: The Correspondence between Queen Victoria
and Her Foreign and Prime Minister, 1837-1865 (London:
Evans B r o t h e r s , 1 9 6 2 ) , p.329.
18
T h i s was t h e l a s t o c c a s i o n d u r i n g t h e 1862 s e s s i o n
of
P a r l i a m e n t i n e i t h e r o f t h e Houses when t h e
i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s pressed
in
t o pressed
the neutrality policy.
f o r any a l t e r a t i o n
Nevertheless, during t h e
i n t e r i m b e t w e e n t h e 1862 and 1863 s e s s i o n s
invaded Maryland,
as Lee
t h e C a b i n e t began t o c o n s i d e r some
form o f i n t e r v e n t i o n .
The i n i t i a t i v e
came f r o m t h e
C h a n c e l l o r o f t h e E x c h e q u e r W i l l i a m E. G l a d s t o n e ,
s t r o n g l y advocated
m e d i a t i o n a n d he a c q u i r e d some
s u p p o r t even f r o m R u s s e l l and P a l m e r s t o n
November, t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e C a b i n e t
policy.
who
This d e c i s i o n occured
A n t i e t a m and t h e issuance
but, i n
refused t o a l t e r
after theBattle of
o f t h e Emancipation
Proclamation.
For t h e f i r s t
f e w weeks o f t h e 1863 s e s s i o n , t h r e e
discussions occurred concerning t h e n e u t r a l i t y
Two o f t h e s e w o u l d
i n v o l v e Mr. B e n t i c k and Mr. Hopwood
d i r e c t i n g q u e s t i o n s t o t h e Prime M i n i s t e r .
cases, Palmerston
policy.
answered t h e i r q u e s t i o n s
I n both
with
brevity.
Towards t h e e n d o f March, R u s s e l l w o u l d
to
t o s e v e r a l p o i n t s as L o r d C a m p b e l l
respond
have
would
d e l i v e r a mammoth speech p r e s s i n g f o r t h e t e r m i n a t i o n
of
the neutrality policy.
Cobden w o u l d
the
1863
blockade.
And on June 29, R i c h a r d
c o u n t e r one o f L o r d C a m p b e l l ' s a t t a c k on
So, o v e r a l l ,
the f i r s t
s e s s i o n ended w i t h o n l y t w o m a j o r
neutrality.
d e b a t e s on
Y e t , a t t h e end o f t h e 1863 s e s s i o n ,
Parliament would
neutrality
months o f t h e
experience
policy.
one l a s t d e b a t e on t h e
19
As June p r o g r e s s e d t h r e e s t o r m s g a t h e r e d w h i c h
w o u l d a l t e r t h e c o u r s e o f t h e A m e r i c a n war.
I n the
West, G r a n t s t u b b o r n l y b e s i e g e d V i c k s b u r g as t h e
Confederates staunchly refused t o surrender.
E a s t , Lee was
I n the
r e a d y t o l e a d h i s army n o r t h f o r t h e i r
second i n v a s i o n .
And
in Britain,
t h e pugnacious
Roebuck, t h e Member f o r S h e f f i e l d , p r e p a r e d t o l e a d
one
o f t h e g r e a t e s t a t t a c k s upon t h e n e u t r a l i t y p o l i c y .
In
t h e s e t h r e e r e a l m s , s u p p o r t e r s o f N o r t h and
pensively prepared f o r b a t t l e .
the M i s s i s s i p p i ,
South
From t h e t r e n c h e s a l o n g
t o the small h i l l s
of Southern
P e n n s y l v a n i a , t o t h e benches o f W e s t m i n s t e r , t h e f u t u r e
of the United States l a y at stake.
On
June 27, O'Donoghue a s k e d w h e t h e r Roebuck
was
i n t e n d i n g t o proceed w i t h h i s "Motion f o r the
r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e Confederate S t a t e s o f America.
Roebuck a d a m a n t l y
certainly;
replied,
"My
and I am o n l y a s t o n i s h e d t h a t t h e r e s h o u l d
be any d o u b t upon t h e m a t t e r . "
was
answer. S i r , i s
h e a d e d f o r a showdown.
The
House o f Commons
On t h e f o l l o w i n g days, b o t h
L o r d C a m p b e l l and F o r s t e r a s k e d a b o u t
communication
Anglo-French
concerning possible intervention.
p e r s i s t e n c e on t h e p a r t o f t h e s e Members was
without basis,
The
not
f o r Roebuck, t o g e t h e r w i t h L i n d s a y , t h e
Member f o r S u n d e r l a n d , h a d r e c e n t l y r e t u r n e d f r o m P a r i s
a f t e r an a u d i e n c e w i t h t h e Emperor c o n c e r n i n g t h e
question o f Southern r e c o g n i t i o n .
I n f o r m a t i o n on t h e s e
20
r u m o u r s w o u l d be made p u b l i c on June 30 as
witnessed
To
t h e g r e a t d e b a t e on t h e n e u t r a l i t y
understand
the f u l l
t w o p o i n t s must be
motions.
I n one
after
one
was
t o previous
o f h i s motions w h i l e another
Roebuck
after
resigned
been s p e c u l a t e d t h a t
i n t e n d e d t o b r i n g down P a l m e r s t o n ' s
S e c o n d l y , Roebuck was
personality.
one
F i r s t o f a l l , two
case t h e m i n i s t r y r e s i g n e d
I t has
policy.23
o f Roebuck's speech,
r e s i g n e d due
a c c e p t i n g one.
motion
impact
considered.
f o r m e r m i n i s t r i e s had
opposing
Parliament
this
Cabinet.
w e l l known f o r h i s r a t h e r f r a n k
T h i s was
b e s t d e s c r i b e d i n t h e words o f
of h i s c o n s t i t u e n t s :
Roebuck
lying
i s always
saying
at the bottom
something
of other people's
b u t w h i c h o t h e r p e o p l e do n o t say.
it
f o r examination
is
allowed
words.
before
face
us,
and
and
a t once.
is
minds,
They keep
m o d i f i c a t i o n before i t
t o come i n t o
Roebuck
which
digs
makes us
free
thought
i t up,
and
look
i t full
Sometimes we
do
not
or
puts
open
i t
i n the
thank
him
for the office.24
Roebuck commenced h i s l o n g speech by s t a t i n g , " I
now
appeal
t o t h e House - t o i t s h o n o u r and
duty - t o
ask t h e Crown t o e n t e r i n t o n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h t h e g r e a t
23. Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 171,
D,1527.
24. R o b e r t L e a d e r , ed.. The Life of John Arthur
Roebuck, (London: Edward A r n o l d , 1 8 9 6 ) , p.300.
21
Powers f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f a c k n o w l e d g i n g
independence of the Southern
States of N o r t h America."
A f t e r a speech o f g r e a t l e n g t h which
reasons t o r e c o g n i z e t h e South,
motion
the
he
i n c l u d e d numerous
concluded
" T h a t an humble A d d r e s s be p r e s e n t e d
Majesty,
p r a y i n g t h a t She
will
with
to
the
Her
be g r a c i o u s l y p l e a s e d
to
e n t e r i n t o n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h t h e G r e a t Powers o f
Europe, f o r t h e purpose o f o b t a i n i n g t h e i r
in
cooperation
t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e independence o f t h e
Confederate
The
clearly
States of North
lack of support
America."^^
f o r Roebuck's m o t i o n i s
e x e m p l i f i e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e n e x t
speakers a l l opposed i t .
a critical
speech which
Montagu f o l l o w e d Roebuck w i t h
c l o s e d w i t h t h e amendment
leave out from t h e word "That"
Question,
four
t o t h e end
i n o r d e r t o add t h e words
"To
of the
' t h i s House
e a r n e s t l y d e s i r e s t h a t an i m p a r t i a l n e u t r a l i t y
c o n t i n u e t o be m a i n t a i n e d b y Her M a j e s t y ' s
should
Government
d u r i n g t h e p r e s e n t unhappy c o n t e s t i n t h e S t a t e s o f
North America."^^
C l i f f o r d t h e n r o s e t o speak
and,
d e s p i t e c r i t i c i s i n g t h e F e d e r a l Government f o r a l l o w i n g
its
o f f i c e r s t o conduct
t h e war
with
b a r b a r i t y , " he v o i c e d h i s s u p p o r t
amendment,^'' as d i d G l a d s t o n e
l o n g e s t and most h o s t i l e
was
d e l i v e r e d by one
"wanton
f o r Montagu's
and F o r s t e r .
One
speeches o f Roebuck's
of the
motion
o f A m e r i c a ' s most s u p p o r t i v e
25. Hansard's Parliamentary
g D . 1 7 7 1 - 1780.
I b i d , p p . 1 7 8 1 - 1796.
27. I b i d , pp.1798 - 1800.
Debates,
Volume
171,
22
members: John B r i g h t .
who
was
and
the p r o l i f e r a t i o n
During
becoming v i s i b l y
B r i g h t ' s speech. Roebuck,
a n g e r e d by t h e l a c k o f
o f c r i t i c i s m upon
support
him,
i n t e r r u p t e d t h e Member f o r B i r m i n g h a m w i t h a
clarification:
t h a t t h e men
"What I s a i d I now
s t a t e t o t h e House -
o f t h e S o u t h were E n g l i s h m e n , b u t t h a t t h e
army o f t h e N o r t h
were composed o f t h e scum o f Europe."
Roebuck's o u t b u r s t o n l y made i t more a p p a r e n t t h a t o f
all
t h e Members t h e S o u t h c o u l d have hoped t o speak f o r
r e c o g n i t i o n , he
was
perhaps the worst
possible
choice.28
A f t e r B r i g h t s a t down, i t was
t h a t Roebuck's s p e e c h was
required.
becoming
evident
not a c q u i r i n g the support i t
Of t h e s i x s p e a k e r s s i n c e Roebuck, o n l y
- L o r d R o b e r t C e c i l - had
t h e f a c t t h a t two
Similarly,
supported
h i s motion
o f them were S o u t h e r n
P e r r y Wyndham a s s e r t e d
"thousands i n the N o r t h
who
o f t h e h a p l e s s c o n t e s t " and
one
despite
sympathisers.
t h a t t h e r e were
wanted s e p a r a t i o n
knowing
the
but, i n
" u n h o l y war,"
s p i t e of these r e s e r v a t i o n s , instead of supporting
the
m o t i o n , Wyndham moved f o r a d j o u r n m e n t . 2 ^
The
motion.
last
s p e a k e r had
closed the c o f f i n
on
However, t h e members d i d n o t w i s h t o
for there s t i l l
was
a fervent desire to
the
adjourn
continue
discussion
- n o t on t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e S o u t h - b u t
on t h e now
infamous t r i p t o P a r i s .
His
speech, w h i c h
c o v e r e d s e v e r a l of t h e main i s s u e s , s e l f - d e s t r u c t e d
28.
29.
I b i d , pp.1819 I b i d , p.1837.
1824
23
when he i n t r o d u c e d t h e hope of B r i t a i n and F r a n c e
j o i n t l y r e c o g n i s i n g t h e Confederacy
nation.
F o r i n so doing,
a s an independent
he a d m i t t e d
t o a c t i o n s which
were c o n s i d e r e d improper f o r a Member of P a r l i a m e n t .
He conveyed t h e F r e n c h Emperor's p e r s o n a l d e s i r e t o
"ask them
[the B r i t i s h ]
a g a i n whether t h e y would be
w i l l i n g t o j o i n me i n t h a t r e c o g n i t i o n . "
T h i s message
t o t h e House, which s h o u l d have been p a s s e d
diplomatic channels,
through
a l o n g w i t h Roebuck's and L i n d s a y ' s
u n p r e c e d e n t e d meeting w i t h t h e F r e n c h Emperor, would
e v e n t u a l l y a t t r a c t more a t t e n t i o n than Roebuck's
motion.
The members were f a r more i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e
u n p r e c e d e n t e d m e e t i n g w i t h t h e F r e n c h Emperor than t h e
American war.
F o r example, F o r s t e r ' s c r i t i c i s m had
i n t e n s i f i e d when, r e f e r r i n g t o Roebuck's unprecedented
m e e t i n g w i t h Napoleon I I I ,
he s a r c a s t i c a l l y s t a t e d t h a t
F r a n c e r e q u i r e d "two ambassadors perhaps - one t o
communicate w i t h t h e Government and t h e Member of
S h e f f i e l d t o communicate w i t h t h e House o f Commons."
A f t e r Wyndham's comments, t h e r e were c r i e s and shouts
e r u p t i n g from t h e f l o o r f o r L i n d s a y , t h e o t h e r member
who had accompanied Roebuck on t h e t r i p ,
speak.
t o r i s e and
L i n d s a y d i d r i s e , b u t q u i c k l y and w i s e l y s a t
down a g a i n .
Newegate's speech,
short speeches,
had
which f o l l o w e d a f t e r
was t h e most obvious
f a i l e d miserably.
several
s i g n t h a t Roebuck
I n s t e a d of opening w i t h a
d i s c u s s i o n of r e c o g n i t i o n , he began w i t h an a t t a c k on
Roebuck's a c t i o n s .
Newdegate b e l i e v e d "the Member of
24
S h e f f i e l d ' s conduct
i n P a r i s " t o be an example o f
"unauthorized diplomacy."
He a d a m a n t l y
would v o t e a g a i n s t t h e motion.30
vowed t h a t he
A f t e r a f e w more
s p e e c h e s . Roebuck r e q u e s t e d a r e s u m p t i o n o f t h e d e b a t e
on t h e f o l l o w i n g
that
Thursday.
The P a r i s a n e s c a p a d e t h o u g h , was o f such
interest
f o r t h e n e x t t w o weeks numerous members
criticized
t h e a c t i o n s o f Roebuck and L i n d s a y .
On J u l y 10,
Newdegate s t a t e d t h a t t h i s was t h e " f i r s t
time i n
P a r l i a m e n t t h a t a message o f a F o r e i g n Power h a d been
r e c e i v e d n o t t h r o u g h Her M a j e s t y ' s
understood t h a t
S e r v a n t " f o r he
f o r e i g n messages s h o u l d t r a v e l
d i p l o m a t i c channels,
n o t Members o f P a r l i a m e n t . ^ 1
J u l y 13, L i n d s a y a d m i t t e d t o h a v i n g h e l d an
w i t h Roebuck w i t h t h e F r e n c h
Emperor.
c l a r i f y i n g and d e f e n d i n g t h e m e e t i n g
t i d e a g a i n s t h i m a n d Roebuck.
conduct
through
o f t h e t w o MP's
On
audience
His attempt a t
f a i l e d t o stem t h e
Newdegate c o n s i d e r e d t h e
t o be " n o t o n l y h i g h l y
i m p r o p e r " b u t a l s o " l i k e l y t o be f r a u g h t w i t h s e r i o u s
consequences."^2
Then P a l m e r s t o n ,
a f t e r Roebuck and
L i n d s a y h a d s p o k e n a g a i n i n a v a i n hope t o d e f e n d
actions,
s t a t e d h i s hope t h a t
their
" t h i s w i l l be t h e l a s t
t i m e when any Members o f t h i s House s h a l l t h i n k i t h i s
d u t y t o c o m m u n i c a t e t o t h e B r i t i s h House o f Commons
t h a t w h i c h may have p a s s e d b e t w e e n h i m s e l f and t h e
Sovereign
of a f o r e i g n country" f o r "the proceeding
which t h e y have adopted
30. I b i d , p.1840.
31. Op c i t .
•'2. I b i d , p.666.
i s most i r r e g u l a r - t o use no
25
stronger
language."
He
stated that
"Ambassadors
t h e p r o p e r o r g a n s f o r s u c h c o m m u n i c a t i o n " and
Emperor o f t h e F r e n c h , i n consequence o f
representations
hon.
and
F r i e n d , had
proposal
Government t h a t p r o p o s a l
responsible
h i m by
t o make t o t h e
British
o u g h t t o come t h r o u g h
a f t e r Roebuck's f i r s t
S o u t h ' s f o r t u n e had
some
attempt,
the
failed to materialize i n this
Instead of a devastating attack against
n e u t r a l i t y p o l i c y , t h e d e b a t e had
members r o s e t o d e f e n d Her
the tenacious
beginning,
As
was
M a j e s t y ' s Government.
determined t o press
t h e r e w o u l d be
J u l y 2 he
West,
three
questioned
a renewal of the debate.
Grey
when
requested
t h a t Roebuck w a i t u n t i l t h e f o l l o w i n g Monday.
Grey a n s w e r e d t h a t " i t was
c e r t a i n " t h a t the
w o u l d resume on n e x t Monday.
On
r e p l i e d t h a t he
give the
to
w o u l d t r y and
the arrangement" although
he
Yet
forwards.
t o r e g a i n t h e o f f e n s i v e on
On
the
inauspicious
t h e A m e r i c a n s b a t t l e d i n t h e E a s t and
d i f f e r e n t occassions.
the
become a r o u t as
Roebuck, d e s p i t e t h e
Roebuck a t t e m p t e d
3,
my
c h a n n e l . ""^"^
Clearly,
arena.
" i f the
the
information l a i d before
any
are
J u l y 6,
d i d not
On
July
debate
Palmerston
"utmost
fixity
answer
definitively.^^
The
their
i n a b i l i t y of the i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s ' t o press
case more s t r e n u o u s l y
parliamentary
time
and
t o i n s i s t on more
owed much t o t h e i n d e c i s i v e n e s s
33. I b i d , pp.666 - 672.
34. Hansard's Parliamentary
(London: 1 8 6 3 ) , pp.67, 177,
Debates, Volume
252.
172
of
26
the o f f i c i a l
juncture,
Conservative
opposition.
on J u l y 9, some i n f l u e n t i a l
At t h i s
Conservatives,
i n c l u d i n g L o r d Derby, met t o d i s c u s s " t h e A m e r i c a n
question."
As L o r d S t a n l e y , a c o n s e r v a t i v e
recorded i n h i s journal:
"All,
except
opposed r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e South:
M.P.,
Fitzgerald,
t h e q u e s t i o n most
d i s c u s s e d was, w h e t h e r any o f f e r o f m e d i a t i o n o u g h t t o
be
recommended t o g o v e r n m e n t , o r w h e t h e r i t w o u l d be
b e t t e r simply t o leave t h e matter i n t h e i r [ t h e
C a b i n e t ' s ] hands.
The o b j e c t i o n t o t h e l a t t e r
course
i s t h a t i t a p p e a r s t o amount t o an a b d i c a t i o n o f t h e i r
f u n c t i o n b y t h e O p p o s i t i o n ; and a l s o t h a t more t h a n one
h a l f of t h e Conservatives
are l i k e l y t o vote
with
Roebuck i f he d i v i d e s , t h u s b r e a k i n g up t h e p a r t y , and
i n d i c a t i n g an absence o f u n i t e d a c t i o n . "
The
i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s d i d n o t even command t h e s u p p o r t o f
t h e O p p o s i t i o n , l e t a l o n e t h a t o f t h e government.35
The
e x p e c t a t i o n o f Southern
military
success
i n c r e a s e d t h e h e s i t a t i o n o f t h e Members o f P a r l i a m e n t
t o f u r t h e r d i s c u s s Roebuck's m o t i o n .
still
The n e x t day,
i g n o r a n t o f t h e c u r r e n t s i t u a t i o n i n America, S i r
James F e r g u s o n spoke a g a i n s t a r e s u m p t i o n
debate.
a
Ferguson
great
position
noted:
change
of
ofthe
the
had
taken
contest
place
between
i n the
t h e two
35. John V i n c e n t , e d . , Disraeli, Derby, and the
Conservative Party: Journals and Memoirs of Edward
Henry, Lord Stanley, 1849-1869 (Sussex: H a r v e s t e r
P r e s s , 1978) , p.199.- •
27
republics
i n North
up
present
one
t o the
on
the
part
America.
time
of
had
the
The
war,
been a
Southern
which
defensive
States,
now
a p p e a r e d t o have r e c e i v e d t h e c h a r a c t e r o f
e x p e d i t i o n of t h e South a g a i n s t t h e
He
was
believed that
a t h a n d " and
North.
" t h e s o l u t i o n t o t h e whole
saw
no r e a s o n t o c o n t i n u e
d e l i b e r a t i o n s f o r " I f the events
now
t h e r e s u l t o f w h i c h c o u l d n o t be
distant,
an
question
the
t a k i n g place,
and
s h o u l d have
the e f f e c t of e n a b l i n g the Southern States t o f o r c e
peace on t h e N o r t h e r n ,
t h e former would not then
t h e House f o r t h e d e c i s i o n come t o on t h i s
F e r g u s o n d e s i r e d t h a t t h e m a t t e r be
thank
Motion."3^
dropped.
P a l m e r s t o n a g r e e d by a s s e r t i n g t h a t t h e p r e s e n t
was
" n o t a moment when i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o c o n t i n u e
the
discussion."3^
G r e g o r y t h e n f o l l o w e d and
There
would,
against
the
no
doubt,
Motion
of
Member f o r S h e f f i e l d ;
o w i n g t o any
of the North,
the
but
a
large majority
hon.
that
and
learned
would not
because I b e l i e v e t h a t t h e
agree w i t h him
omnibus.
be
be
sympathy i n t h i s House i n f a v o u r
Member f o r B r i g h t o n
who
admitted:
[Mr. Coningham] and
c o u l d be
Nevertheless,
hon.
those
c a r r i e d o f f i n an
i t w o u l d go
forth
36. Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume
(London: 1 8 6 3 ) , pp.554 - 556.
