The Japanese Aesthetics of Imperfection and Insufficiency
Author(s): Yuriko Saito
Source: The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, Vol. 55, No. 4 (Autumn, 1997), pp.
377-385
Published by: Wiley on behalf of The American Society for Aesthetics
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YURIKO SAITO
The Japanese Aesthetics of
Imperfection and Insufficiency
The Japanese aesthetic tradition, just like any
essays in The Pillow Book. One of the things
other cultural tradition, encompasses diverse
which she considers hideous is "a new cloth
tastes and arts. They range from the minimalscreen with a colorful and cluttered painting of
ism of Noh theater to the flamboyance of Kamany cherry blossoms," while she is excited by
buki theater, the somber severity of mono"'notic(ing) that one's elegant Chinese mirror
chrome brush ink paintings to the opulence of
has become a little cloudy."2 As for her taste in
gold-gilded screen paintings, and the simple
garden ponds, she dislikes "those in which everyrusticity of tea huts to the august majesty of cas-thing is carefully laid out"; she much prefers
tles. Among these diverse aesthetic phenomena
"one that has been left to itself so that it is wild
and pursuits, one theme stands out for being
and covered with weeds."3
somewhat unusual, yet is generally identified as
Sei Shonagon's taste, typical of the ancient
forming a quintessentially Japanese taste. It is
Japanese court aesthetic sensibility, was inherthe celebration of those qualities commonly reited and further developed by Yoshida Kenko
garded as falling short of, or deteriorating from, (c. 1283-c. 1350), a retired Buddhist monk.4 His
the optimal condition of the object. Specifically, influence on the subsequent development in Japthese qualities are found in objects with defects,
anese aesthetics as well as philosophy of life is
an impoverished look, or aging effects, as well
quite significant. In an oft-quoted passage reas in a landscape or the moon obscured by
garded as the manifesto of the aesthetics of imclouds, mist, or fog.
perfection and insufficiency, he states the folI shall refer to this Japanese appreciation of
lowing:
the aged, the obscured, the impoverished, and
the defective as "the Japanese aesthetics of imAre we to look at cherry blossoms only in full bloom,
perfection and insufficiency."' In the following
the moon only when it is cloudless? To long for the
discussion, I shall explore the aesthetic, social,
moon while looking on the rain, to lower the blinds
historical, and philosophical dimensions of this
and be unaware of the passing of the spring-these
Japanese aesthetic taste. I hope to shed light on
are even more deeply moving. Branches about to
the complexity of this aesthetic phenomenon
blossom or gardens strewn with faded flowers are
which is intertwined with diverse aspects of the worthier of our admiration.5
Japanese people's lives.
Similarly, regarding artifacts, he finds aesthetic
appeal in those objects that show wear and tear
or that are incomplete:
I. EXAMPLES
This aesthetics of imperfection and insufficiency first developed as a celebration of a natural aging process or obscuring effect. For example, consider a series of aesthetic preferences
noted by a tenth-century court lady and one of
the first trendsetters in Japanese sensibility, Sei
Shonagon (965?-c. 1020), in her well-known
It is only after the silk wrapper has frayed at top and
bottom, and the mother-of-pearl has fallen from the
roller that a scroll looks beautiful. I was impressed to
hear the Abbot KMyd say, "It is typical of the unintelligent man to insist on assembling complete sets of
everything. Imperfect sets are better." In everything,
The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 55:4 Fall 1997
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378 The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism
tron Shogun.
It was
an exquisite and colorful
no matter what it may be, uniformity
and
completeness are undesirable.6
tenth-century Chinese silk painting of two
white herons. Shuk6 proceeded to change its
It was during the sixteenth century, with the
scroll from gold brocade to subdued-colored
flourishing of the tea ceremony, that this aes-
damask, eliminated a thin strip of cloth immedi-
thetics of imperfection became established as a
ately below the painting which is required for
principle of artistic creation. The first stage was
jects" which have already been damaged, aged,
any proper framing, and replaced the ivory bottom roll with a branch from a Chinese quince.
