Basic Parts of speech
Noun
Person, place or thing
Proper Noun
Proper name of something such as Nevada. State is a noun but Nevada is a proper noun because it is the
name of the state
Pronoun
Takes place of a noun. Example: he, she, it
Adjectives
Modifies (describes) a noun such as “hot” in the sentence “The hot sun beat down on my face.” Hot
describes the noun “sun”.
Verb
Identifies action or state of being. Example: sing, dance, believe, be
Adverb
Modifies (describes) a verb, adjective, or other adverb. Example: softly as in “She softly sings.” Softly
describes” sings”. It tells what kind of singing it was.
Preposition
Shows a relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and other words in a sentence. Example: up, over,
against, by, for
Conjunction
Joins words, phrases, and clauses. Example: and, but, or, yet
Interjection
Expresses emotion. Example: ah, whoops, ouch
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Flowery Speech Tools
Alliteration (tongue twister)
the occurrence of the same letter or sound at the beginning of adjacent or closely connected words.
Example: “She sells sea-shells down by the sea-shore” or “Peter Piper Picked a Peck of Pickled Peppers”
are both alliterative phrases.
In the former, all the words start with the “s” sound, while in the later, the letter “p” takes precedence.
Aside from tongue twisters, alliteration is also used in poems, song lyrics, and even store or brand names.
Personification
the attribution of human characteristics to things, abstract ideas, etc., as for literary or artistic effect
example: “The wind howled.” “The volcano belched smoke ash.”
Onomatopoeia
the formation of a word from a sound associated with what is named
Example: gobble, murmur, sizzle, yelp, thud, slurp
Simile
a figure of speech involving the comparison of one thing with another thing of a different kind, used to
make a description more emphatic or vivid
Example: as brave as a lion , crazy like a fox
Metaphor
a figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action to which it is not literally
applicable
Example: “God is love.” “All the world’s a stage.” “The words were music to her ears.”
Hyperbole
A figure of speech in which exaggeration is used for emphasis or effect.
Example: I could sleep for a year or This book weighs a ton.
Oxymoron
a figure of speech in which apparently contradictory terms appear in conjunction
Example: This is an original copy of the United States constitution. Or I had jumbo shrimp for supper.
Pun
a joke exploiting the different possible meanings of a word or the fact that there are words that
sound alike but have different meanings.
Example: "the pigs were a squeal (if you'll forgive the pun)"
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Substitutes for Said
Other words for said in alphabetic order
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Accepted, Accused, Acknowledged, Admitted, Advertised, Affirm, Agonized, Agreed,
Alleged, Announced, Answered, Appealed, Arranged, Articulated, Asked, Asserted,
Assumed, Assured, Avowed
Barked, Bawled, Beamed, Beckoned, Begged, Bellowed, Beseeched, Blubbered, Blurted,
Bossed, Breathed, Broadcast,
Cajoled, Called, Carped, Cautioned, Censured, Chimed in, Choked, Chortled, Chuckled,
Circulate, Claim, Comforted, Conceded, Concurred, Condemned, Confered, Confessed,
Confided, Confirmed, Consoled, Contend, Continued, Cried out, Criticized, Croaked,
Crooned, Crowed,
Declared, Demanded, Denoted, Dictated, Disclosed, Divulged, Drawled,
Emitted, Empathized, Encouraged, Entreated, Exclaimed, Explained,
Faltered, Finished, Fumed,
Giggled, Glowered, Grieved, Grinned, Groaned, Growled, Grumbled,
Handed on, Held, Hesitated, Hinted, Hissed, Hollered, Howled,
Impart, Implied, Implored, Importune, Inclined, Indicate, Informed, Inquired, Insisted,
Interjected, Invited,
Jabbered, Joked, Justified,
Keened,
Lamented, Laughed, Leered, Lilted,
Maintained, Marked, Mewled, Mimicked, Moaned, Mocked, Mourned, Murmured,
Mused
Necessitated, Needed, Noted,
Observed, Offered, Ordered,
Passed on, Pleaded, Postulated, Preached, Premised, Presented, Presupposed, Proclaimed,
Prodded, Professed, Proffered, Promised, Promulgated, Proposed, Protested, Provoked,
Publicized, Published, Put forth,
Quaked, Queried, Quipped, Quivered, Quizzed, Quoted,
Reassured, Raged, Ranted, Reckoned that, Rejoiced, Rejoined, Released, Remarked,
Repeated, Replied, Reprimanded, Requested, Required, Requisition, Retorted, Revealed,
Roared,
Sang, Scoffed, Scolded, Seethed, Settled, Shared, Shed tears, Shouted, Shrieked,
Shrugged, Shuddered, Snarled, Sniveled, Sobbed, Solicited, Sought, Specified,
Spluttered, Spread, Stammered, Stated, Stuttered, Stressed, Suggested, Supposed, Swore,
Taunted, Teased, Testified, Thundered, Ticked off, Told, Touted, Trailed off,
Transferred, Transmitted, Trembled, Trumpeted,
Understood, Undertook, Upbraided, Uttered,
Verified, Voiced,
Wailed, Wanted, Warned, Weep, Went on. Wept, Wheedle, Whimpered, Whined,
Whispered,
Yawped, Yelled, Yelped, Yowled
List of Prepositions
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Punctuation Basics
Does punctuation matter?