37. I b i d , p.556
172
to
28
the
world at
large
that
House o f Commons was
of
the Southern
not
t o be t h e
T h e r e f o r e , he was
s h o u l d be
the
opinion
of
the
a g a i n s t t h e independence
Confederacy,
which
I
believe
case.
o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t Roebuck's m o t i o n
withdrawn.38
F o r s t e r , as p r o - N o r t h as e v e r , r e a l i z i n g t h a t t h e
m o t i o n w o u l d be d e f e a t e d , a d v o c a t e d a v o t e .
maintained that
"what we have t o c o n s i d e r i s t h e
q u e s t i o n o f whether
w i t h t h e hon.
He
this
House i s i n c l i n e d t o
agree
and l e a r n e d Member f o r S h e f f i e l d t h a t
our
Government s h o u l d r e c o g n i z e a s e c e d i n g o r r e b e l l i n g
State b e f o r e the r e s u l t of the secession or r e b e l l i o n
is
ascertained."39
Cecil claimed that
urged him not t o press h i s Motion are
friends
o f t h e South."
" t h o s e who
well-known
The F e d e r a l s u p p o r t e r s , he
contended,
d e s i r e d t h e m o t i o n t o be d i s c u s s e d on
Monday.40
Roebuck a g r e e d t o have t h e d i s c u s s i o n
postponed
u n t i l Monday.
Palmerston
of
have
A f t e r two o t h e r MP's
spoke,
a n n o u n c e d t h a t i t w o u l d be t h e f i r s t
order
business.
The
still
House r e c o n v e n e d
on J u l y 13
with
no news c o n c e r n i n g t h e w a t e r s h e d e v e n t s o f
week b e f o r e .
failed
t h e debate
Roebuck, t h o u g h ,
rather miserably.
f o r w a r d t h e M o t i o n under
38
I b i d , p.563.
39, I b i d , p.564.
40. Op c i t .
He
one
r e a l i z e d h i s a s s a u l t had
c o n f e s s e d t h a t he
the f e e l i n g that
I was
"brought
about
29
t o a s k t h e House t o t a k e a s t e p which would be
t o put an end t o t h e t e r r i b l e carnage now
likely
going on i n
North A m e r i c a , and which would a l s o be of i n f i n i t e
advantage t o t h e c o m m e r c i a l i n t e r e s t s o f G r e a t
Britain."
Roebuck a d m i t t e d h i s w i t h d r a w a l w i t h the
statement " i t
i s o n l y under a f e e l i n g of g r e a t
f o r t h e noble L o r d t h a t
T h i s g r e a t debate had
I now
withdraw my
respect
Motion."^^
ended.
F o u r days l a t e r news r e a c h e d B r i t a i n c o n c e r n i n g
the r e s u l t
of t h e B a t t l e of G e t t y s b u r g .
after this,
Three days
t h e B r i t i s h l e a r n e d t h a t V i c k s b u r g had
capitulated.
The South had l o s t on a l l t h r e e
n e v e r a g a i n was
fronts;
i n t e r v e n t i o n i n any form t o be
agitated
in Parliament.
I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d why
Parliament f a i l e d ,
the Southern e f f o r t i n
i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o examine
i s s u e s which were debated by both s i d e s .
These
can be d i v i d e d i n t o f o u r groups: the b l o c k a d e ,
issues,
i s s u e s of m o r a l i t y ,
B r i t i s h foreign policy.
economic
The f i r s t
of t h e s e
issues
which
t h e d e b a t e s from t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e war
u n t i l 1862,
41
issues
and c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of
which were e x p l o i t e d by t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s ,
dominated
the
was t h e b l o c k a d e .
I b i d , pp.661 -
668
30
I I . The Blockade:
"The
blockade
merchant
Laughable or Legal?
i s t h e l a u g h i n g s t o c k o f t h e Southern
marine."
- British
Consul
Bunch, August, 20,
1861.1
"A g r e a t many v e s s e l s a r e c a p t u r e d ; i t i s [ a ] most
s e r i o u s i n t e r r u p t i o n t o Trade." - Lord Lyons, November
29, 1861.2
On A p r i l
19, 1861, P r e s i d e n t Abraham L i n c o l n
issued h i s proclamation f o r the establishment of a
blockade a l o n g t h e e n t i r e Southern c o a s t l i n e .
By t h e
end o f May, most o f t h e v i t a l Southern p o r t s had a few
warships on blockade duty.*^
The r e s u l t i n g blockade, or
l a c k t h e r e o f depending upon one's p e r s p e c t i v e , r e c e i v e d
the
immediate a t t e n t i o n o f t h e B r i t i s h , e s p e c i a l l y i n
the
Halls of Parliament.
The blockade was t h e f i r s t i s s u e d i s c u s s e d
c o n c e r n i n g t h e American C i v i l War f o r two reasons.
F i r s t o f a l l , t h e war was expected t o l a s t f o r o n l y
n i n e t y days.
Thus, t h e r e appeared t o be l i t t l e
reason
t o d i s c u s s t h e causes and t h e issues o f t h e war i n
exhaustive d e t a i l .
The N o r t h was expected t o capture
Richmond w i t h i n t h a t t i m e o r t h e South's
determination
^. Frank Owsley, King Cotton Diplomacy (Chicago:
U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago Press, 1959), p.233.
^. E.D. Adams, Great Britain and the American Civil War
(London: Longman, Greens, and Company, 1925), p.254.
^. I b i d , p.245.
31
would p r e v a i l and t h e r e would be a p e a c e f u l s e p a r a t i o n .
No one a n t i c i p a t e d a war which would l a s t f o r f o u r
years and c o s t 600,000 l i v e s .
The second reason t h a t t h e blockade r e c e i v e d the
i n i t i a l a t t e n t i o n o f P a r l i a m e n t was due t o t h e f a c t
t h a t i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s was q u e s t i o n a b l e .
At t h e
b e g i n n i n g o f t h e war, t h e U n i t e d States Navy had t h e
d i f f i c u l t y o f c o p i n g w i t h 3,000 m i l e s o f Southern
s h o r e l i n e w i t h o n l y two dozen steamers.^
The i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s ' motive i n p r e s s i n g the
B r i t i s h Government t o determine t h e blockade t o be
i n e f f e c t i v e i s e a s i l y understood.
I f t h e blockade was
determined t o be i n e f f e c t i v e , merchant ships would have
t h e l e g a l r i g h t t o t r a d e w i t h t h e Southern p o r t s .
No
doubt, a c o n s i d e r a b l e number o f these ships would be
British.
I f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s Navy a t t e m p t e d t o
p r e v e n t passage o f a B r i t i s h s h i p , Palmerston would be
f o r c e d t o defend t h e Union Jack.
Scenarios l i k e
this
would d r a m a t i c a l l y i n c r e a s e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t Great
B r i t a i n and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s would become i n v o l v e d i n
a war.
E i t h e r way, t h e Confederacy b e n e f i t e d .
The i n e v i t a b i l i t y o f c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e U n i t e d
S t a t e s i f t h e blockade was c h a l l e n g e d was mentioned on
a few o c c a s i o n s .
I n March o f 1862 R u s s e l l s t a t e d t h a t
i f t h e blockade was determined t o be i n e f f e c t i v e , " I
know o f no course which would have been open but war
w i t h the United States."
On February 20,
O'Donoghue warned t h a t " t o f o r c e t h e
Owsley, p.
230
1862,
blockade meant
32
war w i t h America."
On March 7, 1862, t h e S o l i c i t o r
General s t a t e d :
An
armed
neutrality,
by which
a
Government
would break t h r o u g h t h e b l o c k a d i n g f o r c e t h a t
was b e s i e g i n g a c o u n t r y , would s e t a t naught
a l l t h e usages o f n a t i o n s .
a hostile
at
I t would be d o i n g
a c t a t t h e p o i n t o f t h e sword, not
the p e r i l
o f war, b u t w i t h
war
as i t s
necessary consequence.^
And on March 10, 1862 Lord Abinger s t a t e d "Were t h e y t o
a t t e m p t t o r a i s e t h e blockade, our c r u i s e r s would
inevitably
be b r o u g h t i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h t h e F e d e r a l
squadron, which would n o t admit our r i g h t t o i n t e r f e r e ,
and a c o l l i s o n would t h i s be brought on between t h e two
nations."^
The i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s f a i l e d t o mention t h i s
p o s s i b i l i t y and i n s t e a d a t t a c k e d t h e blockade on t h e
ground t h a t i t was b o t h i l l e g a l and i n e f f e c t i v e .
In
terms o f l e g a l i t y , t h e blockade was judged by t h e
p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e 1856 D e c l a r a t i o n o f P a r i s .
Austria,
France, Great B r i t a i n , P r u s s i a , Russia, S a r d i n i a , and
Turkey had a l l agreed t o abide by t h e d e c l a r a t i o n .
Owing t o t h e s t i p u l a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g p r i v a t e e r s , t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s r e f u s e d t o s u b s c r i b e by t h e D e c l a r a t i o n .
However a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e c i v i l war, t h e L i n c o l n
^. Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 165,
Dp.1243, 380, 1223.
I b i d , p.1237.
33
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n agreed t o adhere t o t h e D e c l a r a t i o n as
i t p e r t a i n e d t o blockades.
"blockades,
The D e c l a r a t i o n s t a t e d t h a t
i n o r d e r t o be b i n d i n g , must be e f f e c t i v e ;
t h a t i s t o say, m a i n t a i n e d by f o r c e s s t r o n g enough t o
prevent
access."''
This d e f i n i t i o n was r a t h e r ambiguous which a l l o w e d
Members t o form t h e i r own i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s depending
upon whether t h e y supported i n t e r v e n t i o n o r n e u t r a l i t y .
The i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s i n t e r p r e t e d t h e d e f i n i t i o n
s t r i c t l y and thus determined t h a t L i n c o l n ' s blockade
was i n e f f e c t i v e .
I n May, 1861 i n t h e House o f Lords,
t h e E a r l o f E l l e n b o r o u g h i n s i s t e d t h a t blockades " i n
o r d e r t o be b i n d i n g , must be e f f e c t i v e - t h a t i s t o
say, m a i n t a i n e d by a f o r c e s u f f i c i e n t r e a l l y t o prevent
access t o t h e coast o f t h e enemy."
He b e l i e v e d t h a t
t h e Union one was " i m p o s s i b l e " t o m a i n t a i n .
The E a r l
of Derby, t h e l e a d e r o f t h e O p p o s i t i o n i n t h e House o f
Lords, warned t h a t "a mere paper blockade, o r a
blockade e x t e n d i n g over a space which i t i s p h y s i c a l l y
i m p o s s i b l e t h a t an e f f e c t u a l blockade can be a p p l i e d ,
w i l l n o t be r e c o g n i s e d as v a l i d by t h e B r i t i s h
Government."®
The i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s a t t a c k e d t h e blockade s e v e r a l
times i n 1862.
On February
7, Gregory " b e l i e v e d he
s h o u l d be i n a p o s i t i o n t o show t h a t i n a g r e a t measure
t h i s blockade
blockade."^
c o u l d o n l y be considered a paper
On March 7, numerous i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s ,
E.D. Adams, p.140.
^. Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 163, p.2077.
^. Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 165, p.92.
34
e s p e c i a l l y Gregory, q u e s t i o n e d t h e l e g a l i t y o f t h e
blockade.
Since Union t r o o p s had occupied southern
L o u i s i a n a , Gregory d i d confess t h a t "the blockade o f
New Orleans was an e f f e c t i v e blockade" b u t "as regards
o t h e r p o r t s , t h i s has been a d e l u s i o n , " f o r " a l l t h e
evidence which can be brought f o r w a r d shows t h a t these
v e r y p o r t s o f Wilmington and C h a r l e s t o n are not
blockaded, and t h a t n o t one o f those c o n d i t i o n s which
c o n s t i t u t e an e f f e c t i v e blockade are a p p l i c a b l e t o
these p a r t i c u l a r p o r t s . "
He f u r t h e r s t a t e d t h a t he
"must pronounce t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f P a r i s t o be, as
regards t h e Confederate S t a t e s , a mockery; as regards
t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l law, a d e l u s i o n . "
He even quoted a French lawyer who s t a t e d t h a t "Among
t h e f i c t i t i o u s blockades i n v e n t e d by b e l l i g e r e n t s , i t
w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t t o a l l u d e t o t h e blockade by
c r u i s e r s , t o which t h e N o r t h e r n States have r e s o r t e d . "
Ferguson a s s e r t e d t h a t " t h i s blockade c o u l d not be
defended on t h e ground t h a t i t had been e i t h e r
c o n t i n u o u s o r e f f e c t i v e " and t h e r e f o r e i t was an
" i l l e g a l " and " i n e f f e c t i v e " blockade.
The n e u t r a l i s t s countered t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s on
t h i s p o i n t by c o n t e n d i n g t h a t t h e blockade was indeed
l e g a l and j u s t i f i e d by u s i n g l e s s s t r i n g e n t d e f i n i t i o n s
f o r an e f f e c t i v e blockade.
I n May o f 1861, R u s s e l l , i n
10. I b i d , pp.1158-1204. I n response, on March 8, 1862,
The Times wrote "What Mr. Gregory does n o t a l l e g e , and
cannot a l l e g e i s t h a t t h e F e d e r a l Government has not
done i t s b e s t
i t has found means f o r a blockade
s u f f i c i e n t " and "The blockade i s m a i n t a i n e d o n l y t o o
well."
35
q u o t i n g Lord Lyons, announced t h a t "the blockade i s
c a r r i e d i n t o e f f e c t according t o the rules established
by t h e law o f n a t i o n s " and t h a t "we must o f course
conform t o i t ;
and t h a t we can o n l y see t h a t t h e
blockade i s s u f f i c i e n t and r e g u l a r . "H
Earl Granville
a l l e g e d t h a t an e f f e c t i v e blockade would n o t have t o
make passage " i m p o s s i b l e " b u t "very d i f f i c u l t f o r
v e s s e l s t o o b t a i n egress o r i n g r e s s " w h i l e Lord
Brougham d e f i n e d an e f f e c t i v e blockade as one which
"precluded t h e e x i s t e n c e o f any reasonable
chance o f
e n t r a n c e . "**•
D u r i n g t h e debate o f March, 1862, t h e S o l i c i t o r
General,
M i l n e s , and W.E. F o r s t e r a l l defended t h e
l e g a l i t y o f t h e blockade.
The S o l i c i t o r General,
who
p r o v i d e d one o f t h e most e x t e n s i v e d i s c u s s i o n s on t h e
l e g a l i t y o f t h e blockade,
opened h i s speech by asking
t h e Members upon "what p r i n c i p l e s ought Great B r i t a i n
t o judge t h i s q u e s t i o n o f t h e blockade t o which t h e
p r e s e n t Motion r e f e r s ? "
He answered t h a t "Great
B r i t a i n must judge t h a t q u e s t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o her own
p r i n c i p l e s ; according t o the p r i n c i p l e s of
i n t e r n a t i o n a l law." He f u r t h e r questioned
"What are
t h e e s s e n t i a l s i n v o l v e d i n a l e g a l blockade?"
His
answer was t h a t t h e r e "must be a bona f i d e blockade by
a f o r c e s u f f i c i e n t t o m a i n t a i n i t on t h e spot, and
t h e r e must a l s o be a s u f f i c i e n t n o t i f i c a t i o n o f some
k i n d o r o t h e r o f t h a t blockade."
I n response t o t h e
11. Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 164, p.188.
12. Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 163,
p.2077.
36
charge t h a t n o t a l l o f t h e Southern p o r t s were
blockaded
he s t a t e d t h a t " i f t h e r e were some p o r t s
which were blockaded,
t h e blockade was p e r f e c t l y good
a t those p l a c e s , a l t h o u g h w i t h regards t o o t h e r p o i n t s
of t h e coast i t c o u l d n o t be s a i d t o e x i s t . "
By t h i s
c l e v e r d e f i n i t i o n , t h e U n i t e d States c o u l d blockade
Savannah, leave C h a r l e s t o n alone, and s t i l l have t h e
blockade l e g a l l y o p e r a t i n g a t Savannah w h i l e having t h e
f u t u r e p o s s i b i l i t y of blockading Charleston.
The law
o f f i c e r had p r o v i d e d t h e U n i t e d States w i t h a l l t h e
l o o p h o l e s necessary t o l e g a l l y m a i n t a i n t h e blockade.
Furthermore,
Did
he asked:
the
President,
declaratory
intention
of t h i s
of
nations?
in
blockade,
setting
Quite
aside
proclamation
announce
the
the contrary.
p o r t s should be blockaded
laws
his
of the United
He
law
any
of
said the
i n pursuance o f t h e
States
and t h e law of
nations.
I n c o n t i n u i n g he n o t e d :
But on what i s t h e o p i n i o n o f t h i s c o u n t r y t o
be
formed?
reports
And,
o f i t s consular
speaking
of these
I t can o n l y
be
formed
and n a v a l
on t h e
officers.
g e n e r a l l y , what i s t h e r e s u l t
reports?
That,
though,
i n certain
p l a c e s , and a t c e r t a i n times t h e r e was e i t h e r
37
no blockade a t a l l , o r v e r y g r e a t remissness
i n e n f o r c i n g t h e blockade, t h e r e was a t o t h e r
times and i n o t h e r p l a c e s , and i n some places
at
a l l times, a s t r i c t
enforcement
of the
blockade.
L i k e t h e S o l i c i t o r General, Milnes and F o r s t e r
defended t h e blockade on l e g a l grounds.
Milnes s t a t e d
t h a t "This blockade s c a r c e l y appears t o me t o m e r i t t h e
c r i t i c i s m which has been bestowed on i t " and " i t
appears t o me t h a t t h e common sense o f t h e q u e s t i o n
must l e a d us t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h i s blockade i s
effective."
I n r e f e r r i n g t o the Declaration of Paris
p r o v i s i o n on blockades, F o r s t e r contended t h a t " i f
blockades a r e t o be i n t e r p r e t e d i n [ t h e ] f u t u r e by a l l
the
Powers who s i g n e d t h e t r e a t y s t r i c t l y by those
words, t h e n t h e r e i s an end o f a l l blockades."
He
quoted R u s s e l l ' s statement t h a t t h e " f a c t t h a t v a r i o u s
ships may have s u c c e s s f u l l y escaped t h r o u g h i t w i l l not
of
i t s e l f p r e v e n t t h e blockade from b e i n g an e f f e c t i v e
one by i n t e r n a t i o n a l law" and thus F o r s t e r concluded
t h a t " t h e argument, whether t h i s blockade i s e f f e c t i v e
. Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 165,
pp.1214-1225. The S o l i c i t o r General's speech was w e l l
remembered by t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s , f o r on June 29,
1863 Lord Robert C e c i l s t a t e d t h a t " I n i t s e l f , t h e
blockade was a t h i n g , which, c o n s i d e r i n g t h e
o b l i g a t i o n s of the Treaty of Paris, the world could
never have expected t o see a g a i n , " f o r t h e "blockade
was k e p t up m a i n l y owing t o t h e i n g e n i o u s s p e c i a l
p l e a d i n g o f t h e S o l i c i t o r General two years ago."
Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 171, p.1647.
38
or n o t , i s r e a l l y made t o depend upon t h e number o f
escapees."1^
Indeed, c r i t i c a l t o t h e argument was t h e number o f
s h i p s which had evaded L i n c o l n ' s blockade.
The
i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s p r o v i d e d f a c t s on numerous occassions
which i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e were v a s t numbers o f ships
evading t h e blockade w h i l e t h e n e u t r a l i s t s
consistently
challenged the f i g u r e s .
I n t h e House o f Lords on February 10, 1862, t h e
E a r l o f Malmesbury s t a t e d h i s d e s i r e " t o know t h e r e a l
f a c t s , and what i s e x a c t l y t h a t s t a t e o f t h e blockade?"
R e f e r r i n g t o t h e Confederate emissary i n London, he
commented t h a t "Mr. Mason
openly d e c l a r e s t h a t no
l e s s t h a n 600 t o 700 s h i p s have broken t h e blockade and
passed i n and o u t o f Southern p o r t s . " 1 ^
R u s s e l l proceeded t o a t t a c k Mason's f i g u r e s .
He
r e c a l l e d t h a t he had q u e s t i o n e d Mason concerning "the
tonnage o f those v e s s e l s t o which r e f e r e n c e was made;
and t o t h a t q u e s t i o n he was unable t o g i v e me an
answer."
T h e r e f o r e , i f t h e blockade r u n n i n g vessels
were o f s m a l l s i z e t h e y "can h a r d l y , from t h e i r
i n s i g n i f i c a n t c h a r a c t e r , be regarded as b r e a k i n g t h e
blockade."1^
On March 7, 18 62, t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s again
a t t a c k e d t h e blockade t h r o u g h t h e use o f t h e number o f
1*. I b i d , p.1187-1190. The evening a f t e r t h i s
d i s c u s s i o n B r i g h t r e c o r d e d i n h i s d i a r y "W.E. F o r s t e r ' s
speech good, and h i s f a c t s q u i t e d e s t r u c t i v e o f case
a g a i n s t blockade. S o l i c i t o r General made an admirable
geech, - language, f a c t s , sentiments good."
I b i d , p.113.
1^. I b i d , p.116.
f
39
s u c c e s s f u l blockade runners.
s h i p s " had
Gregory s t a t e d t h a t
run the blockade "and,
and commerce o f t h e w o r l d ,
"400
as regards the t r a d e
[ t h e blockade i s ] n o t h i n g
b u t a snare. "^"^
F o r s t e r took i s s u e w i t h the "400"
escapees.
f i r s t began by n o t i n g t h a t t h e r e were not 400,
boats and
He
but
322
"of t h e 322 boats which escaped from Southern
p o r t s , o n l y 147
l e f t a f t e r the 15 day grace p e r i o d ,
25
were r i v e r boats,
106 were c o a s t e r s , a l l but t h r e e are
'quasi i n l a n d . ' "
He contended t h a t i t was
"perfectly
absurd t o suppose t h a t t h e voyage of a v e s s e l behind
lagoons, and s c a r c e l y a p p e a r i n g i n the open sea, was
breach o f the blockade."
were "16 d e p a r t u r e s
He then s t a t e d t h a t t h e r e
t o f o r e i g n p o r t s , 15 t o American
ones, c h i e f l y t o Cuba, 1 schooner from Charleston
Liverpool."
a
to
Thus, a c c o r d i n g t o F o r s t e r , t h e r e were not
400 escapees but o n l y t h i r t y - t w o .