The resultant hanging scroll, thus transformed
or blemished. For example, weather-beaten or
to appear less opulent, is said to have continued
moss-covered rocks were aggressively pursued
to impress the succeeding tea masters. 10
to incorporate in its artistic creation "found ob-
for use as stepping stones, lanterns, and water
Or consider another anecdote of a tea master
basins in tea gardens.7 Tea huts were made to
and his disciple who found a perfectly formed
appear rustic and impoverished with an un-
flower vase with symmetrical handles. The
master purchased the vase and the disciple was
painted, stark interior with a crooked tree for a
pillar and caked mud for walls.
invited to the tea ceremony the following day.
By far the most conspicuous examples can be
The disciple hid a hammer in his sleeve, hoping
found in tea wares and utensils for the cere-
to make the vase even more appealing by break-
mony. Impoverished-looking and irregularly
ing one of its handles. To his surprise, the disci-
shaped Korean peasants' bowls, often with
ple found that the master had already broken a
chips and cracks, were highly esteemed for use
handle to diminish the well-formed appearance
in the tea ceremony. The accidental damages to
of the vase. I I
tea wares or signs of their age did not stop their
Finally, another tea master, Furuta Oribe
use; either the bowls were left unrepaired or the
(1543-1615), was somewhat ridiculed by his
trace of repair was left visible. Furthermore,
contemporary who claimed:
many tea wares were cherished precisely be-
cause of these seeming defects. A seventeenth-
This man destroys treasures. He trims a scroll to im-
century record of the teachings of tea masters
prove its shape, and he breaks an unblemished tea
explicitly states:
bowl or a tea caddy and then repairs it to make it more
amusing. 12
Concerning the tea utensils for the small tea room ...
it is recommended that they should, in every way and
There are important aesthetic differences be-
aspect, fall rather short of perfection. There are peo-
tween a vase whose handle broke off by accident
ple who find it repugnant to have a tiniest defect in
and an identical vase whose handle was inten-
them. This I do not understand.8
tionally broken off. Chips and cracks on a tea
That "defective" wares were indeed fully appre-
pending upon whether they are due to a natural
ciated and utilized is evidenced by the specific
aging process or a part of the calculated design.
bowl have different aesthetic connotations de-
instructions left by Sen no RikyU (1522-1591),
For the moment, however, I will not address
perhaps the most noted tea master, concerning
these differences; let me instead explore the rea-
how to handle a tea bowl with a big crack.9
One of the accomplishments of the tea masters
sons behind these seemingly unusual aesthetic
tastes and pursuits.
was to go beyond merely appreciating these signs
of imperfection by actually creating the appear-
II. AESTHETIC CONSIDERATIONS
ance of imperfection and impoverishment. For
example, in pursuit of domestically produced
tea bowls, tea masters commissioned potters to
emulate the plain rusticity of Korean wares. In
addition, they also resorted to what may be
called iconoclastic acts. Consider the action of
Murata Shuko (1423-1502), a founder of the tea
ceremony, when he received a gift from his pa-
The emergence of this aesthetics of imperfection and insufficiency can be partly explained
by the aesthetic value of contrast. One of the
hallmarks of the traditional Japanese aesthetic
design principle is harmony brought about by
juxtaposing disparate, often contrasting, elements. The unity of the whole is designed to
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Saito The Japanese Aesthetics of Imperfection and Insufficiency 379
emerge spontaneously from the contribution of
imagination than if they were at the height of
each element, rather than each part subsumed
their condition. "In all things, it is the begin-
under a preconceived, overall plan. For exam-
nings and ends that are interesting," according
ple, Japanese gardens in general are created by
to Kenkd, because they stimulate our imagina-
arranging various rocks and trees so as to artic-
tion to either anticipate or to reminisce. Further-
ulate their individual characteristics. This is
more, "how incomparably lovely is the moon ...
often accomplished by juxtaposing materials of
when seen through the tops of the cedars deep in
contrasting qualities for mutual enhancement,
the mountains, or when it hides for a moment
such as a vertical rock with a horizontal rock, or
behind clustering clouds during a sudden
a smooth-textured rock with a rough-textured
shower!" A view of something half-obscured in
rock. Similarly, one of the techniques of com-
such a manner is much more alluring than when
posing haiku is to juxtapose disparate and unre-
it is fully exposed.17
lated objects, such as a tiny flower and a vast
A similar reasoning can be given for the ap-
sky or a present phenomenon and an ancient
preciation of the imperfect and the insufficient.