An English professor wrote
the words “A woman
without her man is
nothing” on the chalkboard
and asked his students to
punctuate it correctly. The
males in the class wrote:
“A woman, without her man,
is nothing.”
All the females in the class
wrote:
“A woman: without her, man
is nothing.”
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Punctuation Basics Cheat Sheet
Punctuation
Mark
Use to...
( . ) Period
End a sentence: Dinner was delicious.
( ? ) Question
Mark
End a sentence and denote inquiry: What time is it?
( ! ) Exclamation End a sentence and denote excitement or emphasis: Watch out for that tree!
Point
( , ) Comma
Denote a break within a sentence or direct address of a person or group: Mary, listen
to me.
Separate any of the following:
- Two or more adjectives: He is a charming, attentive listener.
- Items in a list: Please buy eggs, milk, butter and flour.
- The name of a city from the name of a state: I live in Salt Lake City, Utah.
- Two independent clauses: The waiter still hasn’t taken our order, and the play starts
in five minutes.
- Direct quotations: Quoth the raven, “Nevermore.”
( ; ) Semicolon
Separate two related but independent clauses: I asked Anne to look at my computer;
she has a knack for them.
Separate a series of items that already contain commas:
- For our wedding colors, I chose white, the color of innocence; red, the color of
passion; and yellow, the color of lemons.
- I have lived in Detroit, Michigan; Paris, France; and Sydney, Australia.
( : ) Colon
Introduce a list.
For Christmas, I would like the following presents: a hula hoop, a hippopotamus, and
my two front teeth.
Introduce a statement that expands upon the clause before the colon.
And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you—ask what
you can do for your country.
( - ) Hyphen
Add a prefix: Trans-Atlantic flights are costly.
Create compound words: Spider-Man is my favorite superhero.
Write numbers as words: I have lived in this house for thirty-three years.
(– or —) Dash
Make a brief interruption within a sentence or a parenthetical phrase: Johnny asked
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me—with a straight face, I might add—if he could borrow the car for the weekend.
( “ ) Double
Quotation
Enclose a direct quotation: “If you pick up a starving dog and make him prosperous,
he will not bite you. This is the principal difference between a dog and a man.”
( ‘ ) Single
Quotation
Denote possession: I believe that is Allen’s pen.
Denote contraction: I know it’s his because of the distinct monogram.
Denote a quotation within a quotation: He told me just last week, “I do enjoy this
monogrammed pen. My wife said, ‘Allen, it isn’t like people go around mistaking your
pens for theirs all day.’”
(())
Parentheses
Indicate clarification: Please bring home some real butter (as opposed to margarine).
Indicate an afterthought or personal commentary: Anyone can edit Wikipedia (not
that there’s anything wrong with that).
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Writing Process
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Brainstorm (the creative process)
Write! (Outline, characters)
Read out loud—make sure it makes sense, mark grammar/spelling
Rewrite (correct grammar, spelling, content)
Proof read
Final corrections
Final copy (formatting standards, etc)
Editing
 Read out loud to yourself and then to someone else
 Make sure it flows/makes sense (even if it is nonsensical it should make sense. Example:
Dr. Suess)
 Check spelling and grammar
 Have a friend or parent edit
Types of Writing
1. Story (short/novel/fiction/nonfiction)
2. News Article
3. Opinion Paper (commentary)
4. Biography/autobiography/ memoirs
5. Research Paper
6. Timeline
7. Essay (descriptive, narrative, persuasive, How to)
Opinion/Fact
Opinion: It was a nice day.
Fact: The sun was shining and a slight breeze blew across my face.
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Group Work
Group work is assigned to learn to collaborate and complete projects in a group setting. Once groups are
chosen, assigned, or formed, they should organize themselves by choosing a leader and specific
individuals will fill specific roles. These roles are outlined below.
Leader
The leader of the group coordinates the members of the group through the assignments and makes sure
everyone follows through with their specific assignment. He/she also makes sure each member has the
contact info for all members in group and they turned in a copy to me. Leaders also make sure there is
good communication within the group throughout the week as needed to complete the assignment.
Scribe
The Scribe is the person in the group who takes notes, writes down the story as it is written and then
turns that info over to the Recorder.