The
n e u t r a l i s t s a l s o employed s e v e r a l o t h e r
s t r a t e g i e s t o counter the i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s .
t a c t i c s were u s u a l l y used by one member on
p a r t i c u l a r occassion.
t h a t B r i t a i n was
One
These
one
of these i n v o l v e d c l a i m i n g
a t f a u l t f o r the blockade runners
s i n c e most o f them were B r i t i s h .
Cobden a d m i t t e d
I know t h a t the contraband t r a d e t o the South
i s a l l from England, t h a t i t i s c a r r i e d , not
only
1"'.
18.
largely,
I b i d , p.1170
I b i d , p.1190
but
e x c l u s i v e l y from
England;
that:
40
and
when
something
we
like
a l l know
affectation
this,
is
i t not
t o come down t o
t h i s House and o f f e r c o m p l a i n t s as i f we were
innocent p a r t i e s . 1 ^
On February 20, 1862, O'Donoghue a l s o used t h i s
s t r a t e g y by r e q u e s t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n on blockade
runners.
He, who b e l i e v e d t h e r e " t o be no j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r
c a l l i n g t h e blockade a paper one," claimed t h a t t h e
a u t h o r i t i e s i n Nassau had a l l o w e d s u p p l i e s f o r ships
d e s t i n e d t o t h e South and requested t h a t t h e B r i t i s h
Government p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e British ships
which had r u n t h e blockade.
This was indeed an
ingenious request f o r i n s t e a d o f p r o v i d i n g f i g u r e s
which would show t h a t t h e blockade was i n e f f e c t i v e , t h e
f i g u r e s r e q u e s t e d would show t h a t B r i t i s h seamen were
b r e a k i n g t h e blockade i n v i o l a t i o n o f t h e Queen's
20
n e u t r a l i t y proclamation.^"
Layard, t h e Deputy F o r e i g n S e c r e t a r y , recognized
t h e shrewd s t r a t e g y and answered t h a t he "would n o t
feel j u s t i f i e d i n giving i t ,
f o r i t was h a r d l y t o be
expected t h a t t h e Government would l a y on t h e t a b l e a
l i s t o f wrong doers who had broken t h e blockade."
The
S o l i c i t o r General added t h a t Her Majesty's p r o c l a m a t i o n
"does n o t t o u c h i n any way whatever p r i v a t e merchant
vessels."
He concluded by d e f e n d i n g t h e a u t h o r i t i e s a t
Nassau, from where many o f t h e blockade runners
1^. Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 171,
D.1653.
20, Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 165, p.528,
41
departed, f o r t a k i n g
" t h e o n l y course which i t was
possible t o take c o n s i s t e n t l y
w i t h t h e law o f t h e
land."21
Another n e u t r a l i s t s t r a t e g y used h i s t o r i c a l
precedents t o determine t h e blockade t o be e f f e c t i v e .
I n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r case, R u s s e l l was drawing a p a r a l l e l
between t h e B r i t i s h blockade o f Europe d u r i n g t h e
Napoleonic wars and t h e c u r r e n t blockade by t h e U n i t e d
States.
I
I n June o f 1863, R u s s e l l s t a t e d t h a t :
do
n o t see how
we
can say, a l t h o u g h we
c o n s i d e r t h e blockade o f 2000 m i l e s o f coast
to
be
2, 500
perfectly
legitimate,
o r 3, 000 m i l e s i s such
i l l e g a l i t y that
a
blockade
of
a monster
of
we s h o u l d f i n d i t i m p o s s i b l e
22
to recognize."
The n e u t r a l i s t s a l s o had t o contend w i t h t h e
a l l e g a t i o n t h a t s i n c e t h e Royal Navy was t h e world's
most p o w e r f u l , and t h a t blockades were one o f B r i t a i n ' s
most e f f e c t i v e weapons, t h a t i t was i n her s e l f i n t e r e s t t o r e c o g n i s e an i n e f f e c t i v e blockade as a
l e g a l one.
On March 7, 1862, t h e S o l i c i t o r General
responded t o these charges by r e c a l l i n g t h a t a French
21. I b i d , p.530.
22. Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 171, p.883
One year b e f o r e , on A p r i l 22, 1862, R u s s e l l wrote t o
Clarendon: " I t i s t r u e t h a t our s h i p s , evading t h e
blockade f u r n i s h them w i t h w a r l i k e s t o r e s ; but t h a t i s
by reason o f t h e i m p o s s i b i l i t y o f b l o c k a d i n g
e f f e c t i v e l y t h e t h r e e thousand m i l e s o f coast.
Walpole, Russell, p.324.
42
lawyer d e c l a r e d " t h a t you have a paper blockade i n
America, and t h a t England, t h e u n i v e r s a l patroness
paper blockades,
connives
w i t h a view t o her own
a t and supports i t , doubtless
advantage i n f u t u r e t i m e s . "
response, t h e S o l i c i t o r General adamantly s t a t e d
"We
w i l l not have one
of
r u l e f o r t h e time when we
b e l l i g e r e n t s and another
In
that
are
f o r a time we are n e u t r a l s . " 2 3
The Times agreed and wrote on March 8, 18 62, "they [ t h e
N o r t h ] a s c r i b e our acquiescence i n t h e blockade t o our
s e l f i s h r e g a r d f o r t h i s ; our c h i e f weapon of maritime
war; but t h e y are as much mistaken
as he
[Gregory] i s
when he t e l l s us t h a t we are not honesty n e u t r a l . "
Another r a r e n e u t r a l i s t
t h a t B r i t a i n was
s t r a t e g y was
t o assert
a t f a u l t f o r b e i n g t h e c r e a t o r and the
main p e r p e t u a t o r of t h e blockade as a weapon of
This was
t h e argument of R i c h a r d Cobden, who,
war.
although
not as p a s s i o n a t e l y N o r t h e r n i n h i s sympathies as h i s
f r i e n d B r i g h t , d i d support n e u t r a l i t y towards t h e
o f t h e war.24
end
I n t h i s debate, Cobden f i r s t c r i t i c i z e d
blockades i n g e n e r a l as "a mode o f w a r f a r e " which
"can
be o b j e c t e d t o on t h e ground o f n a t u r a l j u s t i c e . "
He
spoke o f t h e " g r e a t e r i n j u r y and s u f f e r i n g i n f l i c t e d by
t h i s blockade on t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g
towns of England
...
23, Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 165,
D
1212.
^*. Cobden even c o n s i d e r e d s u p p o r t i n g i n t e r v e n t i o n .
On
September 15, 1862, Lord Stanley, a c o n s e r v a t i v e M.P.
w r o t e , i n r e f e r e n c e t o Cobden, "he h i m s e l f d e p l o r e d the
waste o f b l o o d and money, i n c l i n e d t o t h i n k t h e c o n t e s t
u s e l e s s , acknowledged t h a t England alone c o u l d do no
good by i n t e r f e r i n g , but thought i t p o s s i b l e t h a t a
m e d i a t i o n by a l l t h e l e a d i n g European powers j o i n t l y
might succeed." V i n c e n t , p. 191.
43
t h a n upon any town i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a p a r t from t h e
l o s s o f l i f e and l i m b upon t h e b a t t l e f i e d . "
He
c o n t i n u e d by a s s e r t i n g t h a t t h e blockade r e s u l t e d i n :
the
misery
innocent
of
people
hundreds
of
thousands
d e p r i v e d o f t h e means
of
of
e a r n i n g t h e i r d a i l y bread by honest i n d u s t r y ,
by means o f t h i s
responsible
Undoubtedly
war.
for this
But who a r e c h i e f l y
system
of
warfare?
t h e p u b l i c men o f t h i s
country,
and those who u p h o l d commercial blockades as
a
means
I t i s only
our own
p r i n c i p l e , c a r r i e d out w i t h d r e a d f u l
severity
against
of warfare.
ourselves - the p r i n c i p l e
have c h e r i s h e d i n t h e b e l i e f ,
that
which
we
when we
become b e l l i g e r e n t s , i t would be o f advantage
t o ourselves.25
Cobden had i n g e n i o u s l y c o u n t e r e d t h e a l l e g a t i o n s o f t h e
i n e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f blockades by f o c u s i n g h i s e n t i r e
c r i t i c i s m on B r i t a i n as t h e mother o f a l l blockades.
Cobden's mention o f t h e s u f f e r i n g p o p u l a t i o n o f
England was a l s o used t o b o l s t e r t h e arguments o f
neutralists.
The Confederates had u n i n t e n t i o n a l l y
p r o v i d e d evidence t h a t t h e blockade was e f f e c t i v e
t h r o u g h t h e i r self-embargo o f c o t t o n .
I t was hoped
t h a t by e x a c e r b a t i n g t h e c o t t o n shortage, B r i t a i n and
25. Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 171,
pp.1651-1652.
44
France would be more i n c l i n e d - out o f s e l f - i n t e r e s t to
support t h e Confederacy.
However, on March 10,
1862, c i t i n g t h e d e a r t h o f d e l i v e r e d c o t t o n i n order t o
defend t h e blockade, R u s s e l l remarked t h a t "the
i n t e l l i g e n c e which we have r e c e i v e d - shows t h a t t h e r e
has been no such u n i n t e r u p t e d i n t e r c o u r s e . " 2 ^
On
February 20, 1862, O'Donoghue noted t h a t "the d e a r t h o f
c o t t o n seemed t o show t h a t t h e blockade was most
effective."27
The p o p u l a r i t y o f t h e blockade as a t a r g e t f o r t h e
i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s l a s t e d u n t i l 1862.
By t h a t t i m e , t h e
war's d u r a t i o n and i n t e n s i t y a l l o w e d f o r more
e x h a u s t i v e d i s c u s s i o n s on t h e m e r i t s o f i n t e r v e n t i o n .
Furthermore, t h e N o r t h had begun making c l e a r progress
at t i g h t e n i n g t h e blockade.28
Thus, t h e blockade was
r e p l a c e d by a p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f i s s u e s .
One o f those
2^. Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 165,
p.1240.
27 I b i d , p.527.
28. Only a few t i m e s i n 1863 t h e blockade was
c r i t i c i s e d . For example, on March 23, Lord Campbell
s t a t e d t h a t "allowance has been made f o r t h e
d i f f i c u l t i e s which t h e U n i t e d States had t o contend
w i t h i n t h e war; and t h a t p u b l i c law has been l i b e r a l l y
i n t e r p r e t e d i n t h e i r f a v o u r , " and "the B r i t i s h
Government has n o t been ready t o m a i n t a i n them [ t h e
N o r t h ] i n t h e v i t a l p o i n t t h a t blockades must be
e f f e c t i v e t o be b i n d i n g . " Hansard's Parliamentary
Debates, Volume 169, p.1726. On June 15, t h e Marquess
of Carnafan c l a i m e d t h a t "The i n e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e
blockade was t h e main cause o f t h e c o m p l a i n t . I t was
no reproach t o t h e F e d e r a l Government t h a t t h e
blockade, which was much more e f f i c i e n t a t t h e
b e g i n n i n g o f t h e war, has ceased t o be so now. The
q u e s t i o n was whether t h i s was a blockade which ought
any l o n g e r t o be r e c o g n i s e d ; and he thought p e r f e c t l y
c l e a r t h a t i t was n o t . " Hansard's Parliamentary
Debates, Volume 171, p.878. Most a u t h o r i t i e s b e l i e v e d
t h a t t h e blockade was becoming more e f f e c t i v e , not l e s s
as Campbell c l a i m e d .
45
issues,
which Cobden had mentioned d u r i n g h i s
discussion
a result
the
of t h e b l o c k a d e , was t h e s u f f e r i n g which was
of t h e c o t t o n s h o r t a g e .
i s s u e s debated, economic
With t h e e x p a n s i o n i n
s e l f - i n t e r e s t was
argument e x p l o i t e d by both i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s
neutralists.
and
an
46
III.
The Economic
Issues:
The Coup De Grace o f K i n g
"The
out
c a r d s a r e i n our hands, and we
to the bankruptcy
Britain
and
"The
notion
i n t e n d t o p l a y them
of e v e r y c o t t o n f a c t o r y i n Great
France,
independence."
Cotton
or
the
Charleston
acknowledgement
Mercury,
of g e t t i n g c o t t o n by
June 4,
of
our
1861^
interfering
with
the
o
blockade
i s abandoned." John B r i g h t , November 20,
On March 4, 1858,
a United S t a t e s Senator
1861*
from
South C a r o l i n a spoke t h e words t h a t were i n the minds
and on t h e l i p s
of many of t h e S o u t h e r n e r s .
James
Hammond s t a t e d :
What would happen i f no
for
what
three years?
everyone
certain:
I will
would
England
c o t t o n was
not
South.
No,
cotton.
No
upon i t .
Cotton
you
power
on
but
topple
c a r r y t h e whole c i v i l i z e d
the
stop to d e p i c t
imagine,
would
furnished
this
headlong
w o r l d w i t h her
dare
not
earth
make
dares
war
make
is
and
save
on
war
i s King.-*
Quoted from E.D. Adams, Volume 2, p. 5.
2. I b i d , p.15.
3. S e i e c t i o / i s from the Letters and Speeches of the Hon.
James H. Hammond of South Carolina (New York, 1866),
pp.316-317.
47
The b e l i e f i n B r i t a i n ' s dependence upon c o t t o n was
not w i t h o u t
basis.
The c o t t o n i n d u s t r y was B r i t a i n ' s
largest
i n d u s t r y and, i n t h e c a s e of L a n c a s h i r e , e i g h t y
percent
of t h e c o t t o n i m p o r t e d was from t h e southern
United S t a t e s ,
The American c o t t o n was o f h i g h e r
q u a l i t y t h a n I n d i a n c o t t o n , which had been c o n s i d e r e d
as a p o s s i b l e replacement
by t h e B r i t i s h .
Furthermore,
n e a r l y t w o - f i f t h s of B r i t a i n ' s e x p o r t t r a d e was
comprised
by m a n u f a c t u r e d c o t t o n p r o d u c t s .
I t i s also
e s t i m a t e d t h a t out of t h e U n i t e d Kingdom's t o t a l
population
of twenty-one m i l l i o n ,
f o u r m i l l i o n people
were dependent upon t h e c o t t o n i n d u s t r y . ^
During
t h e war, t h i s f e a r o f t h e r a m i f i c a t i o n s o f
the cotton shortage
government.
r e a c h e d t h e upper l e v e l s of
T h i s was b e s t e x e m p l i f i e d by t h e w r i t i n g s
of t h e C h a n c e l l o r of t h e Exchequer W i l l i a m Gladstone i n
t h e autumn of 1862 when he was c l e a r l y concerned
t h e r e a c t i o n o f t h e p e o p l e of L a n c a s h i r e .
24 G l a d s t o n e
public
wrote t o P a l m e r s t o n
with
On September
h i s concern
over
opinion:
The p o p u l a t i o n
sufferings
of L a n c a s h i r e have borne
with
a
fortitude
and
exceeding
a l l example, and almost
But
any
if
one
of
the
their
patience
a l l belief.
great
towns.
L e l a n d H. J e n k s , The Migration of British Capital to
1875 (New York: Thomas N e l s o n and Sons, 1963), p.470;
B a r r i e R a t c l i f f e , ed. Great Britain and Her World
(Manchester: Manchester U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1975), p . l 5 4 ;
F r a n k Owsley, King Cotton Diplomacy (Chicago:
U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago P r e s s , 1959), p.8.
48
resignation
should,
give
to
place
should
occur,
America,
even
for a
excitement,
our p o s i t i o n
single
and
an
outbreak
i n the face of
and our i n f l u e n c e f o r good might be
seriously
a f f e c t e d : we might
interfering,
with
loss
of
then seem t o be
dignity
ground o f our immediate i n t e r e s t s ,
in
day,
the
attitude
representing
of
the
and r a t h e r
parties
general
on t h e
than
as
interests
of
humanity and p e a c e . ^
In
h i s e s s a y which he p r e p a r e d
October 25, G l a d s t o n e
of t h e c r i s i s
f o r t h e C a b i n e t on
a g a i n acknowledged t h e p r e s e n c e
and h i s c o n c e r n w i t h t h e p u b l i c o p i n i o n
of t h o s e s u f f e r i n g .
He
wrote:
The
terrible
far
been borne w i t h h e r o i c p a t i e n c e and w i t h
perfect
our
distress
s u b m i s s i o n t o t h e law.
confidence
certain
actual
of L a n c a s h i r e has thus
that
i n t h e people,
the
positive
hunger which we have
But, w i t h a l l
who
can be
suffering,
every
the
reason to
f e a r i s endured t h e r e , may not a t some time,
at
some p l a c e , perhaps
trivial
from
some
apparently
i n c i d e n t , g i v e r i s e t o an outbreak?
He f u r t h e r contended " t h a t i t i s c e r t a i n l y t h e one
which has i n f l i c t e d ,
G u e d e l l a , p.233
beyond a l l comparison, t h e
49
s e v e r e s t s u f f e r i n g on t h e o t h e r c o u n t r i e s of t h e
and has g i v e n them t h e b e s t t i t l e t o be heard,
s h a l l t h i n k f i t t o speak,
continuance."^
were t h o s e who
were
t h o s e who
Clarendon
were i n the
an a l t e r a t i o n i n n e u t r a l i t y
suffering.
However, t h e r e were a l s o t h o s e who
i n t e r v e n t i o n because
i f they
on the q u e s t i o n of i t s
For Gladstone,
b e s t p o s i t i o n to advocate
world,
of c o t t o n was
believed that
ridiculous.
Lord
wrote "A p r o p o s a l from us t o mediate would be
attributed,
I e x p e c t , t o a f o r l o r n hope of g e t t i n g out
c o t t o n d u r i n g t h e f o r t n i g h t or month t h a t t h e a r m i s t i c e
would l a s t , and t h i s would be an a d d i t i o n a l reason f o r
r e j e c t i n g i t and l a u g h i n g a t us."''
I n P a r l i a m e n t , both t h e Southern
and t h e
Northern
s y m p a t h i s e r s s e i z e d upon t h e s e i s s u e s t o f u r t h e r
arguments.
The
i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s claimed that
their
Britain
s h o u l d i n t e r v e n e t o renew t h e c o t t o n t r a d e w h i l e the
n e u t r a l i s t s warned t h a t B r i t a i n s h o u l d not j e o p a r d i z e
h e r v i t a l g r a i n t r a d e w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s by
i n t e r v e n i n g i n the
war.
As compared t o o t h e r i s s u e s though, the c o t t o n
s h o r t a g e was
d i s c u s s e d much l e s s .
I t never a t t a i n e d
t h e dominant s t a t u s a s a p e r s u a s i v e i s s u e t h a t some
Confederates
might have e x p e c t e d .
The
reason for t h i s
minimal a t t e n t i o n l a y i n the f a c t t h a t Gladstone
mentioned: w h i l e i t was
6.
had
easy to recognise the
I b i d , pp.239 - 247.
H e r b e r t Maxwell, The Life and Letters of George
William Frederick Fourth Earl of Clarendon (London;
Edward A r n o l d , 1913), p.265.
50
c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e economic d i s t r e s s and
cotton shortage,
i t was
the
f a r more d i f f i c u l t t o determine
i f those s u f f e r i n g advocated
i n t e r v e n t i o n or
neutrality.^
C u r i o u s l y , i n d i s c u s s i n g the c o t t o n s h o r t a g e ,
s i d e s a c c e p t e d t h a t t h e s h o r t a g e was
war.
both
the r e s u l t of the
Yet l a t e r h i s t o r i a n s have argued t h a t the
d e p r e s s i o n and the unemployment of the c o t t o n i n d u s t r y
was
a result
Britain
and
of o t h e r more long-term
her
World, 1750-1914,
in
was
I n Great
the conclusion
c o n c e r n i n g t h e L a n c a s h i r e c r i s i s was
War
trends.
t h a t "the
not r e s p o n s i b l e f o r the i n d u s t r i a l
Civil
depression
L a n c a s h i r e , d i d not s e r i o u s l y d e p l e t e t h e s t o c k s of
raw
c o t t o n h e l d i n B r i t a i n and was
far
as i t i n d u c e d
supplies.
The
o n l y i n so
e x p e c t a t i o n s of a f u t u r e s h o r t a g e
d e p r e s s i o n was
p r e c e d i n g p e r i o d of p r o d u c t i o n
almost
of
w h o l l y upon the
which had expanded f a r
i n e x c e s s of any e x i s t i n g demand."
antebellum
important
In fact,
the
c o t t o n shipments were of such q u a n t i t y
t h a t , a c c o r d i n g t o F r a n k Owsley, the c o t t o n m i l l s
December, 1861,
had
200,000 more b a l e s of raw
than the previous year.
cotton
However, t h e n e u t r a l i s t s
c h a l l e n g e d t h e b e l i e f t h a t the d i s t r e s s was
r e s u l t o f t h e American C i v i l War.
by
never
a direct
Thus, i n the
p r o c e s s , whether i n t e r n t i o n a l l y or a c c i d e n t l y , they
'if
^. H i s t o r i a n s have a l s o had d i f f i c u l t y i n answering
t h i s question,
E.D. Adams and E r i c Foner supported the
b e l i e f t h a t t h e L a n c a s h i r e p o p u l a t i o n o v e r a l l was proNorth w h i l e Owsley and Mary E l l i s o n contended t h a t the
p o p u l a t i o n was b a s i c a l l y of a s o u t h e r n p e r s u a s i o n .