event, in order to give rise to an ineffable atmo-
A broken ware, for example, intrigues our imag-
sphere which would color the whole verse.'3
ination by making us wonder about the history
The appreciation of the imperfect is based
behind the object: What was its optimal condi-
upon the same consideration of aesthetic con-
tion like? How did the damage occur? What aes-
trast. That is, juxtaposing the opulent or the per-
thetic value was found in it by the tea master
fect with the impoverished or the imperfect fa-
who decided to keep using it? A twentieth-cen-
tury art critic, Yanagi Sdetsu, summarizes his at-
cilitates mutual emphasis of each asset. This
point is succinctly expressed in Shukd's verse:
'A prize horse looks best hitched to a thatched
hut."'4 Accordingly, the exquisite painting of
the white herons will not stand out if the framing scroll is equally gorgeous. Conversely, the
aesthetic value of the irregularly shaped objects
unaccounted for."'18
is enhanced by surroundings marked by regular
in full bloom, the unobscured moon, and a per-
traction to "the irregular" as based upon the allurement when "there is ... a little something left
One could question why these associations do
not occur regarding objects and phenomena
with optimal condition, such as cherry blossoms
patterns. Such a contrast can be found between
fectly shaped bowl with no damage. Theoreti-
the misshapen tea utensils and the geometrically
cally it would be possible for us to imagine how
it came to be, what it will be like if it is obscured
shaped and regularly textured tatami mat, be-
tween one irregularly formed pillar and the
or when it is past its prime, what kind of possi-
straight, geometrical divisions of the rest of the
ble damage or aging effect it may accrue, and so
tea hut interior, between the impoverished-look-
on. However, it may be that since we normally
ing tea hut and the adjacent august castle or
expect and imagine objects and phenomena to
luxurious residence.15 The aesthetic value of
be in their optimal condition, any deviation
contrast underlies one of the instructions in a
from that surprises us, stimulating our imagina-
seventeenth-century tea manual: "as for the
tion and triggering curiosity.
combination of the types of tea utensils ... a
There is a sense in which we not only expect
plain tea bowl of present-day porcelain should
and imagine objects in their optimal conditions
be combined with an exquisite antique piece of
but also yearn for them. Kenko recognizes this
Chinese tea-caddy."16
This principle of contrast operates in imagi-
tendency while advocating the appreciation of
the imperfect, the obscured, and the insufficient:
nation as well. Even in the absence of an actual
object or phenomenon in a perfect, optimal con-
People commonly regret that the cherry blossoms
dition, one can still appreciate the contrast be-
scatter or that the moon sinks in the sky, and this is
tween the perfect and the imperfect by imagin-
natural; but only an exceptionally insensitive man
ing the former. Such was the explanation
would say, "This branch and that branch have lost
offered by Kenko. The obscured moon, fallen
cherry blossoms, and the end of a love affair,
normally considered as falling short of the opti-
their blossoms. There is nothing worth seeing now."'19
mal condition, are much more interesting to the
their full glory, or the unblemished scroll are
A clearly viewed moon, cherry blossoms in
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380 The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism
easier to appreciate. Kenk6's proposed aesthet-
looking scroll does not imply an inability to
ics of imperfection and insufficiency can be re-
choose opulent materials; it is a product of conscious design. Similarly, a flower vase missing
garded as a challenge to this common and prevalent taste.
The premise that the perfect and the opulent
one handle is not a result of failed creation.
These considerations make apparent that the
are easier to appreciate is also shared by Mo-
appreciation of the imperfect was not merely di-
toori Norinaga (1730-1801), a noted philologist
rected toward the sensory qualities such as
and literary critic. Norinaga, however, uses this
premise to criticize the aesthetic sensibility ad-
asymmetry, irregularity, or obscurity, or their
vocated by Kenko:
contrast with the opposite qualities. These qual-
ities are aesthetically appreciable precisely because their opposites are possible to achieve.