Recorder
The Recorder then records the info for the group. It should be type written in Times New Roman size
14 font and should include a title, the name of the group and list the members of the group.
Orator
The Orator presents the story publicly to the class.
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Editing
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Writing with Clarity and Emphasis
Brackets
Use brackets [ [ ] ] to include explanatory words or phrases within quoted language
Example:
Lew Perkins, the Director of Athletic Programs, said that Pumita Espinoza, the new soccer coach
[at Notre Dame Academy] is going to be a real winner.
If you are quoting material and you've had to change the capitalization of a word or change a
pronoun to make the material fit into your sentence, enclose that changed letter or word(s) within
brackets:
Example:
Espinoza charged her former employer with "falsification of [her] coaching record."
Parentheses
Use parentheses [ ( ) ] to include material that you want to de-emphasize or that wouldn't
normally fit into the flow of your text but you want to include nonetheless.
If the material is important enough, use some other means of including it within your text—even
if it means writing another sentence. Note that parentheses tend to de-emphasize text whereas
dashes tend to make material seem even more important.
Dashes
In writing dialogue, the dash is used to show breaks in thought and shifts in tone.
Example:
"How many times have I asked you not to —" Jasion suddenly stopped talking and looked out
the window.
"Not to do what?" I prompted.
"Not to — Oh heck, I forget!"
Italics & Underlinging
We use italics and underlining to distinguish certain words from others within the text.
Generally, we italicize the titles of things that can stand by themselves. Thus we differentiate
between the titles of novels and journals, say, and the titles of poems, short stories, articles, and
episodes (for television shows). The titles of these shorter pieces would be surrounded with
double quotation marks.
In writing the titles of newspapers, do not italicize the word the, even when it is part of the title
(the New York Times), and do not italicize the name of the city in which the newspaper is
published unless that name is part of the title: the Hartford Courant, but the London Times.
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Book Reports
Four Parts
Although there is no regular form for a book report, there are four parts that a book report should
have:
1. Identify the Book:
book title, author's name, and perhaps the publisher, and year of publication
2. Classify the Book:
adventure, fantasy, humor, etc., if it is fact or fiction
3. Describe the Book:
Give an overall view of the book without giving away the outcome. You should include
quotes or scenes from the book that you think are representative of the quality (or lack of
quality) of the book.
4. Evaluate the Book:
Give your opinion of the book. You can support your opinion with details from the book.
You can compare it to other books you've read that are similar. Make your opinion clear!
How to Write a Book Report (Middle and High School level)
Book reports and book reviews are similar. Book reports tend to be a little more descriptive
(What is this book about?) and book reviews are usually more persuasive (Why a reader should
or shouldn't read this book). Both offer a combination of summary and commentary.
They are a way to think more deeply about a book you've read and to demonstrate your
understanding.
Most teachers have their own requirements, and sometimes a specific format they expect you to
follow, so be sure to check, but the following general elements of a book report or book review
should be helpful.
Introduction
Here you want to provide basic information about the book, and a sense of what your report will
be about. You should include:
1. Title (underlined)/Author
2. Publication Information: Publisher, year, number of pages
3. Genre
4. A brief (1-2 sentences) introduction to the book and the report/review.
Body
There are two main sections for this part. The first is an explanation of what the book is about.
The second is your opinions about the book and how successful it is. There are some differences
between reports on fiction or other imaginative writing and reports on non-fiction books.
But for both, a good place to start is to explain the author's purpose and/or the main themes of
the book. Then you can summarize.
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For fiction or other creative writing:
Provide brief descriptions of the setting, the point of view (who tells the story), the
protagonist , and other major characters. If there is a distinct mood or tone, discuss that as
well.
Give a concise plot summary. Along with the sequence of major events, you may want to
discuss the book's climax and resolution, and/or literary devices such as foreshadowing.
But, if you are writing a review, be careful not to give away important plot details or the
ending.
For non-fiction:
Provide a general overview of the author's topic, main points, and argument. What is the
thesis? What are the important conclusions?
Don't try to summarize each chapter or every angle. Choose the ones that are most
significant and interesting to you.
Analysis and Evaluation
In this section you analyze or critique the book. You can write about your own opinions; just be
sure that you explain and support them with examples. Some questions you might want to
consider:
 Did the author achieve his or her purpose?
 Is the writing effective, powerful, difficult, beautiful?
 What are the strengths and weaknesss of the book?
 For non-fiction, what are the author's qualifications to write about the subject? Do you
agree with the author's arguments and conclusions?
 What is your overall response to the book? Did you find it interesting, moving, dull?
 Would you recommend it to others? Why or why not?
Conclusion
Briefly conclude by pulling your thoughts together. You may want to say what impression the
book left you with, or emphasize what you want your reader to know about it.
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