51
s u b s t a n t i a t e d t h e a l l e g a t i o n t h a t B r i t a i n was
n o t i c e a b l y s u f f e r i n g due t o t h e war.
The
s t o c k p i l e o f raw c o t t o n may e x p l a i n why t h e
c o t t o n s h o r t a g e d i d not become an i s s u e i n 1861.
The
d i s t r e s s was not c o n s i d e r e d worthy of mention by t h e
Members of P a r l i a m e n t u n t i l t e n months a f t e r
Fort
Sumter when t h e e f f e c t o f t h e c o t t o n s h o r t a g e had
reached c r i s i s p r o p o r t i o n s . ^
1862,
Gregory,
At l a s t ,
on F e b r u a r y 7,
s t a t e d t h a t t h e r e were " e f f e c t s
t h e l a m e n t a b l e war i n America
which
had produced upon t h e
i n d u s t r y o f t h e U n i t e d Kingdom."
He p l e a d e d t h a t " i n
j u s t i c e t o t h e s u f f e r i n g m a n u f a c t u r i n g p o p u l a t i o n s of
t h i s c o u n t r y " t h e "House c o u l d not t a k e too e a r l y an
opportunity of d i s c u s s i n g t h i s
subject."^^
A f t e r t h i s f i r s t mention, t h e c o t t o n s h o r t a g e
would be d i s c u s s e d f o u r more t i m e s and each time a
Member would attempt
t o remind
t h a t t h e d i s t r e s s was a d i r e c t
t h e i r f e l l o w members
r e s u l t of t h e war.
On
March 7, 1862, B e n t i c k a s k e d whether " i t was not t h e
c a s e t h a t t h e n o n - r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e Southern
S t a t e s . . . w a s a g r e a t s o u r c e of i n c o n v e n i e n c e t o t h e
manufacturing
1862,
i n t e r e s t s of t h i s c o u n t r y ? "
On J u l y 18,
L i n d s a y c a l l e d t h e a t t e n t i o n of t h e House " t o
what our m a n u f a c t u r i n g
d i s t r i c t s were s u f f e r i n g by t h e
stoppage of c o t t o n from t h e Southern
America,"
S t a t e s of
f o r "By t h e l a s t a c c o u n t s t h e d i s t r e s s had
^. B a r r i e R a t c l i f f e , ed.. Great Britain and her World,
1750-1914 (Manchester: Manchester U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ,
1975), p.159; Owsley, p.8.
Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 165, p.92.
52
i n c r e a s e d t o a degree almost u n p a r a l l e l e d . "
He c l a i m e d
t h a t , b e c a u s e of t h e war, 15,000 were r e c e i v i n g
relief
i n B l a c k b u r n w h i l e P r e s t o n had 12,000 s u f f e r i n g .
Lord
Campbell, on March 23, 1863, a s s e r t e d t h a t t h e
"Lancashire d i s t r e s s "
was due t o t h e L i n c o l n
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , which he c o n s i d e r e d "despotism."
In
t h i s v e i n , Campbell c l a i m e d t h a t , i f t h e North won, "on
t h i s overgrown,
on t h i s p o r t e n t o u s form of t y r a n n y and
egotism, many c o u n t r i e s would depend f o r t h e m a t e r i a l
of
t h a t i m p o r t a n t i n d u s t r y which l a n g u i s h e s a t
present."^^
On June 30, 1863, t h e c o t t o n s h o r t a g e r e c e i v e d a
prominent p l a c e i n Roebuck's
speech.
To Roebuck, t h e
c o t t o n s h o r t a g e was an a d d i t i o n a l r e a s o n t o r e c o g n i s e
the
independence o f t h e C o n f e d e r a c y "because i t i s our
interest,"
million,
He s t a t e d t h a t
"Thousands,
nay, n e a r l y a
o f your p e o p l e a r e s u f f e r i n g from t h e want of
t h e s e v e r y commodities which we c a n s u p p l y . "
He
demanded:
I want hon. Gentlemen
has
not
present
arrived
moment,
population
the
t o t e l l me why t h e time
[ f o r recognition] .
a
large
are suffering
portion
of
i n consequence
At
our
of
c o t t o n famine.
I b i d , p.181; Hansard's Parliamentary Debates,
Volume 168, p.518; Hansard's Parliamentary Debates,
Volume 169, pp.1728-1733.
•'•2. Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 171,
p.1776.
53
A f t e r e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e f a c t t h a t B r i t a i n was
s u f f e r i n g due t o t h e c o t t o n s h o r t a g e , t h e
i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s then contended t h a t B r i t a i n
could
a l l e v i a t e t h e d i s t r e s s by i n t e r v e n i n g on b e h a l f of t h e
South because
L o r d Robert
of t h e South's
agricultural
C e c i l on March 7, 1862 c l a i m e d :
With r e s p e c t t o t h e Southern
was
e n t i r e l y reversed.
an
agricultural
raw
material
consumed
from
of
They
our
furnished the
industry,
which
we
and
moment
Gregory
well
the world
manufactured
of p a s t
understand
there
would
stated:
to say that
i s flooded
production
with
at
that,
open
y e a r s ; but I am g i v e n t o
are orders
be a demand
from
coming
i n , and
many p a r t s o f
t o our commerce.
but presuming
that
And
these
ready
t o take
would not be kept
ports
. Hansard's
p.1229.
our manufactures,
out by a M o r i l l
Parliamentary
States
not o n l y
open, t h e r e a r e 8,000,000 S o u t h e r n e r s
and
this
t h e over-
t h e w o r l d i f t h e p o r t s of t h e Southern
were
they
it.^^
i s a l l very
there
S t a t e s , the case
T h e i r p o p u l a t i o n were
people.
the products
I n t h e same debate,
It
products.
were
anxious
which
t a r i f f or
Debates, Volume 165,
54
by
differential
you
duties
upon our s h i p s .
Can
wonder t h a t t h e p e o p l e o f L a n c a s h i r e and
Yorkshire
are turning
direction?
that
gates
and
eyes
Can you wonder t h e y
these
believe
their
ports
that
should
i f they
of the m i l l
gladness
i n that
a r e anxious
be opened, when they
were
open,
the closed
would be thrown wide open,
and
plenty
and
cheer
would
r e v i s i t many a c o l d and d e s o l a t e hearth?''"^
Gregory, a few months l a t e r ,
on J u l y 18, 1862,
a g a i n d i s c u s s e d t h e economic advantage o f i n t e r v e n i n g
on b e h a l f o f t h e South.
The
whole q u e s t i o n
state
of
cotton.
from
things
We
India.
He s t a t e d t h a t :
of p u t t i n g an end t o t h i s
depends
know we
We
on
cannot
our
obtaining
get that
do know t h a t
supply
we c a n g e t
i t
from t h e S o u t h e r n S t a t e s of America.
L a t e r on d u r i n g t h e same debate, he s t a t e d :
I
contend,
i f you w i s h
t o put an end t o t h i s
l a m e n t a b l e war, i f you w i s h
that
terrible
calamity
. I b i d , p.1165. The M o r i l l
r e f e r s was a p r o t e c t i v e t a r i f f
goods. The " o v e r - p r o d u c t i o n "
was a s a r e s u l t of t h e h i g h e r
previous years as w e l l as the
f i n i s h e d products.
a t once t o a v e r t
which
is
daily
T a r i f f t o which Gregory
a g a i n s t manufactured
t o which Gregory r e f e r s
than u s u a l h a r v e s t of t h e
over-abundance of
55
increasing
throughout
Lancashire,
you
will
a c c e p t t h e R e s o l u t i o n b e f o r e you.^^
The
r e s o l u t i o n t o which he was
r e f e r r i n g requested that
t h e B r i t i s h Government o f f e r m e d i a t i o n t o t h e North and
the
South.
F i t z g e r a l d i n t h e same debate
agreed w i t h
Gregory.
He b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e Members of P a r l i a m e n t " s h o u l d be
wanting
i n our duty t o our own
p o p u l a t i o n , as w e l l as
humanity i n g e n e r a l " i f t h e y f a i l e d t o " s t e p forward,
and,
by p e a c e f u l m e d i a t i o n ,
t r y and put an end t o t h i s
odious c o n t e s t . " ^ ^
And,
finally,
the i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s , a f t e r
stating
t h e t h e war had c a u s e d t h e c o t t o n s h o r t a g e which
be r e l i e v e d through
who
intervention,
claimed that
could
those
were s u f f e r i n g d i d not support n e u t r a l i t y .
Yet
t h e y o n l y mentioned t h i s on a few o c c a s s i o n s as when
L i n d s a y , i n 18 62, r e v e a l e d t h a t a workman, i n r e f e r r i n g
t o t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e South,
a s s u r e you
had t o l d him,
" I can
i n t h i s p a r t of t h e c o u n t r y we a r e anxious
t o see i t . " ^ ' '
Apparently,
the i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s assumed
t h a t t h o s e s u f f e r i n g would be opposed t o n e u t r a l i t y .
To c o u n t e r t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s ' use of the c o t t o n
s h o r t a g e , t h r e e p o i n t s were used.
First
of a l l ,
the
n e u t r a l i s t s a s s e r t e d t h a t B r i t a i n s h o u l d not a c t out of
economic s e l f - i n t e r e s t .
I n 1862, F o r s t e r s t a t e d , i n
^5. Hansard's Parliamentary
pp.533, 566.
I b i d , p,574.
1"'. I b i d , p.518.
Debates, Volume 168,
56
reference
t o t h o s e who
"ought not t r a n s g r e s s
interests'
sake."
were s u f f e r i n g , t h a t B r i t a i n
i n t e r n a t i o n a l law even f o r t h e i r
The
S o l i c i t o r G e n e r a l asked
would i t have been i f , f o r t h e purpose of
and c o n s i d e r i n g
our own
consulting
i n t e r e s t s , we had been the
f i r s t t o b r e a k t h e r e c o g n i s e d usages
- the f i r s t
"how
of e s t a b l i s h e d
law
t o s a y t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s as a
b e l l i g e r e n t power s h o u l d not e x e r c i s e a l l b e l l i g e r e n t
r i g h t s i n t h e o r d i n a r y manner, because
we
wanted
cotton?"^^
Some of t h e n e u t r a l i s t s f u r t h e r c l a i m e d t h a t
war
r e s u l t i n g from i n t e r v e n t i o n would not
the
be
economically b e n e f i c i a l for B r i t a i n .
On b e i n g asked
Hopwood on June 30,
Majesty's
1862,
whether Her
Government "would endeavour t o put an end t o t h e
War
i n America?",
Palmerston
replied that
by
Civil
"Her
M a j e s t y ' s Government a r e d e e p l y s e n s i b l e of the
s u f f e r i n g s now
e x i s t i n g i n the
d i s t r i c t s " but he was
anything l i k e
" s u r e t h e House w i l l see t h a t
i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h t h e war now
would o n l y a g g r a v a t e
now
Lancashire
"we
F o r s t e r , on J u l y 18,
one
1863,
c o u l d keep t h e working p o p u l a t i o n of
i n l u x u r y f o r l e s s than the p r i c e i t would
c o s t us t o i n t e r f e r e a s t h e noble L o r d
suggested."
going
s t i l l more t h e s u f f e r i n g s of t h o s e
under p r i v a t i o n . "
stated that
cotton-manufacturing
Additionally,
c o n s i d e r e d i n a merely
he
"believed
opposite
that,
s e l f i s h and economical
Hansard's Parliamentary
pp.1195,1225.
Debates, Volume
p o i n t of
165,
57
view, s u c h a war would be t h e worst a l t e r n a t i v e . " ^ ^
L o r d Montagu, i n opposing i n t e r v e n t i o n
interest,
for self-
c l a i m e d t h a t war would r e s u l t and no c o t t o n
would be g a i n e d .
On June 30, 1863, he a s k e d h i s f e l l o w
members whether anyone b e l i e v e d
recognition
" t h a t t h e mere
o f t h e Southern S t a t e s , w i t h o u t a war,
would b r i n g o v e r a s i n g l e b a l e o f c o t t o n ?
recognition
diminish
w i t h war would l e s s o n t h e h a r d s h i p ,
the taxes,
The
o r s t o p t h e e f f u s i o n of b l o o d ? " ^ ^
opponents o f i n t e r v e n t i o n a l s o i n s i s t e d
those s u f f e r i n g i n t e r v e n t i o n
intervention.
I
Or t h a t
do
blush
of
supported n e u t r a l i t y , not
Forster stated
not mean
to
that
that:
say that
upon
the
first
i t might not appear t o be t h e i n t e r e s t
the
manufacturing
blockade
should
manufacturing
think
so.
districts
be
broken.
districts
They
do
not
that
the
But
the
themselves
a r e opposed t o t h e b r e a k i n g
of i n t e r n a t i o n a l law,*-^
In reference
t o the cotton m i l l workers' d e s i r e f o r
intervention,
the S o l i c i t o r General
stated:
Who have been t h e g r e a t
s u f f e r e r s h e r e by t h e
loss
which
of
Hansard's
20. Hansard's
D 1787,
21. Hansard's
p.1195.
that
trade
has
been
so
Parliamentary
Parliamentary
Debates, Volume 168, p,536
Debates, Volume 171,
Parliamentary
Debates, Volume 165,
58
unhappily
interrupted?
The
manufacturers
of
demanded
this
[intervention]?
Friend,
[Gregory]
artisans
and
L a n c a s h i r e . . . Have
the
h a s my
Member
they
hon.
f o r Galway
spoken under t h e i r i n s p i r a t i o n ?
No!
On March 10, 1862, T a y l o r d e n i e d t h a t t h e working
c l a s s e s of B r i t a i n h e l d t h e o p i n i o n s of which t h e
i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s had a c c u s e d them.
workers
Referring to the
a t B l a c k b u r n who had been o r i g i n a l l y p r e s e n t e d
w i t h a r e s o l u t i o n i n f a v o u r of r e c o g n i t i o n , he r e l a t e d
that
"a R e s o l u t i o n s i m i l a r t o t h a t now proposed
hon.
Member f o r S u n d e r l a n d
by t h e
[ L i n d s a y ] was submitted t o
them; i t was n e g a t i v e d , and a r e s o l u t i o n i n t h e
o p p o s i t e s e n s e was c a r r i e d by t h e working
unanimously."
T a y l o r reasoned t h a t
" t h e s e people
seen t o b e a r t h e i r s u f f e r i n g s , because
if
men almost
they f e l t ,
were
even
a s u p p l y of c o t t o n s h o u l d be t h e r e s u l t of
i n t e r v e n t i o n , t h a t t h a t i n t e r v e n t i o n would i n v o l v e a
sin
and produce a s t a i n on t h e a n t i - s l a v e r y f l a g of
England."^3
W i t h i n t h e second p o i n t , l a y t h e main p o i n t of
c o n t e n t i o n concerning t h e cotton shortage: d i d those
s u f f e r i n g s u p p o r t n e u t r a l i t y or i n t e r v e n t i o n ?
an e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t
T h i s was
question f o r e i t h e r side to
p r o v i d e a d e f i n i t i v e answer and f o r t h a t r e a s o n , i t
made t h e c o t t o n s h o r t a g e a d i f f i c u l t
22
23,
I b i d , p.1225.
Hansard's Parliamentary
issue f o r the
Debates, Volume 168, p.525,
59
i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s to use.
They c o u l d not
advocate
i n t e r v e n t i o n on b e h a l f of t h o s e s u f f e r i n g i f t h o s e
s u f f e r i n g d i d not t h e m s e l v e s d e s i r e i t .
the
Thus,
despite
f a c t t h a t few of t h o s e a f f e c t e d c o u l d v o t e , t h e i r
support was d e s p e r a t e l y sought by both s i d e s .
This
d e s p e r a t i o n was b e s t m a n i f e s t e d i n t h e s t a g e d r a l l i e s
which b o t h s i d e s h e l d i n o r d e r t o demonstrate
that the
c o t t o n m i l l workers s u p p o r t e d e i t h e r North or South,
T h e r e f o r e , K i n g Cotton had been dethroned by t h e
u n c e r t a i n t y of p u b l i c o p i n i o n .
B e s i d e s c o t t o n , t h e r e was o n l y one o t h e r i s s u e
debated i n P a r l i a m e n t c o n c e r n i n g t h e American
which a l s o i n v o l v e d B r i t a i n ' s economic
grain.
the
True, b e f o r e t h e war,
War
self-interest:
t h e g r a i n i m p o r t s from
N o r t h e r n s t a t e s were l e s s t h a n o n e - q u a r t e r of the
t o t a l imported i n t o B r i t a i n .
1862 t h e American
of
Civil
the t o t a l g r a i n
However, from 1860
g r a i n i m p o r t s s u r g e d t o almost
to
half
imports.2^
The g r a i n i s s u e though, was by f a r one of t h e
least
common debated.
T h i s was p r o b a b l y due t o the
f a c t t h a t i t was d i f f i c u l t t o p e r c e i v e .
One
e a s i l y be aware of b l o c k a d i n g s h i p s , s l a v e s ,
could
and
unemployed c o t t o n m i l l workers but B r i t a i n ' s dependence
on g r a i n shipments was
far less
noticeable.
The g r a i n i s s u e , when mentioned, was u s e d t o
oppose t h o s e a d v o c a t i n g i n t e r f e r e n c e b a s e d upon t h e
2*. D a v i d P, Crook, The North, the South, and the
Powers (London: John Wiley, and Sons, 1974), pp,268272,
60
cotton shortage.
The
n e u t r a l i s t s contended t h a t
B r i t i s h were dependent upon the g r a i n which was
p r o d u c e d i n the North.
I f war
r e s u l t of i n t e r v e n t i o n ,
B r i t a i n would no
t h i s g r a i n and
shortage.
was
the
being
t o o c c u r as
the
longer
receive
t h e r e would be the p o s s i b i l i t y of a food
To t h o s e c o n s i d e r i n g
whether t o i n t e r f e r e ,
the n e u t r a l i s t s were hoping t h a t the Members of
P a r l i a m e n t would p r e f e r t o cope w i t h unemployment
r a t h e r than
starvation.
F o r s t e r was
t h e member who
most o f t e n
discussed
B r i t a i n ' s dependence upon American g r a i n .
u s e d the
he
He
i s s u e d u r i n g the debate of J u l y 18,
stated that
did that
"We
had
a c o t t o n famine now;
[ i n t e r v e n t i o n ] , we
c o r n famine."25
should stand
indeed, as a l r e a d y
first
1862,
but
i f we
i n danger of a
mentioned,
h a l f of B r i t a i n ' s g r a i n i m p o r t s i n 1862
when
nearly
were from the
North.
F o r s t e r ' s b r i e f mention of g r a i n p r o b a b l y
i n d i c a t e d t h a t he d i d not
persuasiveness.
I t was
b e l i e v e i n i t s powerful
most l i k e l y u s e d as a t a c t i c
which a d e b a t e r u s e s numerous p o i n t s
the
opposition
w i l l be
by
i n the hope t h a t
overwhelmed by the
sheer
quantity.
The
g r a i n i s s u e remained unmentioned a f t e r
F o r s t e r ' s b r i e f comment f o r almost an e n t i r e y e a r
despite
time.
the
The
s e v e r a l d e b a t e s on i n t e r v e n t i o n
n e x t and
l a s t time t h a t g r a i n was
during that
mentioned
was
the debate on Roebuck's motion on June 30,
25,
Hansard's
Parliamentary
Debates, Volume 165,
1863.
p.550,
61
T h i s t i m e F o r s t e r w o u l d be j o i n e d b y Montagu i n
using the grain issue.
We
imported
sources
States
Montagu a r g u e d :
largely
being
of grain,
Poland
o f America.
and
Was
our two c h i e f
the
North
i t likely
that
s h o u l d be a b l e t o g e t much f r o m P o l a n d
the present
circumstances?
No.
West
we
under
Then we must
r e s t m a i n l y on t h e s u p p l i e s o f N o r t h A m e r i c a .
B u t how w o u l d war a f f e c t t h a t ?
distress
with
To f u l l y
i n England
be
Would n o t t h e
aggravated
b y a war
America?^^
comprehend Montagu's p o i n t , one must
understand
t h a t P o l a n d was i n c r i s i s .
The p o p u l a t i o n
r e b e l l e d a g a i n s t R u s s i a n r u l e , p r i m a r i l y due t o a new
c o n s c r i p t i o n p o l i c y , and t h e r e s u l t i n g
w a r f a r e b y some o f t h e P o l i s h p e o p l e
guerrilla
jeopardized the
p o s s i b l i t y that B r i t a i n could continue t o acquire
P o l i s h g r a i n d u r i n g 1863.^''
T a k i n g up Montagu's a r g u m e n t d u r i n g t h e same
debate,
Forster noted t h a t
"sufferings ofthe
c o u n t r y m e n . . . w o u l d be g r e a t i n d e e d i f t h e y were
d e p r i v e d o f t h e American corn crop o f t h i s
Forster blatantly
year."
c r i t i c i z e d Roebuck f o r he " w o u l d
never a l l o w commercial c o n s i d e r a t i o n s prevent him from
26. Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 1 7 1 ,
g.l795.
2'. E. L l e w e l l y n Woodward, The Age of Reform, ( O x f o r d ;
C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1962) p.315.