It is noteworthy that the proponents of this
feelings but is afabricated aesthetic taste formed in
aesthetics of imperfection and insufficiency
the impertinent mind of a man of a later age and it iscame from the position of social privilege and
not a truly aesthetic taste. What that monk said can be
cultural sophistication. For example, Sei Shonadescribed ... as contrived only to make what does not
gon, born into a family of noted poets, belonged
What that monk said does not accord with human
accord with human wishes a refined taste.20
to the cultural elite of her time by serving an empress. Similarly, Kenko, coming from a family
If, as Norinaga insists (and Kenko agrees), it is
"natural" for humans to long for clarity and perfection, the aesthetics of imperfection trans-
forms what otherwise would be a disappointing
experience, such as of an obscured moon or a
shabby-looking scroll, into a positive experience.
The appreciation of the imperfect is then interpreted as an end product of a dialectic movement, a resolution to the disappointment or dissatisfaction in the ordinary context.
of noted diviners serving emperors, tutored a
young prince and enjoyed easy access to the
nobility. With his knowledge of ancient court
culture and religious teachings, as well as contemporary issues, Kenko circulated among the
aristocrats comfortably. His association with
the nobility continued even after he "renounced
the world" to lead the life of a Buddhist monk
at the age of thirty, partly motivated by the decline of his patron family's political fortune.21
Neither of them was underprivileged with no
However, why challenge this "natural" aesthetic attraction and advocate what may be con- choice but to deal daily with simple materials,
sidered a subversive aesthetics? Was it merely todefective objects, and old, worn-out items.
provide aesthetic contrast and stimulation to theRather, their privileged position afforded them
imagination?
the luxury of adopting a purely aesthetic attitude toward the signs of insufficiency and imIII. SOCIAL/POLITICAL CONSIDERATIONS
poverishment .22
It is the art of the tea ceremony that added a
It is important to note that this aesthetic celepolitical dimension to this aesthetics. Primarily
bration of the imperfect and the insufficient pre- wealthy merchants under generous patronage
supposes not only the yearning for but also the
from shoguns, tea masters of the sixteenth cenattainability of the optimum condition, undertury acted not only as aesthetic consultants to
stood as a shiny mirror, a gorgeous and properly
the shoguns but sometimes also as their political
framed scroll, a meticulously maintained garden, confidants. In particular, they cultivated and
and a perfectly formed vase. A cloudy mirror
recommended the aesthetics of imperfection
Sei Shonagon appreciates is not a cheap or deand insufficiency as their patrons became infective product; it was shiny once. A wild garcreasingly tempted to display their growing poden exalted by her did not result from the owner litical power and wealth. For example, Rikyti
not being able to afford maintaining it; rather, it
severely criticized his patron shogun Toyotomi
was a calculated neglect. Falling cherry blossoms
Hideyoshi's (1536-1598) gold-gilded tea hut,
are aesthetically superior to those in full bloom
not only for its garish uncouthness but also for
precisely because they had previously achieved
its political imprudence for possibly incurring
the stage of full blossom. Chipped and cracked
the wrath of the underprivileged.23
tea wares could be repaired. The impoverishedIn an effort to counterbalance such an osten-
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Saito The Japanese Aesthetics of Imperfection and Insufficiency 381
religious
foundation of this aesthetics did functatious display of their patrons' power and
wealth,
tion as a powerful means of justifying life in
the tea masters made the tea hut to emulate the
humble, simple rusticity of a mountain hut.
general for everyone, for the rich and powerful
Specifically, the size of the hut became smaller,
the height of the ceiling became lower to prevent
philosophical dimension of this aesthetics we
the display of an expensive, long hanging scroll,
shall turn next.
as well as for the poor and humble. To this
and the interior became less finished by using
unpolished wood, unpainted walls, or some-
IV. PHILOSOPHICAL/RELIGIOUS CONSIDERATIONS
times even mud walls.24 In addition, a symbolic
gesture toward social egalitarianism was displayed in a low washbasin and an extremely
In addition to the political dimension, there was
small entrance to the tea hut, forcing all partici-
also an important philosophical underpinning to
this aesthetics of imperfection and insuffi-
pants to literally lower themselves and the war-
ciency. The indigenous religious tradition of
riors to cast aside their long swords, a proud
Japan, Shintoism, is noted for its affirmation
symbol of their status. The absence of a spatial
and celebration of everything in this world, ex-
center in the tea hut also eliminated the social
pressed in its nature worship. While not directly
hierarchy of seating the guests.25
giving rise to the aesthetics of imperfection and
The aesthetics of imperfection and insuffi-
insufficiency, Shintoism provides the spiritual
ciency promoted by the tea ceremony, however,
foundation which encourages the appreciation
went beyond merely restraining the ostentatious
of this life and this world.