62
e n g a g i n g i n a j u s t war, b u t when t h e y were a s k e d by t h e
hon.
a n d l e a r n e d Member f o r S h e f f i e l d
s e l f i s h purposes - t o procure
to
t o go t o war f o r
c o t t o n - i t was a l l o w a b l e
a s k 'What w o u l d be t h e c o s t o f t h e war i n c o r n ? " ^ ^
The
issue.
interventionists
T h i s l a c k o f r e s p o n s e was p r o b a b l y n o t because
the i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s
counter.
never responded t o t h i s
considered
Rather, they probably
issue o f l i t t l e
Judging
g r a i n issues
appear t h a t
i t impossible t o
simply considered the
influence.
b y t h e u n p o p u l a r i t y o f t h e c o t t o n and
relative
t o t h e other issues, i t would
t h e Members o f P a r l i a m e n t
not b e l i e v e t h a t
apparently d i d
t h e y c o u l d persuade t h e i r
fellow
members t o i n t e r v e n e o r r e m a i n n e u t r a l s i m p l y on t h e
b a s i s o f economic s e l f - i n t e r e s t .
I n fact,
p e r s p e c t i v e o f economic s e l f - i n t e r e s t ,
from t h e
perhaps t h e best
argument l a y i n t h e f a c t
that
several B r i t i s h
i n d u s t r i e s were t h r i v i n g
i n the manufacturing of
supplies f o r the N o r t h . Y e t ,
this
i s s u e was n o t
m e n t i o n e d i n any o f t h e P a r l i a m e n t a r y d e b a t e s o r t h e
Cabinet
d i s c u s s i o n s a n d t h e r e f o r e was n o t c o n s i d e r e d i n
terms o f t h e n e u t r a l i t y
policy.
Grain, King
and m a n u f a c t u r e d c o m m o d i t i e s c l e a r l y
Cotton,
d i dnot reign i n
t h e Houses o f P a r l i a m e n t .
28. Hansard's Parliamentary
B.1813.
29. Owsley, p.549.
Debates, Volume 1 7 1 ,
63
IV.The I s s u e s o f M o r a l i t y :
S l a v e r y and Freedom
"To t h o s e
American
nay,
who w a t c h e d t h e p r o g r e s s
continent
even p u e r i l e ,
slavery
i t appeared
t o state
c o u l d be a s s i g n e d
o f events
absurdly
that
upon t h e
unnecessary,
any o t h e r cause
f o r the c i v i l
than
war." -
W.E.
F o r s t e r , October, 1861^
"The
manifestos
State
or
desirous
exchanging
o f t h e South might
of terminating
be p u t f o r t h b y any
an u n p l e a s a n t
connexion
u n i o n f o r i n d e p e n d e n c e . " - The Times, May
30, 1861
When d i s c u s s i n g t h e A m e r i c a n C i v i l War, t h e
Members o f P a r l i a m e n t d e b a t e d
t w o i s s u e s w h i c h may be
considered issues o f m o r a l i t y : t h e r i g h t of s e l f determination,
advocated
and s l a v e r y .
The i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s
a d e p a r t u r e f r o m n e u t r a l i t y b a s e d upon t h e
Southerners'
r i g h t o f s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n and t h e y a l s o
s t r i v e d t o d i s m i s s s l a v e r y as a c r u c i a l f a c t o r .
neutralists
The
countered t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s ' discussion
of t h e r i g h t o f s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n by i n s i s t i n g t h a t
the
S o u t h s t o o d f o r , a n d was f i g h t i n g f o r , t h e
continuation of slavery.
1. Q u o t e d i n T.Wemyss R e i d , The Life of W.E. Forster
(London: Chapman a n d H a l l , 1 8 8 8 ) , p.339.
64
I n t h e e a r l y 1830s t h e a n t i s l a v e r y movement, as an
o r g a n i z e d g r o u p , became a p o w e r f u l
which e v e n t u a l l y
assisted
force i n B r i t a i n
i n abolishing slavery
from
t h e B r i t i s h E m p i r e i n 1833 and, f o u r y e a r s l a t e r , t h e
a n t i s l a v e r y movement l e d t h e c r u s a d e i n o r d e r t o
abolish the slavery-apprenticeship
many ways j u s t
the
s y s t e m w h i c h was i n
s l a v e r y b y a d i f f e r e n t name.
Yet, a f t e r
z e n i t h o f t h e 1830s a n d t h e 1840s, t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n
o f t h e a n t i s l a v e r y movement g r a d u a l l y
though B r i t i s h
diminished,
even
sentiment i n g e n e r a l remained h o s t i l e t o
slavery.
W i t h t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e American C i v i l
and
the establishment of several
organizations
Association,
pro-Southern
s u c h as t h e S o u t h e r n I n d e p e n d e n c e
t h e a n t i s l a v e r y movement as an o r g a n i z e d
f o r c e was t e m p o r a r i l y
forces
resurrected.
The a n t i s l a v e r y
s u p p o r t e d t h e N o r t h and L i n c o l n ' s
aims w h i l e
War
emancipation
o p p o s i n g any d e v i a t i o n f r o m B r i t a i n ' s
neutrality policy.
In opposition
t o t h e pro-Northern view o f t h e
a n t i s l a v e r y g r o u p s , t h e S o u t h e r n s y m p a t h i s e r s were n o t
themselves i n favour
of slavery.
southern organizations,
i n c l u d i n g t h e Southern
Independence A s s o c i a t i o n ,
i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t MP's,
that
Many o f t h e p r o -
promised emancipation.^
interestingly,
f a c t b u t i n s t e a d went t o g r e a t
never mentioned
lengths t o
e s t a b l i s h t h a t s l a v e r y was n o t an i s s u e
2.
Owsley, p.179,
The
upon w h i c h
65
Britain
s h o u l d make p o l i c y i n r e s p e c t t o t h e
Confederacy.
First
of a l l ,
t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s contended t h a t
t h e war was n o t a war f o r a b o l i t i o n .
substantiated
T h i s was i n p a r t
by t h e t h e f a c t t h a t L i n c o l n had n o t ,
u n t i l t h e autumn o f 1862, made s l a v e r y
Lindsay used t h i s p o i n t t o strengthen
a war a i m .
h i s argument i n
J u l y o f 1862 when he s t a t e d t h a t " s l a v e r y
little
i f anything
pointed
out t h a t :
In
fact,
Address,
t o do w i t h t h e c i v i l
President
Lincoln,
on t h e 4 r t h
'I
have
or
indirectly,
had v e r y
war."
i n h i s inaugural
o f March,
1861, s a i d
no i n t e n t i o n t o i n t e r f e r e ,
with
the question
where
i t exists.
right
t o do so l e g a l l y ,
i n c l i n e d t o do
He
I do n o t t h i n k
-
directly
of
slavery
I have
a
and I am by no means
it.
P r i o r t o t h e issuance o f t h e Emancipation Proclamation,
Lincoln's
dismissal
o f G e n e r a l Fremont f o r h i s
e m a n c i p a t i o n e d i c t , h i s annulment o f General Hunter's
e m a n c i p a t i o n e d i c t , a n d h i s c o r r e c t i o n o f Cameron's
s t a t e m e n t t h a t e m a n c i p a t i o n was a war a i m made t h e t a s k
more d i f f i c u l t
used t h i s
f o r t h e a n t i s l a v e r y groups.
l i n e o f a r g u m e n t b y r e c a l l i n g t h a t much "had
been s a i d a b o u t s l a v e r y ,
slavery
Lindsay
and he c o u l d be no f r i e n d t o
as an i n s t i t u t i o n ; b u t when t w o o f t h e most
distinguished
f e d e r a l g e n e r a l s t a l k e d about
liberating
66
the
s l a v e s , t h e y were i m m e d i a t e l y
was
mistaken
f o r o n l y General
" r e c a l l e d " a l t h o u g h General
had been r e v o k e d .
recalled."^
Fremont had
Hunter's
been
emancipation
N e v e r t h e l e s s , he was
The
was
a war
1862,
against slavery.
i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s d i d admit t h a t s l a v e r y
e x i s t e d i n t h e South b u t a l s o argued
reason
edict
correct i n
b e l i e v i n g t h a t L i n c o l n had n o t , as o f March
d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e war
Lindsay
t h a t t h a t was
no
not t o recognize the Confederacy f o r B r i t a i n
recognized several states that permitted slavery.
D u r i n g h i s speech on June 30,
We
are
met
cannot
by
the
acknowledge
exists.'
Indeed,
case,
i s any
and
it?
Have we
not
in
And
is
1863,
Roebuck
assertion,
a
State
I ask,
man
so
'Oh,
i n which
there
slavery
really
weak
to believe
as
communication
not
England
i s that
not acknowledged B r a z i l ?
constant
argued:
slavery
with
in
both
the
Are
we
Russia?
these
countries?^
Furthermore,
the i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s asserted that
the
s l a v e r y s y s t e m i n t h e S o u t h was
the
manner i n w h i c h b l a c k s were t r e a t e d i n t h e N o r t h .
B e n t i n c k , i n 1862,
Southern
contended
that
more c i v i l i z e d
"the Northern
than
and
S t a t e s s t o o d i n p r e c i s e l y t h e same p o s i t i o n i n
^. Hansard's
^. Hansard's
Parliamentary
Parliamentary
Debates, Volume 168, p.515.
Debates, Volume 171, p.1774
67
regards
to this
institution."^
I n 1863,
Roebuck
stated:
M o r e o v e r , does anybody b e l i e v e t h a t t h e
slave
would
condition
position
ask
be
by
as
at
being
the
free
all
improved
placed
black
in
in
his
the
same
i n the North?
I
w h e t h e r t h e N o r t h , h a t i n g s l a v e r y , i f you
will,
does n o t h a t e t h e s l a v e s t i l l
more?
T h i s l a s t comment e l i c i t e d t h e r e s p o n s e o f a
"Noes!" w h i c h were s u b s e q u e n t l y
s t a t i o n i n the North."
I n c o n t r a s t , he
South t h e f e e l i n g i s v e r y d i f f e r e n t , "
c h i l d r e n and
w h i c h a "No!"
shouted.
He
argued " i n the
c o n t i n u e d by n o t i n g t h a t
which e x i s t s i n the North."
s t a t e d t h a t he was
"although
not
I hate
"black
up t o g e t h e r " t o
" I n t h e South t h e r e i s not t h a t h a t r e d , t h a t
o f t h e b l a c k man
He
equal
f o r there
w h i t e c h i l d r e n are brought
was
few
drowned i n cheers.
i n s i s t e d t h a t t h e "blacks are not p e r m i t t e d
but
black
"speaking
contempt
Roebuck
i n favour of slavery"
s l a v e r y , I cannot h e l p seeing
the
g r e a t d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e b l a c k i n
the North,
and h i s c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e S o u t h . "
further believed that
w i t h t h e S o u t h , and
He
"to-morrow t h e N o r t h would
join
f a s t e n s l a v e r y on t h e necks o f
b l a c k s , i f t h e South would o n l y r e - e n t e r the Union.
^. Hansard's Parliamentary
^. Hansard's Parliamentary
pp.1774-1775.
Debates, Volume 165, p . 1 1 8 1 .
Debates, Volume 171,
68
Clifford,
i n t h e same d e b a t e , c l a i m e d t h a t
slavery
i n t h e S o u t h was n o t c r u e l o r t h a t t h e N o r t h was n o t
against slavery.
He c o n f e s s e d t h a t he " d i d n o t w i s h i t
t o be s u p p o s e d t h a t he was a t a l l i n f a v o u r o f t h e
institution
of slavery,
degrading t o t h e master
f o r he t h o u g h t i t e q u a l l y
and t h e s l a v e ; b u t he d i d n o t
b e l i e v e t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e Southern masters
c r u e l masters."
He i n d i c t e d
were
" t h e w h o l e power o f t h e
N o r t h " f o r b e i n g "engaged t o s u p p o r t t h e system."''
F o r t h o s e who r e m a i n e d u n c o n v i n c e d , t h e
interventionists
f u r t h e r claimed that separation of the
United States into
slavery.
Gregory
two separate r e p u b l i c s would
contended t h a t
curtail
"reconstruction ofthe
U n i o n was t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e most l i k e l y t o l e a d t o t h e
s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f t h e one ( s l a v e r y ) and t h e s p r e a d o f
the
other (slave t r a d e ) . "
1863,
will
L o r d Campbell
on March 23,
a s s e r t e d t h a t i n " t h e event o f s e p a r a t i o n ,
no l o n g e r be t h e p o s s i b i l i t y
bondage i n t o
exist."
territories
According t h i s
there
o f e x t e n d i n g negro
i n w h i c h i t does n o t now
line
o f argument w h i c h even
William Lloyd Garrison o r i g i n a l l y
accepted, t h e
secession o f t h e s l a v e s t a t e s would prevent t h e
extension of slavery into
t h e western
territories.
However, i f t h e s l a v e s t a t e s r e m a i n e d p a r t o f t h e
Union,
s l a v e r y w o u l d be s p r e a d f r o m ocean t o ocean.^
7. I b i d , pp.1798-1799.
^. Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 165, p . 1 1 6 1 ;
Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 169, p.1730; I t
s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t f o r a t i m e , t h e New M e x i c o
t e r r i t o r y had a s e c e s s i o n i s t government.
69
In
fervent opposition, the neutralists continually
stressed
t h e f a c t t h a t t h e Confederacy stood f o r
slavery.
I n 1862, t h e S o l i c i t o r G e n e r a l d e c l a r e d
that
" a f t e r h a v i n g made s u c h s a c r i f i c e s as we have done f o r
the
sake o f l i b e r t y " B r i t a i n s h o u l d
"active cooperation
without
one
the fault
of the last
w i t h a country
n o t engage i n
which, perhaps,
of the present generation,
strongholds
of slavery."
is still
P.A.
Taylor,
who c o n t e n d e d t h a t s l a v e r y i n t h e S o u t h " m i g h t be
described
as t h e w i c k e d e s t a n d most i n f e r n a l s y s t e m t h e
w o r l d h a d e v e r seen, " l i k e t h e S o l i c i t o r G e n e r a l s t a t e d
that
to
"What an e x t r a o r d i n a r y i n s t a n c e
of inconsistency
see a n a t i o n t h a t e x p e n d e d £20,000,000 i n o r d e r t o
emancipate t h e slaves
discussing
i n i t s own c o l o n i e s ,
i n Parliament
establishment
now
a proposition for the
o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f new S t a t e s
whose
i n d e p e n d e n c e was e x c l u s i v e l y b a s e d on t h e r e c o g n i t i o n
of slavery,"
W.E.
Forster
s t a t e d t h a t he " b e l i e v e d i t
was g e n e r a l l y a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t s l a v e r y was t h e r e a l
cause o f t h i s w a r , " t o w h i c h t h e r e were s h o u t s o f "No!,
No!" a n d " t h e t a r i f f . "
"Vice President
war
He c o n t i n u e d
by n o t i n g t h a t
S t e p h e n s s a i d t h a t t h e S o u t h went t o
t o e s t a b l i s h s l a v e r y as t h e c o r n e r - s t o n e
o f t h e new
R e p u b l i c , " w h i l e t h e r e was "no a l l u s i o n t o t a r i f f i n
t h e e l e c t i o n o r d e c l a r a t i o n o f i n d e p e n d e n c e by t h e
Southern Confederacy."^
^. Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 165, p.1224;
Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 168,
pp.527,537.
70
In
t h e autumn o f 18 62, Abraham L i n c o l n made a
d r a m a t i c s t e p w h i c h a l t e r e d t h e f o c u s o f t h e war.
A f t e r t h e U n i o n v i c t o r y a t t h e b a t t l e o f A n t i e t a m , he
i s s u e d h i s famous p r e l i m i n a r y E m a n c i p a t i o n
which
d e c l a r e d t h a t a f t e r January
Proclamation
1 , 1863, a l l t h e
s l a v e s i n t h o s e s t a t e s w h i c h were i n r e b e l l i o n w o u l d be
free.
L i n c o l n c o n s i d e r e d t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n one o f h i s
greatest
The
achievements.
p r o c l a m a t i o n was n o t a p a r t i c u l a r l y
popular
issue f o re i t h e r the n e u t r a l i s t s or the
interventionists.
until
almost
I t was n o t m e n t i o n e d
i n Parliament
s i x months a f t e r L i n c o l n h a d f i r s t
it.
However, when t h e S o u t h e r n
it,
they proceeded t o c r i t i c i z e
sympathisers
read
mentioned
i t intensely.
L o r d C a m p b e l l on March, 23, 1863, i n m o v i n g t o t h e
i s s u e o f s l a v e r y , became t h e f i r s t
to
mention
t h e Emancipation
Member i n P a r l i a m e n t
Proclamation.
He c l a i m e d
that:
A t one t i m e t h e y
[the North] boasted
disposition
t o maintain
after,
d e s i r e d t h e Border
they
delivered
was
from
declared,
i t .
i t [slavery].
After
but only
of their
that
States
Soon
t o be
emancipation
i n t h e States
which
The E m a n c i p a t i o n P r o c l a m a t i o n d i d n o t a l t e r
P a l m e r s t o n ' s v i e w s o f t h e w a r . C h a m b e r l a i n , p.115.
Douglas L o r i m e r c l a i m e d , i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e e f f e c t o f
the Emancipation P r o c l a m a t i o n , t h a t " L i b e r a l o p i n i o n ,
a l r e a d y fragmented over t h e q u e s t i o n o f support f o r t h e
South o r t h e N o r t h , d i d n o t f i n d t h a t t h e Emancipation
P r o c l a m a t i o n c l a r i f i e d t h e i s s u e . " Douglas L o r i m e r ,
Colour, Class, and the Victorians ( L e i c e s t e r , 1 9 7 8 ) ,
p.169.
71
were
resisting
preserve
them.
The l o y a l
the institution
region
must
- b u t seceders
must
renounce i t .
He b e l i e v e d t h a t
" s w e l d i n g w i t h o m n i p o t e n c e , Mr.
L i n c o l n and h i s c o l l e a g u e s d i c t a t e i n s u r r e c t i o n t o t h e
s l a v e s o f Alabama."^^
D u r i n g t h e d i s c u s s i o n on Roebuck's m o t i o n ,
Clifford
both
and Gladstone d e c l a r e d t h e i r o p p o s i t i o n t o
r e c o g n i z i n g t h e Confederacy,
t h e i r Southern
Emancipation
Yet t h e y t o o d i s p l a y e d
sympathies i n c r i t i c i s i n g t h e
Proclamation.
Clifford
asserted that
even
"Mr. L i n c o l n ' s p r o c l a m a t i o n was a d m i t t e d t o be an
illegal
a c t , a n d t o be j u s t i f i e d o n l y as a war
measure."
G l a d s t o n e d i d n o t " b e l i e v e t h a t a more f a t a l
e r r o r was e v e r
committed
t h a n when men
conclusion t h a t t h e emancipation
t o be s o u g h t ,
... came t o t h e
o f t h e n e g r o r a c e was
a l t h o u g h t h e y c o u l d o n l y t r a v e l t o i t by
a sea o f b l o o d . " ^ 2
similarly.
Lord Robert C e c i l ,
was t h e o n l y one t o speak i n f a v o u r o f Roebuck's
motion,
also stated h i s opposition t o Lincoln's
emancipation
In
edict.
almost
every
He n o t e d
case
that:
i t [slavery]
gradually
rooted
consequence
o f t h e pressure
Hansard's Parliamentary
p 1222.
^ 2 . Hansard's Parliamentary
pp.1799, 1807.
out;
but
h a d been
never
o f armed
in
force.
Debates,
Volume 169,
Debates,
Volume 1 7 1 ,
who
72
It
was
eradicated
i n every
instance
by t h e
influence of public opinion.
Despite
t h e a b o l i t i o n i s t nature of t h e
Emancipation Proclamation,
Parliament
o n l y one member o f
e v e r u s e d i t as a m a j o r p o i n t t o b o l s t e r t h e
n e u t r a l i s t argument.
T h a t member was John B r i g h t .
On
June 30, 1863, he c h a s t i s e d t h e House f o r he h a d " n o t
heard
a word t o - n i g h t o f another
proclamation
q u e s t i o n - I mean t h e
of the President of the United
He a t t a c k e d Roebuck f o r h i s a p p a r e n t
States."
ignorance
of this
document:
I
make no a l l o w a n c e
is
f o r that,
because
i g n o r a n t , i t i s h i s own f a u l t ,
given
him
h i m an i n t e l l e c t
from
ignorance
on
which
a
i f he
f o r God has
ought
question
t o keep
of
this
South,
but
magnitude.
He
continued:
We
have
our
recognising
Consuls
only
President,
one
concerned,
that
effective
Furthermore,
Ibid,
one
law.
the
legislature,
one
f a r as
are
So
proclamation
document.
he s t a t e d :
p.1819
in
we
i s a l e g a l and
73
We
see
that
t h e Government
S t a t e s has f o r t w o y e a r s
for
i t s life,
contending
That
and
Government
know
affords
the history
Government
defender
This l a s t
that
the
i t is
forward
freedom.
remarkable
f o rthe f i r s t
of the world
coming
United
contending
f o r human
example - o f f e r e d p r o b a b l y
in
the
p a s t been
we
necessarily
of
as
-
of a
the
time
great
organized
o f l a w , f r e e d o m , and e q u a l i t y .
comment r e c e i v e d an "Oh!" and c h e e r s f r o m t h e
assembly.
However, w h i l e o n l y B r i g h t m e n t i o n e d t h e
Emancipation
Proclamation,
L i n c o l n ' s document a l l o w e d
F o r s t e r and B r i g h t t o c l a i m t h a t t h e Confederacy
for
stood
s l a v e r y and t h e Union s t o o d f o r emancipation.
In
18 63, F o r s t e r i n q u i r e d "How was t h e l i n e drawn between
the
t w o s e t s o f s t a t e s ? " and he a n s w e r e d e x p l i c i t l y
t h a t t h e l i n e was d r a w n " E x a c t l y by s l a v e r y , n o t t h e
protective t a r i f f . "
Forster asserted that
"they [ t h e
N o r t h ] were g i v i n g up s l a v e r y " a n d :
The
Government
called
of
this
on t o do s o m e t h i n g ,
country
which
a n y t h i n g , meant i n t e r v e n t i o n .
were
now
i f i t meant
['No!'
'Hear!]
1^. I b i d , pp.1835-1836. The Times h a d a s l i g h t l y
d i f f e r e n t r e p o r t t h a n Hansard's.
I tclaimed that
B r i g h t ' s l a s t comment r e c e i v e d n o t j u s t one "Oh!", b u t
several.
74
He
felt
great
anxiety f o r the
siege
of
things
depended
He
Vicksburg,
could not
were
help
taken,
Mississippi
should
see
on
i t -
believed
two
peace
and
that
other
o f f from
an end
To F o r s t e r , t h e f a l l
the
the
he
thinking
and
cut
for
success o f
slave
freedom.
i f Vicksburg
side
of
the
territory,
we
o f t h e war.^^
of Vicksburg
the North would then prevent
and t h e s u c c e s s o f
a f u r t h e r spread
of
slavery.
B r i g h t b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e r e was
t h e s t a t e s had
d i v i d e d due
institution."
He
the weight
no q u e s t i o n
t o t h e South's " p e c u l i a r
a s s e r t e d t h a t Roebuck " w o u l d
t h a t i s now
The
w h e t h e r t h e r e was
"any
Gentleman i n t h i s
n o t a g r e e w i t h me
i n this
our g r e a t Lancashire
cotton m i l l
He
the
to
questioned
House who
will
far better
i n d u s t r y t h a t our supply
of
f r e e labour r a t h e r than
by
a p p e a l e d t o t h e House t o
what t h e s t a t e o f t h i n g s
"every
owner
- t h a t i t w o u l d be
c o t t o n s h o u l d be grown by
slave labour?"
"that
r a g i n g i n A m e r i c a i s more l i k e l y
abolish i t than not."
for
throw
of England i n t o the scale i n favour of the
cause o f s l a v e r y , " w h i l e B r i g h t m a i n t a i n e d
war
that
"consider
[ w e r e ] b e f o r e t h e war"
when
y e a r i n t h e s l a v e S t a t e s o f A m e r i c a t h e r e were
150,000 c h i l d r e n b o r n
badge and
i n t o the w o r l d - born w i t h the
loom o f s l a v e r y . " ^ ^
15. I b i d , p.1816.
1^. Hansard's Parliamentary
pp.1830-1834.
Debates, Volume
171,
75
The
slavery
p r i m a r y way
i s s u e was
the
t h r o u g h by
self-determination.
put
s i m p l y , was
i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s countered
The
a belief
the
right
use
of
of the
t h a t p e o p l e s h o u l d be
g o v e r n m e n t w h i c h g o v e r n s them.
describing
the
imposed t a r i f f s
loss
as
one
o r one
w h i c h was
t h a t was
right
t o secede and
In the
a right
of the
South.
the
Southern
t h a t the
i n the
S o u t h had
Cecil
- used the
to bolster their
portion
the
right
"sympathies
of the American people - not
that
is fighting
portion
that
i s s t r u g g l i n g f o r independence."
f o r empire, but
contended t h a t
" s e c e s s i o n was
is a fact,
that reconstruction
impossibility."
"taxation"
rebelled
and
a right,
In a historical
supported Gregory i n h i s
C o l o n i e s had
that
claim
is
i f "the
S o u t h e r n S t a t e s had
a still
separation
Thirteen
what t h e
Lindsay declared t h a t
against the
He
because
i n respect t o the
to rebel
that
Bentinck
t h a t the
exactly
that
an
view,
against B r i t a i n
"was
with
that
S t a t e s were d o i n g now
right
of
argument i n f a v o u r
portion
and
a
House o f
Gregory confessed t h a t h i s
w e r e w i t h one
gradual
Southern sympathisers - Gregory,
B e n t i n c k , L i n d s a y and
self-determination
Northern-
rebel.
d e b a t e o f March 18 62
Commons, f o u r
of the
to
to
By
c a u s e d by
claim
free
c a u s e d by
o f S o u t h e r n p o l i t i c a l power, t h e
sympathisers could press the
of
self-determination,
choose t h e
war
right
the
of
Southern
North."
Americans o f
1784
had
mother c o u n t r y , s u r e l y
greater right to
free
a
the
76
themselves
from merely Federal o b l i g a t i o n s t ot h e
N o r t h e r n S t a t e s . "^'^
Of t h e f o u r who spoke on s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n ,
C e c i l used B r i t a i n ' s
only
r e c o g n i t i o n of past r e b e l l i o n s t o
s t r e n g t h e n h i s argument.
He r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e " E n g l i s h
Government h a d a l w a y s been p r o n e t o r e c o g n i s e
i n s u r r e c t i o n a r y Powers" a n d t h a t h i s n a t i o n ' s
" p r i n c i p l e " h a d a l w a y s been " t h a t t h e p e o p l e
choose t h e i r own g o v e r n o r s ,
the
people
and t h a t when t h e w i l l o f
was c l e a r l y p r o n o u n c e d t h e a s s e n t o f f o r e i g n
Governments s h o u l d f o l l o w . "
"had
should
He m a i n t a i n e d t h a t
a l w a y s r e c o g n i z e d S t a t e s as soon as an
Government was e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h i n t h e i r
independent
borders."
C e c i l c i t e d t h e B r i t i s h r e c o g n i t i o n o f Belgium,
Italy,
and t h e Spanish
historical
Britain
Greece,
c o l o n i e s o f S o u t h A m e r i c a as
examples i n t h e l a s t
fifty
t h e s e p a s t a c t i o n s , he b e l i e v e d t h a t
years.
"the f i r s t
i n s t a n c e i n which t h e y had d e p a r t e d from t h a t
was i n t h e case o f t h e C o n f e d e r a t e
Despite
principle
States o f
America."^^
The
right
o f s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n became an
e s p e c i a l l y p o p u l a r i s s u e w i t h t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s as
the
South d i s p l a y e d i t s a b i l i t y
t o f o r m and s u r v i v e as
the
Confederate
the
C o n f e d e r a c y b e y o n d t h e n i n e t y day e x p e c t a t i o n was
States o f America.
The d u r a b i l i t y o f
held t o j u s t i f y
i t s claim t o the right of self-
determination.
I n J u l y 1862 Vane Tempest p o i n t e d l y
. Hansard's Parliamentary
pg.1160, 1182, 1207.
I b i d , pp.1228-1229.
Debates,
Volume 165,
77
questioned
"what were t h e chances t h a t t h e N o r t h
r e s t o r e t h e Union?"
the
would
He b e l i e v e d t h e chances s l i m , f o r
S o u t h " a f t e r an i n t e r v a l o f s i x t e e n months"
" g a l l a n t l y h e l d t h e i r own."
Whiteside
had
stated that " I t
t h e r e f o r e becomes a m a t t e r o f f a c t w h e t h e r t h e
seceding
s t a t e s h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d a Government, and have shown a
power and d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o r e s i s t any
brought
ground
the
a g a i n s t them; and,
f o r c e t h a t can
be
i f so, w h e t h e r t h e r e i s any
t o b e l i e v e t h a t a t any t i m e t h a t can be named
N o r t h w i l l be
Lindsay
able t o subjugate the
claimed that
South."
"recognition of the
Southern
S t a t e s on t h e p a r t o f t h i s c o u n t r y w o u l d be
perfectly
justifiable"
"conquered"
or
"brought back i n t o t h e Union."
"the
be
f o r t h e S o u t h c o u l d n e i t h e r be
t i m e had
Lindsay b e l i e v e d
a r r i v e d when t h e S o u t h e r n
States
received i n t o the family of nations."
b e l i e v e d t h a t i t was
C o n f e d e r a c y " was
rightly
and my
who
Southern
" o f one m i n d and o f one h e a r t , "
Member
n o b l e F r i e n d ( L o r d A.V.
(Mr.
Tempest) a r e
w o r d e d i n c a l l i n g on t h e Government t o u n i t e
w i t h t h e o t h e r E u r o p e a n Powers i n a j o i n t
course
Gregory,
" p e r f e c t l y clear that the
t h o u g h t t h e " R e s o l u t i o n s o f t h e hon.
Lindsay)
should
of a c t i o n i n t h i s
and
immediate
g r e a t emergency," f o r "we
are
j u s t i f i e d i n r e c o g n i s i n g the Confederate
S t a t e s as a
Sovereign
element
R e p u b l i c ; t h a t t h e y have e v e r y
c o n s t i t u t i n g a de
alleged that
f a c t o Government."
"the Confederate
Fitzgerald
S t a t e s had m a i n t a i n e d n o t
o n l y a Government p e r f e c t l y d i s t i n c t
from t h a t
which
b u t an e s t a b l i s h e d
t h e y had
separated themselves,
from
78
Government, w i t h a r e c o g n i s e d
President,
elected,
choice,
constitution,
a
a S e n a t e , a n d House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s ,
c o n s t i t u e n c i e s who e x e r c i s e d
and e l e c t i o n s f r e e l y
duly
an i n d e p e n d e n t
conducted."^®
I n a n o t h e r d e b a t e o f March, 1862, t h e r i g h t o f
s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n f o r t h e S o u t h e r n p e o p l e was u s e d t o
b o l s t e r t h e arguments o f t h r e e o f t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t
MPs.
B o r r o w i n g a phrase from American h i s t o r y ,
Lindsay
c o n c l u d e d t h a t " t h e r e a l cause o f t h i s d i s r u p t i o n was
taxation without
representation."
Whiteside stated
t h a t t h e " l o s s o f power may have been an i m p o r t a n t
element i n t h e d i s p u t e . "
s l a v e r y as a f a c t o r ,
war
Gregory f a i l e d t o view
d e s c r i b i n g t h e war i n s t e a d as "a
f o r i n d e p e n d e n c e on t h e one s i d e , and f o r vengeance
on t h e o t h e r . "
I n o p p o s i t i o n , o n l y one n e u t r a l i s t
responded t o t h i s
l i n e o f argument.
directly
Forster
maintained
t h a t t h e S o u t h was " f i g h t i n g i n o r d e r t o make
t h e m s e l v e s an i n d e p e n d e n t n a t i o n , and i n o r d e r t o
destroy
order
t h e U n i o n " w h i l e t h e " F e d e r a l s were f i g h t i n g i n
t o maintain
t h e Union."
F o r s t e r t h e n drew an
i n t e r e s t i n g p a r a l l e l b y n o t i n g t h a t " i f any
a r o s e i n I r e l a n d , i f a c o n t e s t were g o i n g
if
disturbance
on t h e r e , and
a n o t h e r Power s t e p p e d i n , s a y i n g t o u s , ' L e t t h e
Irishmen
alone,
a n d l e t them g o v e r n t h e m s e l v e s ,
should
we be p r e p a r e d t o s u b m i t t o d i c t a t i o n i n such a
530,
Hansard's Parliamentary Debates,
542, 511-512, 544, 574.
Volume 168, pp.
79
matter?"
submit
F o r s t e r w e l l knew t h e B r i t i s h w o u l d h a r d l y
t o intervention of that
nature.
The a r g u m e n t p r e s s i n g f o r i n t e r v e n t i o n b a s e d upon
the r i g h t
o f s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n was so p o w e r f u l t h a t i t
p e r s u a d e d a member o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t :
Gladstone.
W i l l i a m E.
He began t o q u e s t i o n n e u t r a l i t y
a particular
not out of
fondness f o r t h e South n o r a h a t r e d o f t h e
North, but out of a p o l i t i c a l philosophy
l a t e r a l s o cause h i m t o s u p p o r t
that
would
I r i s h Home R u l e and t h e
independence o f t h e Balkan S t a t e s .
Despite h i s
vehement d i s d a i n o f s l a v e r y , he m a i n t a i n e d ,
throughout
t h e e n t i r e c o n f l i c t , t h a t t h e S o u t h e r n p e o p l e had a
r i g h t t o determine
t h e i r own f o r m o f g o v e r n m e n t .
In
t h e autumn o f 1862, G l a d s t o n e b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e t i m e
was r i g h t
f o rmediation
and he went p u b l i c w i t h h i s
v i e w s i n t h e most d r a m a t i c
durability
o f ways b y s t r e s s i n g t h e
and t h e t e n a c i t y o f t h e South.
At h i s
N e w c a s t l e s p e e c h on O c t o b e r 1 1 , he d e c l a r e d :
We
know
quite
Northern
- they
their
see
be
that
t h e people
of the
S t a t e s have n o t y e t d r u n k o f t h e cup
are s t i l l
lips
they
have
well
trying
t o h o l d i t f a r from
- which a l l t h e r e s t
nevertheless
o u r own o p i n i o n s
of the world
must d r i n k o f .
about
We may
s l a v e r y ; we may
f o r o r a g a i n s t t h e S o u t h ; b u t t h e r e i s no
20, I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t F o r s t e r spoke a f t e r
G r e g o r y , a n d h i s example o f I r e l a n d was e s p e c i a l l y
r e l e v a n t t o G r e g o r y who was a Member o f P a r l i a m e n t
r e p r e s e n t i n g an I r i s h c o n s t i t u e n c y .
80
doubt
of
that
the
South
making,
made
J e f f e r s o n Davis
have
made
i t appears,
what
i s more
a
and o t h e r
an
army;
navy,
and
than
either
leaders
they
-
are
they
have
they
have
made a n a t i o n !I'21
By November, 1862, G l a d s t o n e b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e s e
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s were c a u s i n g p u b l i c o p i n i o n t o s w i n g i n
favour o f t h e Confederacy.
he
I n h i s C a b i n e t memorandum,
wrote:
A n o t h e r r e a s o n w h i c h seems t o me t o t e l l
m a t e r i a l l y i n favour of e a r l y action i s t h i s ,
that
t h e people o f England
drawn i n t o S o u t h e r n
It
of
the
i s one
war
Southern
sympathize
think,
with
to anticipate
favourable
with
i n the
i t
is
men
whose
an
main
quite
seriously tainted
slavery.
rapidly
sympathies.
thing
view:
are being
issue
t o the
another
cause
i s , as
larger
political
probably
i t s connection
Yet t h e s i g h t
of a minority,
their
number
rights
tendency
England
21. M a t t h e w ,
to
connection
with
on
place
that
a withdrawal
as f r e e m e n ,
to
arouse
behalf
p.152.
I
by
h e r o i c a l l y struggling against the e f f o r t
much
to
them
they
of a
in
abhor,
or l i m i t a t i o n
has
active
an
of
irresistible
sympathies
o f t h e weaker
a
side,
in
even
81
apart
from
the
which
have
disgraceful
attended
establishment
of
The
more
sympathies
able
to
the
the
p a r t i c u l a r l y i n New
circumstances
forcible
Northern
these
increase,
positive
the
a
less
friendly
Southern
shall
and
a s p e c t i n any p r o c e e d i n g t h a t may
public
committed
in
state
cordial
opinion,
f o r t h e South,
that
rule,
Orleans.
maintain
But
i n which
s a t i s f a c t i o n any
the termination of the
not
be t a k e n .
yet
appears
too widely
t o me
i t would
hail
One
war.
would
really,
moral
clearly
aim
at
cannot
of
be
the
word
s l a v e r y c o u l d be
on
slavery.
I
are t o refuse t o cure,
curing,
one
enormous
evil,
cure another along w i t h
i t would
be
most d e s i r a b l e ,
interference
ostensibly,
greatest
influence
he
wrote:
suppose t h a t we
I feel
process
He
concluding
b e c a u s e we
But
with
o f s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n more t h a n
e x t e r m i n a t e d by war.
to
t o be
judicious effort for
s l a v e r y f o r he d i d n o t b e l i e v e t h a t
or
be
i n t h e case o f t h e A m e r i c a n C i v i l War,
emphasized t h e r i g h t
cannot
we
impartial
I n one p a r t i c u l a r p a r a g r a p h , G l a d s t o n e
showed t h a t
re-
with
by
which
though
gainer,
a
view
the
perhaps
to
of
use
it.
in a
South
not
every
mitigation,
82
or, i f possible,
the removal of s l a v e r y .
if
we
in anticipating,
us
seem t o a n t i c i p a t e , t h a t t h e c o u r s e o f
war
are
from
will,
and
right
month
on
the
to
whole,
n e a r e r t o an
own
daring
that
the
and
longer
clear
time
w i l l be
South
j u s t claims
of the
then
the
for
plain
the
the
on
the
Confederacy
the
slave.
o f t h e Roebuck m o t i o n , t h e
discussed i n
an e l a b o r a t i o n on t h e r i g h t o f
by Roebuck h i m s e l f .
last
Parliament,
self-
Basically, his
a d v o c a c y o f r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e C o n f e d e r a c y was
upon t h e r i g h t o f s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n .
contended
Now,
only
establish
their
established
two
did
present
time.
people,
the
Roebuck
American
independence,
points
which I t h i n k of very
22
based
that:
not
of
the
nearer
i t is
urging
Southern
t h e n e u t r a l i t y p o l i c y was
determination
of
year,
o u r p o s i t i o n , and
title,
of
provided
the
to
i n t e r f e r e n c e i s delayed,
our
discussion
bring
year
most
i n d e p e n d e n c e a c h i e v e d by i t s
Government
The
and
tenacity,
less favourable
less
month,
as
But
The
of
determining
G u e d a l l a , pp.239 -
247
they
also
i n t e r n a t i o n a l law,
great
first
but
people
importance at
was,
to
that
throw
any
off
the
body
their
83
allegiance,
were
justified,
i fthey
had t h e
p o w e r , i n so d o i n g .
The
Member t h e n a s s e r t e d t h a t t h e "second p o i n t was
very remarkable"
f o r "we a d m i t t e d , when we made peace,
t h a t F r a n c e was j u s t i f i e d
i n acknowledging
them [ t h e
T h i r t e e n C o l o n i e s ] b e f o r e we o u r s e l v e s d i d s o . "
Roebuck, i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e C o n f e d e r a t e
recognition,
S t a t e s and
" t h e y h a d a r i g h t t o c l a i m i t " as t h e
c o l o n i e s d i d i n 1776.
In
e x p l a i n i n g why t h e S o u t h seceded. Roebuck
contended
The
that:
Northern
States
make t h e S o u t h e r n
of
o f t h e Union r e s o l v e d t o
States, the great
t h e continent, subservient t o
They
established
whole
carrying
their
own
States
hands
a
power
tariff
which
producers
themselves.
threw
the
of the continent
into
and compelled
t o be p u r c h a s e r s
of a l l
the
Southern
manufactured
commodities from t h e North.
He f u r t h e r m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e S o u t h seceded f o r " t h e i r
o b j e c t being t o f r e e themselves from t h e thraldom o f
the
N o r t h , and t o a c q u i r e t h e r i g h t s o f f r e e t r a d e . "
Cecil,
i n b o l s t e r i n g Roebuck's a r g u m e n t , r e m i n d e d t h e
House t h a t ,
i n r e f e r e n c e t o t h e Spanish South American
84
c o l o n i e s , t h e r e was a p r e c e d e n t f o r r e c o g n i t i o n
t r o o p s were s t i l l
present.
Roebuck h a d p r o v i d e d t h e n e u t r a l i s t s w i t h
of
when
ammunition w i t h
which t o respond.
points of international
plenty
Since h i s two
l a w were n o t u n i v e r s a l l y
a c c e p t e d , t h e n e u t r a l i s t s p r e s s e d t h e i r a t t a c k upon
that part
o f h i s argument.
disagreed with
'a
of
likes,
point
that
i t s
international
a state
may
throw
law,"
o f f the rule
governors
whenever i t
a n d may s e p a r a t e f r o m t h e m o t h e r
i t can!
manner,
assisted
in
'therefore
established
that
in
Constitutional
whenever
like
completely
Roebuck:
great
namely,
Montagu
that
He
p r o c e e d e d t o say, i n
because
obtaining
another
state
t h e French
that
great
independence,
principle
i n international
had
h a d been
l a w , ' - namely,
a l l n a t i o n s have a r i g h t t o do t h e l i k e !
Had e v e r s u c h l o g i c been h e a r d i n t h e House?
Montagu f u r t h e r
q u e s t i o n e d " S h o u l d we t h e n r e a l l y do
w r o n g b e c a u s e we h a d been i n s u l t e d ? "
replied,
point
He
sarcastically
" I f so, we s h o u l d t h e r e b y e s t a b l i s h
i n international
another
law."^^
T h i s was t h e l a s t d e b a t e on t h e n e u t r a l i t y
and
policy
t h i s t h e l a s t mention of t h e r i g h t of s e l f -
23, Hansard's Parliamentary
1771-1773, 1820.
24. I b i d , pp.1783-1784.
Debates,
Volume
1 7 1 , pp.
85
determination.
I t had proved popular w i t h t h e
i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s as an i s s u e t o a t t a c k n e u t r a l i t y .
When c o u n t e r i n g
had
this
theneutralists
d i s a g r e e d w i t h i t s a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e South.
As a n t i s l a v e r y
Britain,
Yet,
issue d i r e c t l y ,
slavery
antislavery
sentiment remained s t r o n g
r e m a i n e d an u n p o p u l a r
i n Great
institution.
sentiment d i d n o t necessary lead t o a
n e u t r a l i s t p o s i t i o n - t h o u g h i t c l e a r l y d i d i n t h e case
of t h e Radicals B r i g h t
and F o r s t e r
- because o f t h e
ease o f a r g u i n g t h a t t h e war was n o t one f o u g h t f o r
e m a n c i p a t i o n and because o f t h e c o u n t e r v a i l i n g
commitment t o s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n .
Thus, even a f t e r t h e
issuance o f t h e Emancipation Proclamation,
slavery
r e m a i n e d a c o n t e n t i o u s t o p i c and t h e r i g h t o f s e l f determination
c o n t i n u e d as a common i s s u e o f t h e
interventionists.
86
V. R e a l p o l i t i k :
The
F e a r o f War and t h e F e a r o f F r a n c e
"They who i n q u a r r e l s i n t e r p o s e ,
will
Palmerston
o f t e n get a bloody
t o R u s s e l l , December 30, 1860^
W i t h e a c h new p r o b l e m
Palmerston
sought
nose"
i n foreign
policy,
r e l i e d on t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f realpolitik
He
t o a c t i n what was B r i t a i n ' s b e s t i n t e r e s t and
expected
t h a t o t h e r l e a d e r s would
of t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e nations.2
act i n the interest
Thus when t h e Members o f
P a r l i a m e n t were f a c e d w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r t o
i n t e r v e n e i n t h e A m e r i c a n C i v i l War, some, l i k e
their
P r i m e M i n i s t e r , were g u i d e d by t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f
realpolitik.
The
B r i t i s h had t o consider t h e i r p o l i c y
t h e U n i t e d States i n terms
towards
of a global perspective.
W i t h i n t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s was n o t o f
especial significance.
in
Since t h e l o s s o f t h e c o l o n i e s
1783, B r i t a i n h a d c e a s e d t o have a g r e a t i n t e r e s t i n
N o r t h A m e r i c a r e l a t i v e t o t h e o t h e r a r e a s ; even A f r i c a
and
I n d i a r e c e i v e d more a t t e n t i o n t h a n N o r t h A m e r i c a .
The
r e g i o n w h i c h a t t r a c t e d t h e most a t t e n t i o n ,
due t o
1. T h i s comment was made c o n c e r n i n g t h e p r o b a b l e
e f f e c t s o f B r i t i s h i n t e r v e n t i o n i n America. Herbert
B e l l , L o r d Palmerston,
(London: Longman, Green, and
Company, 1 9 3 6 ) , p.275.
2. K e n n e t h B o u r n e , The Foreign Policy of Victorian
England, 1830 - 1902 ( O x f o r d : C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1 9 7 0 ) ,
p.86.
87
c o n c e r n s a b o u t B r i t i s h n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y , was t h e
European c o n t i n e n t , e s p e c i a l l y France.
The
E u r o p e a n c o n t i n e n t was a t e n s e
arena d u r i n g
t h e t i m e when t h e n e u t r a l i t y p o l i c y was b e i n g
The
debated.
b a l a n c e o f power among t h e E u r o p e a n n a t i o n s
continued
t o be m a i n t a i n e d
domination
i n order t o prevent t h e
of a single state.
I t a l y was
still
s t r u g g l i n g t o become a n a t i o n and b o t h P a l m e r s t o n and
Russell continued
t o provide
u n i t e d I t a l y was c o n s i d e r e d
a g a i n s t French expamsion.
and
an
lukewarm support
since a
t o be an e f f e c t i v e
check
However, a t I t a l y ' s expense
a g a i n s t P a l m e r s t o n ' s w i s h e s , F r a n c e was v y i n g f o r
increase
i n i n f l u e n c e w h i l e A u s t r i a was a t t e m p t i n g
t o h o l d on t o h e r t e r r i t o r y b o r d e r i n g t h e
Meditteranean.
Furthermore, Palmerston desired
that
A u s t r i a r e m a i n s t r o n g t o check t h e power o f P r u s s i a
w h i l e he w a n t e d P r u s s i a
R u s s i a and France.
on
t o check t h e i n f l u e n c e o f
As he h a d w r i t t e n t o L o r d G r a n v i l l e
J a n u a r y 30, 1859: " I am v e r y A u s t r i a n n o r t h o f t h e
Alps, b u t very a n t i - A u s t r i a n south
of the Alps.
As t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f t h e E u r o p e a n c o n t i n e n t
were o f paramount i m p o r t a n c e t o B r i t a i n , i n t h e
p a r l i a m e n t a r y d e b a t e s on t h e n e u t r a l i t y p o l i c y one o f
t h e m a i n a r g u m e n t s u s e d b y t h e n e u t r a l i s t s was t h e
d a n g e r o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f war w i t h t h e U n i t e d
States,
a n a t i o n o f less s t r a t e g i c importance t o
3. Edmund F i t z m a u r i c e , The Life of Granville George
Leveson Gower Second Earl Granville, Volume 1 (London:
Longmans, Green, a n d Company, 1 9 0 5 ) , p.325.
Palmerston
appeared t o h o l d t o t h a t view throughout h i s l a s t
ministry.
88
B r i t a i n t h a n t h e G r e a t Powers of Europe.
n e u t r a l i s t s asserted that
any form of i n t e r v e n t i o n -
whether m e d i a t i o n , r e c o g n i t i o n ,
intervention
The
or f o r c i b l e
- would r i s k t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f an Anglo-
A m e r i c a n war which would have h o r r i f i c
for B r i t a i n .
ramifications
I n countering the n e u t r a l i s t s , the
i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s c l a i m e d t h a t war would not f o l l o w
intervention,
i n p a r t due t o t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f F r a n c e .
I n March of 1862, t h e Southern s y m p a t h i s e r s moved
t h a t B r i t a i n s h o u l d o f f e r t o mediate between t h e North
and
t h e South.
Taylor,
F o r s t e r , and P a l m e r s t o n a l l
a s s e r t e d t h a t war was a l i k e l y outcome of i n t e r v e n t i o n .
Taylor perceptively
n o t e d t h a t t h e "Amendment t h e y were
now d i s c u s s i n g had been once o r t w i c e
changed, and each
time i t was more d i l u t e d t h a n b e f o r e " f o r he understood
that
"Intervention
was o n l y a l o n g e r word f o r war."
F o r s t e r announced t h a t t h e p r e s e n t
Motion would "so f a r
from s t a y i n g t h e war, would r a t h e r a g g r a v a t e and
p r o l o n g i t , and, p o s s i b l y would drag us i n t o i t . "
member p o i n t e d l y
The
i n q u i r e d whether t h e motion c a l l e d f o r
" f r i e n d l y mediation or f o r c i b l e i n t e r v e n t i o n ? "
Forster
b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n would r e s u l t i n a war
w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s which would be "wicked and
unjust"
and " f o o l i s h t o t h e g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e
Palmerston a s s e r t e d that
e s t a b l i s h a nation
unless
degree."
"Acknowledgement would not
i t were f o l l o w e d
by some
d i r e c t a c t i v e i n t e r f e r e n c e " and "any attempt t o put an
end
t o i t by a c t i v e i n t e r f e r e n c e would o n l y produce
greater
evils,
greater
s u f f e r i n g s , and g r e a t e r
89
privations
been
t o t h o s e on whose b e h a l f i n t e r f e r e n c e
had
attempted."^
Similarly,
on June 30, 1863, t h r e e Members o f
P a r l i a m e n t o b j e c t e d t o Roebuck's m o t i o n on g r o u n d s
war was t o be t h e r e s u l t o f i n t e r v e n t i o n .
maintained that
L o r d Montagu
" t h e R e s o l u t i o n o f t h e h o n . Member f o r
S h e f f i e l d amounted, t h e r e f o r e ,
t o a desire
a l l i a n c e t o go t o war w i t h t h e N o r t h . "
believed
that Britain
f o r an
To t h o s e who
c o u l d r e c o g n i s e and r e m a i n
n e u t r a l , Montagu c o u n t e r e d t h a t t h e s e "two t h i n g s
incompatible."
"Alliance
that
F o r s t e r adamantly b e l i e v e d
were
t h a t an
w i t h France f o r t h e purposes o f i n t e r v e n t i o n
was a p t t o l e a d
t o war," w h i l e " i n t e r v e n t i o n
d e s t r o y t h e hopes o f t h e peace p a r t y . "
would
Bright
c o n s i d e r e d t h e r e a l p u r p o s e o f t h e m o t i o n t o be q u i t e
clear,
f o r " t a k e n i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h h i s c h a r a c t e r and
w i t h t h e s p e e c h he has made t o - n i g h t ,
s p e e c h he has r e c e n t l y
and w i t h t h e
made e l s e w h e r e on t h i s
subject,
I may s a y t h a t he w o u l d have come t o a b o u t t h e same
c o n c l u s i o n i f he h a d p r o p o s e d t o a d d r e s s t h e Crown
i n v i t i n g t h e Queen t o d e c l a r e war a g a i n s t t h e U n i t e d
States o f America."^
Even some S o u t h e r n s y m p a t h i s e r s p u b l i c l y
the
fear that
intervention
stated
c o u l d l e a d t o war. I n
r e s p o n s e t o Roebuck's m o t i o n , C l i f f o r d
confessed t h a t
he " s h o u l d g i v e h i s c o r d i a l s u p p o r t t o t h e Amendment,
^. Hansard's Parliamentary
534-535, 572.
^. Hansard's Parliamentary
pp.1788-1789, 1814, 1825.
Debates, Volume
168, pp.524,
Debates, Volume 1 7 1 ,
90
f o r he t h o u g h t t h a t i f a n y p r e c i p i t a t e a c t p l u n g e d t h i s
country i n t o h o s t i l i t i e s
w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , a new
f e a t u r e o f h o r r o r w o u l d be added t o t h o s e now w i t n e s s e d
i n America."
that
"it
On t h e same o c c a s i o n , G l a d s t o n e
i s very d i f f i c u l t
contended
as f a r as I know t o f i n d
c a s e s where t h e r e has been r e c o g n i t i o n p e n d i n g t h e
c o n t e s t , a n d where t h a t r e c o g n i t i o n has n o t been
f o l l o w e d by war."
He a d v i s e d t h a t r e c o g n i t i o n must
o n l y come i f t h e war was " v i r t u a l l y a t an e n d . "
Gladstone maintained t h a t
"as l o n g as d o u b t
exists,
t h a t d o u b t o u g h t t o be r u l e d on t h e s i d e o f s a f e t y . " ^
Earlier,
i n t h e autumn o f 1862, G l a d s t o n e h a d
a t t e m p t e d t o persuade t h e Cabinet t h a t t h e t i m e had
come f o r B r i t a i n t o e x t e n d an o f f e r o f m e d i a t i o n t o t h e
N o r t h and t h e South.
this,
When L o r d G r a n v i l l e h e a r d o f
he w r o t e t o R u s s e l l a n d d e f e n d e d t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n
o f t h e n e u t r a l i t y p o l i c y on t h e g r o u n d t h a t t h e
a l t e r n a t i v e would l e a d t o war.
He b e l i e v e d
mediation would f a i l
j u s t one o r n e i t h e r
f o r either
that
p a r t y w o u l d a c c e p t t h e p r o p o s a l and t h e n h o s t i l i t i e s
w i t h B r i t a i n w o u l d be i n e v i t a b l e .
On September 27, he
wrote:
It
would
recognise
Federal
the
success.
not
be
South
a
just
good
moment
before
a
to
great
I f , on t h e o t h e r hand, t h e
Confederates continue v i c t o r i o u s ,
6. I b i d , pp.1797, 1809, 1811
as i t i s t o
91
be
hoped,
we
should
stand b e t t e r
then
than
now i n r e c o g n i s i n g them.
In
any
continues
case
long
I
after
i twill
avoid
into
an
immediate
have
been
dislike
much
be p o s s i b l e
i t .
raised
in
this
now e x i s t s
increased.
The
will
us
innumerable
such
circumstances
valuable
sufficient
and
not
to
during
whether
which
freely
Italy
casus
belli.
The
present
but
much
w o u l d be s p e n t t h a n
would
the
temporary
went w i t h
that
enable
am
us o r n o t ,
circumstances
t o produce
your
such
might
t h e Emperor
any f o r e i g n p o l i c y
afraid
cotton
distress;
him."^
message
a
see b y i t t h a t
long
more
either i n
or elsewhere which might s u i t
intended
become
under
maintain
t h e French
t o adopt
I
be
intentions
doubtful,
their
i s not unlikely
arise
will
The
will
their
war
more t r e a s u r e
operatives
it
is
cotton
b l o o d w o u l d be u n n e c e s s a r i l y s p i l t ,
infinitely
is
a
f o r us t o
country.
North
a n d even a g a i n s t
of
of the
b e t w e e n us w i l l
desperate,
result
war
The e x p e c t a t i o n o f
supply o f the best
which
give
i f the
our r e c o g n i t i o n
South, whether
drifting
doubt,
was
not
rigmarole,
but
you w i l l
I have
the
conclusion t h a t i t i s premature t o depart
. L i k e P a l m e r s t o n , G r a n v i l l e was c l e a r l y
w i t h Napoleon's m e d d l i n g i n I t a l y .
come t o
concerned
92
from
the
adopted
which,
to
policy
by
which
you
and
notwithstanding
t h e North,
has
Lord
and
the
cotton,
has met
such
and
antipathy
sympathy
passionate
with
been
Palmerston,
the strong
the strong
South,
hitherto
wish
with the
to
general
have
approval
from Parliament,
t h e press,
I n a realpolitik
f r a m e w o r k , one w o u l d have t o ask
what B r i t a i n
States
and t h e public.®
was t o g a i n i n a war w i t h t h e U n i t e d
as o p p o s e d t o what was t o be l o s t .
neutralists believed that Britain
The
stood t o lose i n
t h r e e ways: h e r B r i t i s h N o r t h A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s , h e r
merchant s h i p p i n g ,
and h e r
resources.
B r i t a i n ' s i n t e r e s t s i n N o r t h A m e r i c a were
mainly
i n v e s t e d i n t h e B r i t i s h N o r t h American c o l o n i e s
would l a t e r
f o r m t h e n a t i o n o f Canada.
which
Her p r i m a r y
concern f o r t h e c o l o n i s t s l a y i n t h e i r p r o t e c t i o n from
the United
States.
I n b o t h t h e A m e r i c a n R e v o l u t i o n and
d u r i n g t h e War o f 1812, t h e c o l o n i e s h a d been a p r i m e
t a r g e t f o r t h e American f o r c e s .
F u r t h e r m o r e , i t had
b e e n no s e c r e t t h a t t h e A m e r i c a n s h a d o f t e n
the p o s s i b i l i t y
considered
o f annexing t h e colonies i n t o t h e
expanding young n a t i o n .
From a m i l i t a r y
perspective,
the British
A m e r i c a n c o l o n i e s were e s p e c i a l l y v u l n e r a b l e
civil
war.
The p o s s i b i l i t y
pp.443-444.
during the
o f A m e r i c a n s u c c e s s was
g r e a t e r s i n c e t h e r e were n e a r l y 2.1 m i l l i o n
®. F i t z m a u r i c e ,
North
men i n t h e
93
U n i t e d S t a t e s Army d u r i n g t h e war whereas t h e Canadian
b o r d e r guards numbered around 10,000.
c r i s i s , Palmerston's
D u r i n g t h e Trent
concern f o r Canada's defence was
v i v i d l y d i s p l a y e d when he sent 5,000 r e g u l a r t r o o p s .
The d e f e n s i v e c a p a b i l i t y o f these guards was f u r t h e r
d i m i n i s h e d s i n c e t h e y were s c a t t e r e d a l l along t h e
Canadian-American b o r d e r .
A d d i t i o n a l l y , due t o t h e
poor annual weather o f t h e w i n t e r months, t h e B r i t i s h
c o u l d n o t hope t o supply t h e Canadian f o r c e s throughout
the
e n t i r e year.^
The danger t o t h e c o l o n i e s was c l e a r l y understood
by Palmerston.
the
I n t h e autumn o f 1862, I n c o n s i d e r i n g
r a m i f i c a t i o n s o f i n t e r v e n t i o n he wrote i n p r i v a t e :
As regards p o s s i b l e resentment on t h e p a r t o f
the
Northerns
acknowledgement
South,
less
following
o f t h e independence
our
of the
i t i s q u i t e t r u e t h a t we should have
t o care
about
that
s p r i n g when communication
and
upon
when our n a v a l
operate
upon
force
resentment
i n the
w i t h Canada opens,
c o u l d more e a s i l y
t h e American
coast
than i n
w i n t e r , when we are c u t o f f from Canada and
the
American coast i s n o t so s a f e . ^ ^
^. James McPherson, The Battle Cry of Freedom (Oxford:
O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1988), p. 306; Norman F e r r i s ,
The Trent Affair, p. 65.
G.P. Gooch, The Later Correspondence of Lord John
Russell 1840 - 1878, (London: Longmans, Green and
Company, 1925), p.326.
94
These concerns were a l s o discussed i n the p u b l i c forum
of Parliament.
"Besides,
now
On June 30, 1863,
Lord Montagu s t a t e d
we had t o t a k e i n t o account t h a t the North i s
a g r e a t m i l i t a r y power, w h i l e we had but
few
t r o o p s , w i d e l y s c a t t e r e d over Canada, and an easy prey
t o an i n v a d e r .
The c a p t u r e by t h e N o r t h o f our
s c a t t e r e d g a r r i s o n s t h e r e would make us look r a t h e r
s m a l l i n t h e eyes o f t h e w o r l d . " ^ ^
The i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s attempted t o counter the
n e u t r a l i s t ' s c l a i m t h a t Canada's defence should guide
British policy.
C e c i l advocated
I n t h e June 30 debate.
Lord Robert
support f o r Roebuck's motion and argued
a g a i n s t t h e f e a r o f war by c r i t i c i s i n g those who
mentioned t h e q u e s t i o n a b l e s t a t e of Canadian
had
defense.
He a s s e r t e d t h a t he " d i d not imagine t h a t our
possession
i n Canada i n f l u e n c e d our judgement one
o r another."^2
and C e c i l was
way
This was not a p o p u l a r s t r a t e g y though,
t h e o n l y member t o advocate no
c o n s i d e r a t i o n of Canadian
defence.
B r i t a i n ' s merchant s h i p p i n g was
d u r i n g a war w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
a l s o i n danger
B r i t a i n ' s navy
was u n q u e s t i o n a b l y t o o p o w e r f u l f o r the Americans t o
c h a l l e n g e on t h e h i g h seas.
merchant marine was
However, B r i t a i n ' s
v u l n e r a b l e t o American p r i v a t e e r s .
As t h e U n i t e d States had not signed t h e
1856
D e c l a r a t i o n o f P a r i s , i t had l e f t open the o p t i o n of
i s s u i n g l e t t e r s o f marque.
The B r i t i s h d i d not have t o
Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 171,
p.1794.
I b i d , p.1820.
95
c o n s i d e r t h e past wars t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e danger of
p r i v a t e e r s , t h e y had o n l y t o l o o k a t t h e Confederacy's
successes w i t h p r i v a t e e r s .
The Alabama and t h e
Florida, t o name b u t two, had a d e v a s t a t i n g e f f e c t
March 1862
marine.
u n t i l 1864
from
upon t h e U n i t e d States merchant
Yet t h e o v e r a l l e f f e c t of the Confederate
p r i v a t e e r s was
due t o o n l y a few s h i p s .
There was
no
q u e s t i o n t h a t t h e U n i t e d States c o u l d produce more
p r i v a t e e r s t h a n t h e Confederates and t h e r e f o r e c o u l d
a l s o cause more damage.
Lord Montagu, on June 30, 1863,
discussed
this
p o i n t by a s s e r t i n g t h a t i f war would occur between the
U n i t e d States and
Our
Britain:
commerce
would
also
certainly
have
something t o f e a r from t h e Alabamas and
F l o r i d a s which t h e N o r t h
seas.
He
was
of
inevitably
c o u l d put upon the
not a p p e a l i n g t o t h e f e a r s o f
t h e Englishmen, but
some
the
the
follow
was
simply p o i n t i n g
consequences
our
that
intervention
out
would
in
this
contest.
B r i g h t a l s o d i s c u s s e d t h e danger t o commerce i n t h i s
same debate:
I have not
may
s a i d a word w i t h r e g a r d t o what
happen t o England i f we go i n t o war w i t h
13. I b i d , p.1794.
96
the United States.
I t will
be
a war
on
the
two
ocean - every
ship that
belongs t o t h e
nations
as
p o s s i b l e , be
will,
f a r as
swept
from t h e seas."'-*
The o t h e r f e a r o f war l a y i n t h e l o s s o f l i f e
resources.
and
The B r i t i s h had o n l y t o observe the vast
c o s t t h a t t h e N o r t h and South were p a y i n g t o conduct
t h e c o n f l i c t and t o r e c a l l t h e immense cost of previous
c o n f l i c t s i n o r d e r t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e f i n a n c i a l burden
of
war.
On June 30, from an f i n a n c i a l s t a n d p o i n t ,
F o r s t e r " d i d n o t b e l i e v e t h a t t h e sympathies o f any
c l a s s of t h e people i n t h i s c o u n t r y went so f a r as t o
submit t o an a d d i t i o n a l income t a x f o r t h e purpose o f
d e f e n d i n g Canada."^^
The l o s s of l i f e , though, was
t h e most f e a r e d
aspect o f a war w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
While the past
two wars w i t h t h e U n i t e d States had r e s u l t e d i n
r e l a t i v e l y low c a s u a l t i e s , t h e b a t t l e s of t h e American
C i v i l War
were r e s u l t i n g i n c a s u a l t i e s beyond any
p r e v i o u s e x p e c t a t i o n s or p r e v i o u s c o n f l i c t s .
The
B r i t i s h had t o t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h a t t h e y would
have t o expect t o s u f f e r c a s u a l t i e s of t h e p r o p o r t i o n
t h a t t h e N o r t h and South were s u f f e r i n g i f a war
o c c u r r e d between B r i t a i n and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
I n March of 1862,
T a y l o r used t h i s aspect of the
f e a r of war t o b o l s t e r h i s argument:
I b i d , p.1837.
I b i d , p.1813.
97
War
without
bloodshed
and
suffering
was
i m p o s s i b l e ; b u t why must we r u n i n t o i t ? D i d
experience
the
t e a c h us no lessons?
step
was
war w i t h Russia, and who would say t h a t
game was w o r t h t h e l i g h t i t cost?
the
There
intervention
which
i n Mexico,
was when we
There was
the only
good
stepped o u t o f i t .
There was immediate danger o f war w i t h China.
Yet
a l l these
insignificant
wars
would
be
petty
and
as compared w i t h a war between
us and t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o f America.
No war
i n t h e c e n t u r y would be a p a r a l l e l f o r such a
terrible conflict.
war,
I t would be a f r a t r i c i d a l
almost as t h a t
which was b e i n g fought
between t h e South and t h e N o r t h - a war which
would s t r i k e t e r r o r i n t o a l l t h e f r i e n d s of
p r o g r e s s and l i b e r t y ,
and be r e j o i c e d
a t by
a l l who were t h e i r f o e s . ^ ^
Lord Montagu, i n 1863 a s s e r t e d t h a t o f a l l t h e
menaces o f war, t h e l o s s o f l i f e was t h e g r e a t e s t t o be
feared.
He f i r s t opened h i s d i s c u s s i o n w i t h t h e
q u e s t i o n "how was an a r m i s t i c e t o be enforced?" and
f u r t h e r asked " D i d t h e hon. Member mean t o say t h a t
t h e y s h o u l d have a war a t once t o c a r r y t h a t a r m i s t i c e
into effect?"
He answered t h i s q u e s t i o n w i t h a
1^. Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 168, p.524.
98
comprehensive c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e r a m i f i c a t i o n s o f war
w i t h the United States:
If
we r e c o g n i s e d
t h e South, t h e N o r t h
would
i n f a l l i b l y d e c l a r e war upon us, our own b l o o d
would t h e n be shed i n a d d i t i o n t o t h a t o f t h e
South, and a l s o o f t h e many r e c r u i t s who had
l e f t t h i s country f o r t h e North.
hon.
war
But i f t h e
and l e a r n e d Member meant war, then l e t
be d e l i b e r a t e l y
declared,
l e t them n o t
merely,
l e t them not
profess
t o recognize
deceive
t h e people o f t h e U n i t e d States and
our
own n a t i o n a l s o , by copious
of a m i t y and f r i e n d s h i p .
and
learned
meant?
aware
Why should t h e hon.
Member n o t say what
Because he knew t h a t
unpopular,
professions
he
really
war would be
because he and a l l t h e w o r l d were
that
war
meant
heavy
burdens
and
onerous t a x e s .
The hon. and l e a r n e d Member
would, indeed,
do w e l l t o beware o f war; n o t
because
we
should
have
t o operate
distance
o f 3,000 m i l e s ;
shipping
i n every
world
would
American
Guards,
nook
have
privateers;
so s p a r s e l y
to
n o t because our
and corner
be
at a
of the
protected
from
nor y e t because t h e
s c a t t e r e d over
Canada,
would be t a k e n p r i s o n e r s ; b u t because i n such
99
a war
we
should
be
arrayed
against
our
own
f l e s h and b l o o d . ^'^
I n 1863,
F o r s t e r a l s o argued t h i s p o i n t by a s k i n g h i s
colleagues
"what would England g a i n by such a war?" i n
which t h e " g r e a t Anglo-Saxon race would be t o r n . "
He
concluded by s t a t i n g t h e he "prayed t h a t England might
be saved from such an u n j u s t , barbarous,
c h r i s t i a n war,
and
un-
waged, as i t would be, a g a i n s t t h e
s p i r i t of c i v i l i z a t i o n , and a g a i n s t every p r i n c i p l e of
r e l i g i o n and m o r a l i t y . " " ^ "
Another way,
a l t h o u g h not an e s p e c i a l l y popular
one, by which t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s countered t h e f e a r
o f war was
t o suggest t h a t B r i t a i n ' s m i l i t a r y power
could e a s i l y defeat the United States.
The
argument
contended t h a t B r i t a i n , as a w o r l d power, c o u l d e a s i l y
overcome t h e U n i t e d States which was
not considered a
m i l i t a r y power of equal p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e n a t i o n s of
Europe.
J.A.
Roebuck used t h i s l i n e of argument t o
c o n t r a d i c t those who b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e f e a r of war
j u s t i f i e d a n e u t r a l stance towards t h e c i v i l war.
His
argument r e l i e d on t h e immense power o f t h e Royal Navy
which was
world.
u n q u e s t i o n a b l y t h e most p o w e r f u l navy i n t h e
Her p r e s t i g e had f u r t h e r grown w i t h t h e
i n c l u s i o n o f t h e new
Prince.
i r o n c l a d s Pi^arrior and the B i a c ^
These s h i p s , which brought t o g e t h e r s e v e r a l
^'^. Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 171,
p.1786.
I b i d , pp.1817-1818.
100
r e v o l u t i o n a r y i d e a s , were t h e p r i d e and t h e
new
backbone o f t h e Royal Navy.^^
On June 30, 1863,
i n c o n c l u d i n g h i s speech.
Roebuck c h a l l e n g e d t h e b e l i e f i n t h e f e a r o f war
by
asserting that:
With t h i s b e f o r e them, are t h e y not
to
act
afraid
Northern
in
of
concert
war?
States
w i t h France?
War
of
Are
w i t h whom?
America?
prepared
With
the
in
ten
Why,
days. S i r , we should sweep from t h e sea
ship.
[Oh, oh!]
imbued
with
Yes,
Northern
there
feeling
indignant at the a s s e r t i o n .
known.
Why,
whole f l e e t .
are
they
every
people
as
to
so
be
But t h e t r u t h i s
t h e IVarrior would d e s t r o y
their
T h e i r armies are m e l t i n g away;
t h e i r i n v a s i o n i s r o l l e d back;
Washington i s
i n danger....
One
o f t h e N o r t h e r n sympathisers
point.
countered Roebuck's
R i d i c u l i n g Roebuck's c l a i m s , F o r s t e r s a i d t h a t
he "would h a r d l y l i k e t o see t h e seas covered w i t h
N o r t h e r n Alabamas p r e y i n g on t h e i r commerce
n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e boast o f t h e hon. and
Member f o r S h e f f i e l d t h a t one
learned
IVarrior would sweep them
a l l away."21
1^. P e t e r P a d f i e l d , The Battleship Era (London: The
M i l i t a r y Book S o c i e t y , 1972), pp.23-24.
Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 171,
p 1778.
21. I b i d , p.1813.
101
The Southern sympathisers hoped t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r
support by recommending t h a t B r i t a i n , i n c o n c e r t w i t h
o t h e r Europeon n a t i o n s , o f f e r t h e o f f i c e s o f m e d i a t i o n .
I n t h i s way, t h e y s t a t e d t h a t t h e U n i t e d States would
be more w i l l i n g t o accept an a r m i s t i c e i f more t h a n one
Europeon n a t i o n suggested t h a t course o f a c t i o n .
S e c r e t l y though, t h e Southern sympathisers w e l l knew
t h a t t h e o f f e r o f m e d i a t i o n would be accepted r e a d i l y
by t h e South w h i l e t h e N o r t h would d e f i a n t l y r e f u s e on
t h e premise t h a t t h e war was an i n t e r n a l a f f a i r .
When
the North declined t h e o f f e r of mediation, the
i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s c o u l d t h e n propose r e c o g n i z i n g t h e
Confederacy,
T h e i r chances o f succeeding would be f a r
g r e a t e r i f t h e N o r t h had r e f u s e d an o f f e r o f m e d i a t i o n .
The c o n c e r t o f n a t i o n s t h a t were recommended t o
make an o f f e r o f m e d i a t i o n w i t h B r i t a i n were France and
Russia.
Of t h e s e , France was c o n s i d e r e d f a r more o f t e n
t h a n Russia because t h e Russian czar - Alexander I I was p r o - N o r t h w h i l e Napoleon was pro-South and France
was s u f f e r i n g from t h e l a c k o f Southern c o t t o n l i k e
Britain.
This economic common ground was hoped t o
i n c r e a s e t h e chances t h a t t h e two n a t i o n s , which d i d
n o t t r u s t each o t h e r , might be brought t o g e t h e r on t h i s
issue.
On J u l y 18, 1862, Lindsay used t h i s p o i n t t o
b o l s t e r h i s argument.
He n o t e d t h a t due t o t h e c o t t o n
s h o r t a g e B r i t a i n would n o t have t o a c t alone i n
o f f e r i n g m e d i a t i o n f o r t h e "Emperor o f t h e French,
whose people were known t o be s u f f e r i n g even more
s e v e r e l y t h a n ours from t h e stoppage o f t h e c o t t o n
102
supply, would o n l y be t o o happy i n j o i n i n g England i n
o f f e r i n g mediation."^^
The n e u t r a l i s t s contended t h a t c o t t o n c o u l d not be
o b t a i n e d by i n t e r v e n t i o n and f u r t h e r m o r e t h e r e s u l t i n g
war would cost f a r more t h a n t h e c o t t o n shortage was
costing B r i t a i n .
On March 10, 1862, W.E.Forster
d i s m i s s e d t h e c o t t o n shortage as a casus belli, for
B r i t a i n " c o u l d keep t h e w o r k i n g p o p u l a t i o n o f
Lancashire
i n l u x u r y f o r l e s s than t h e p r i c e i t would
c o s t us t o i n t e r f e r e as t h e noble Lord o p p o s i t e
suggested."^^
S i m i l a r l y , on June 30, 1863, Lord Montagu
questioned
t h e immediate economic b e n e f i t s o f r e c o g n i t i o n :
but
could
any
man
believe
that
t h e mere
r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e Southern S t a t e s , w i t h o u t a
war, b r i n g over a s i n g l e b a l e o f cotton?
that
r e c o g n i t i o n w i t h war would
hardship,
diminish
the taxes,
Or
lesson t h e
or stop t h e
e f f u s i o n o f blood?^^
Outside P a r l i a m e n t John B r i g h t s t a t e d t h a t i t would be
cheaper t o f e e d t h e a f f e c t e d workers on champagne and
v e n i s o n t h a n t o have B r i t a i n i n t e r v e n e i n t h e war.^^
The most d r a m a t i c d i s c u s s i o n o f an Anglo-French
i n t e r v e n t i o n o c c u r r e d on June 30, 1863, when t h e c i v i l
Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 168, p.521.
I b i d , p.535.
Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 171,
§gl785
Owsley, p. 546,
23
103
war had reached a watershed.
D u r i n g h i s l o n g speech.
Roebuck d e c l a r e d t h a t "the g r e a t Powers o f Europe" were
really
the
j u s t France, n o t i n g t h a t "No o t h e r Power, w i t h
e x c e p t i o n o f Russia, has a f l e e t t h a t we need t h i n k
about."
He conveyed t h e French Emperor's p e r s o n a l
d e s i r e t o "ask them
[ t h e B r i t i s h ] again whether t h e y
would be w i l l i n g t o j o i n me i n t h a t
recognition."^^
Lindsay a l s o d e s c r i b e d t h e meeting f o r t h e
Commons:
A l l t h e Emperor meant, so f a r as I understood
him, was t h a t i f t h e House o f Commons s h o u l d
pray
Her
subject
Majesty
t o address
of the recognition
him on t h e
o f t h e Southern
S t a t e s , he would be o n l y t o o happy t o e n t e r
into
negotiations
believing,
Powers
as
he
o f Europe
with
that
did, that
thought
object,
i f the great
i t advisable t o
r e c o g n i z e t h e Southern Confederacy, t h e moral
e f f e c t would be such as t o s t a y t h e t e r r i b l e
carnage now g o i n g on m
27
America.*'
When c o n s i d e r i n g t h e m i s t r u s t t h a t e x i s t e d between
France and B r i t a i n , one can b e t t e r a p p r e c i a t e t h e
c r i t i c i s m t h a t Roebuck r e c e i v e d , f o r t h e French were
not
a l l i e s o f t h e B r i t i s h n o r was Napoleon I I I p o p u l a r
across t h e Channel.
As Palmerston had s t a t e d i n •
26. Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 171,
DD.1778-1779.
2'. Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 172, p.664
104
r e f e r e n c e t o Napoleon I I I and t h e French Government
"I
h a t e t h e man, I d e t e s t t h e system, b u t i t i s t h e o n l y
t h i n g f o r the present."^^
i n terms o f Europe,
B r i t a i n ' s main concern was France.
Napoleon I I I ,
h o p i n g t o f o l l o w i n t h e f o o t s t e p s o f h i s g r e a t Uncle,
was c o n s t a n t l y i n v e s t i n g i n France's m i l i t a r y .
As f o r
B r i t a i n , t h i s t o o k t h e most t h r e a t e n i n g t u r n when he
decided t o c o n s t r u c t s e v e r a l i r o n c l a d s .
The B r i t i s h ,
who p r i d e d themselves on t h e i r g r e a t navy, were able t o
more t h a n match him s h i p f o r s h i p .
Nevertheless,
Napoleon's attempt t o o u t b u i l d t h e B r i t i s h was a c l e a r
s i g n t h a t he was B r i t a i n ' s main n a v a l challenge and
perhaps her main adversary.
Since a c c o r d i n g t o Roebuck, Napoleon d e s i r e d t o
o f f e r m e d i a t i o n , c l e a r l y t h e French Emperor considered
t h e o f f e r i n t h e b e s t i n t e r e s t o f France.
III
As Napoleon
i n t h e language o f realpolitik once s t a t e d , "When
people ask one ... f o r what i s c a l l e d a p o l i c y t h e only
answer i s t h a t we mean t o do what may seem t o be best
upon each occasion as i t a r i s e s , making t h e i n t e r e s t s
o f one's c o u n t r y one's g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e . " ^ ^
I t was
not l i k e l y t h a t t h e Members o f P a r l i a m e n t were t o
consider i n t e r v e n t i o n i n B r i t a i n ' s i n t e r e s t simply
because Napoleon c o n s i d e r e d i t i n h i s best i n t e r e s t .
The deep s u s p i c i o n o f France was c l e a r l y e v i d e n t
when s e v e r a l months p r i o r , as t h e Cabinet was w r e s t l i n g
28. M u r i e l Chamberlain, British Foreign Policy in the
Age of Palmerston (London: Longman, Green and Company,
1980), p.33.
2». B e l l , p.165.
105
w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n o f whether t o o f f e r m e d i a t i o n w i t h
France, Palmerston wrote t o R u s s e l l :
As t o t h e French scheme o f p r o p o s a l s t o
the
United States,
question t i l l
we had b e t t e r
t h e Cabinet meets,
keep
that
which would
be e i t h e r Tuesday 1 1 t h o r Wednesday 12th, as
would
be
most
colleagues.
convenient
But
to
you
i t is likely
and
that
my
the
Federals would consent t o an a s s i s t a n c e t o be
accompanied
which
by a c e s s a t i o n o f blockades, and
would
give
t h e Confederates
means o f
g e t t i n g a l l t h e s u p p l i e s t h e y may want?
blockade
might
indeed be
continued against
contraband o f war, a d m i t t i n g
in
any
value
back
somehow o r o t h e r
i n muskets
about
stores.
s l a v e r y and
g i v i n g up o f runaway s l a v e s , about which
we c o u l d
hardly
Southerns
would
frame
a p r o p o s a l which t h e
accept, t h e Northerns
and t h e people o f England would
of.
agree
approve
The French Government are more f r e e from
shackles o f p r i n c i p l e s
wrong
on these
t h a n we a r e .
to
t o get t h e
and w a r l i k e
Then comes t h e d i f f i c u l t y
the
send
l a r g e q u a n t i t y o f c o t t o n t o Europe t h e y
contrive
to,
commerce t o go
and o u t ; b u t i f t h e Southerns c o u l d
would
the
The
wait t i l l
matters,
and o f r i g h t and
as on a l l o t h e r s ,
At a l l events i t would be w i s e r
t h e e l e c t i o n s i n N. America are
106
over
b e f o r e any p r o p o s a l i s made.
Emperor
i s so anxious
bloodshed,
beginning
ruffians
he
by
which
might
t o put a
stop t o
t r y h i s hand
putting
rolls
As t h e
down
as
t h e stream
o u t from
that
a
of
never
f a i l i n g f o u n t a i n a t Rome."^^
John B r i g h t , t h e adamantly pro-American member,
r e c o g n i z e d t h a t Roebuck's mention o f t h e French Emperor
was c l e a r l y a weak p o i n t which he sought t o e x p l o i t .
A
s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n o f h i s speech d e a l t w i t h t h e
P a r i s i a n escapade.
He r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e Member o f
S h e f f i e l d r e q u e s t e d "us t o accept t h e l e a d o f t h e
Emperor o f t h e French on, I w i l l undertake t o say, one
of
the
t h e g r e a t e s t q u e s t i o n s t h a t ever was s u b m i t t e d -to
B r i t i s h Parliament."
However, he r e c a l l e d t h a t
t h i s same i n d i v i d u a l two years p r i o r had confessed " I
have no f a i t h i n t h e Emperor o f t h e French."
He
charged t h a t Roebuck had "become as i t were i n t h e
p a l a c e o f t h e French Emperor a c o - c o n s p i r a t o r w i t h him
to
drag t h i s c o u n t r y i n t o a p o l i c y which I m a i n t a i n i s
as h o s t i l e t o i t s i n t e r e s t s as i t would be degrading t o
i t s honour."
Lindsay, t h e Member f o r Sunderland, had
accompanied Roebuck t o P a r i s .
B r i g h t noted " I saw t h e
Member f o r Sunderland near me, and I n o t i c e d t h a t h i s
face underwent
of
remarkable c o n t o r t i o n s d u r i n g t h e speech
t h e hon. and l e a r n e d Gentleman, and I f e l t
perfectly
30. Gooch, p.329. As f i g h t i n g c o n t i n u e d i n Rome,
Palmerston b e l i e v e d t h a t Napoleon c o u l d e x e r c i s e some
i n f l u e n c e i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t any f u r t h e r l o s s o f l i f e .
107
s a t i s f i e d t h a t he d i d n o t agree w i t h what h i s colleague
was saying."31
I n terms o f realpolitik, t h e n e u t r a l i s t s had t h e
advantage.
The m i s t r u s t towards France made any hope
o f g a i n i n g support f o r a j o i n t o f f e r o f m e d i a t i o n
difficult.
The B r i t i s h simply had no d e s i r e t o f o l l o w
t h e l e a d o f a man whom t h e y p e r c e i v e d as an adversary.
As f o r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f war w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ,
i t was d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s t o contend
t h a t war would n o t f o l l o w o r t h a t i f i t d i d , t h e
B r i t i s h m i l i t a r y would e a s i l i y overwhelm t h e American
forces.
The f e a r o f war and t h e f e a r o f France proved
t o be p e r s u a s i v e arguments i n a d v o c a t i n g t h e
continuation of neutrality.
31. Hansard's Parliamentary Debates, Volume 171,
pp.1826-1827.
108
Conclusion:
The Golden Rule P r e v a i l s
D u r i n g t h e debate on Roebuck's motion.
Lord
Montagu had d e s c r i b e d n e u t r a l i t y as t h e "golden r u l e "
i n p o l i t i c s and p r i v a t e
l i f e and he claimed t h a t "we
s h o u l d observe t h e golden r u l e . "
majority
Indeed, Montagu and a
o f h i s f e l l o w members had decided, i n respect
t o t h e American C i v i l War, t h a t B r i t a i n should
observe
the golden r u l e and n o t i n t e r v e n e .
The q u e s t i o n t h a t then f o l l o w s
P a r l i a m e n t , i n which a m a j o r i t y
i s "Why d i d
o f t h e members
r e p r e s e n t e d t h e p r o - s o u t h e r n upper c l a s s e s , c o n t i u a l l y
support n e u t r a l i t y ? "
intervention
F i r s t o f a l l , t h e support f o r
i n 18 61 was r a t h e r
lukewarm since t h e
common b e l i e f was t h a t t h e war would be one marked by
b r e v i t y instead of l o n g e t i v i t y .
As t h e war c a r r i e d over i n t o e a r l y 1862,
p e r c e p t i o n s g r a d u a l l y changed and t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s
began t o press t h e i r case.
the blockade,
intervention
However t h e i r main focus,
f a i l e d t o a c q u i r e support f o r
s i n c e t h e l e g a l d e f i n i t i o n was
rather
ambiguous and s i n c e t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s never had t h e
f i g u r e s necessary
t o prove t h e blockade
ineffective.
I n t h e middle o f 1862, t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s
broadened t h e debate w i t h s e v e r a l issues b u t none o f
them proved p e r s u a s i v e t o t h e m a j o r i t y .
shortage was o f f s e t by t h e u n c e r t a i n t y
The c o t t o n
of public
o p i n i o n and t h e r i g h t o f s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n
was
109
c o u n t e r e d by t h e s l a v e r y i s s u e .
And f i n a l l y ,
due t o
t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of war w i t h t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and t h e
s u s p i c i o n o f F r a n c e , t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s t s had g r e a t
difficulty
i n p r o v i n g t h a t i n t e r v e n t i o n was i n t h e b e s t
i n t e r e s t of B r i t a i n .
U l t i m a t e l y , t h e arguments i n
f a v o u r o f n e u t r a l i t y were not s t r o n g enough t o persuade
most of t h e p r o - S o u t h e r n
Members of P a r l i a m e n t ,
i n c l u d i n g s u c h n o t a b l e ones as P a l m e r s t o n
Even G l a d s t o n e ,
who had adamantly
and R u s s e l l .
supported
i n t e r v e n t i o n i n t h e autumn of 1862, spoke a g a i n s t
i n t e r v e n t i o n i n 1863 d u r i n g t h e debate on Roebuck's
motion.
supported
A m a j o r i t y o f t h e Members o f P a r l i a m e n t
n e u t r a l i t y as i t was c o n s i d e r e d t h e p o l i c y
which was b e s t f o r B r i t a i n .
110
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