display of wealth and power. It also helped jus-
The attitude toward affirmation of this world
tify insufficiency and poverty through aestheti-
is further developed by Zen Buddhism, im-
cizing them. The most explicit expression con-
ported from China toward the end of twelfth
cerning this political significance of the tea
century. It is Zen Buddhism that provides the
ceremony is found in an essay by a nineteenth-
most direct philosophical foundation for the
century statesman, Ii Naosuke (1815-1860), entitled "Essay on the Service of the Way of Tea to
Except for Sei Shonagon, whose life predates
the Way of Government." In it he emphasizes
the introduction of Zen Buddhism to Japan, the
aesthetics of imperfection and insufficiency.
the political importance of the tea ceremony's
advocates of this aesthetics were either students
teaching regarding how to be satisfied with in-
or practitioners of Zen Buddhism.
sufficiency.26 The aesthetic sensibility was thus
One of the most important doctrines of Zen
utilized for instilling the virtue of being satis-
Buddhism is its thoroughgoing egalitarianism
fied with and finding pleasure in one's lot, no
concerning the Buddha nature (understood
matter how imperfect and disappointing ini-
roughly as the ultimate reality), which makes no
tially, a virtue considered crucial in maintaining
value discrimination between various objects and
stability in a hierarchical society.
activities. This view leads to the absolute affir-
The success of this aesthetic means of social
mation of the facticity of everything existent.
control is not clear, as some critics saw through
This egalitarian view is expressed repeatedly by
the promotion of this aesthetics to expose the
Dogen (1200-1253), the founder of the Soto sect
social/political purpose behind it. For example,
of Zen Buddhism and perhaps one of the most
Dazai Shundai (1680-1747), a Confucian scholar,
important figures in the history of Japanese
points out:
thought. He identifies Buddha nature with
grasses, trees, bushes, mountains, rivers, bricks,
Whatever tea dilettantes do is a copy of the poor and
tiles, chairs, and ceremonial brushes, as well as
humble. It may be that the rich and noble have a rea-
body, mind, delusion, enlightenment, birth, and
son to find pleasure in copying the poor and humble.
death. By far the most vivid examples he cites to
But why would those who are, from the outset, poor
illustrate this omnipresence of Buddha nature are
and humble find pleasure in further copying the poor
"a donkey's jaw," "a horse's mouth," "the sound
of breaking wind," and "the smell of excrement";
in short, those objects and phenomena which are
and humble?27
However, despite such criticism regarding its so-
commonly shunned, neglected, or depreciated
cial/political implications, the philosophical/
for being ignoble, vulgar, or unpleasant.28
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382 The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism
Hindrance to realizing the Buddha nature of
pearances, qualities which are normally not ap-
everything whatsoever, including those unsa-
preciated. The challenge to find an aesthetic ap-
vory objects and phenomena, is our ordinary ex-
peal in those things to which we do not normally
perience of the world, which is facilitated by
feel attracted is also an invitation to experience
what Dogen calls "the burden of self." Whether
the world from the Zen standpoint.
the viewpoint be egocentric, ethnocentric, pres-
In one sense, this aesthetics of imperfection
ent-minded, or anthropocentric, experiencing
overcompensates for the commonplace devalua-
the world from a particular centrist position will
tion of imperfection by purging from the aes-
prevent us from seeing into the reality of every-
thetic sphere that which is well formed, opulent,
thing, describable only as "thus-ness," "such-
and gorgeous, creating an equally nonegalitar-
ness," or "being-suchness." Until we "learn to
ian view on aesthetic values. However, this over-
penetrate freely beyond these bounds," that is,
compensation underscores the presupposition
bounds created by the burden of self, we "have
that the "natural" aesthetic tendency toward the
not been liberated from the body and mind of
perfect and the opulent is prevalent and deeply
ordinary people."29
entrenched among people.31
One of the bounds to be overcome in Zen en-
The Zen foundation for the aesthetics of im-
lightenment is our "natural" tendency to appre-
perfection and insufficiency was not limited to
ciate the perfect, the opulent, and the gorgeous
its metaphysical consideration; it also encom-
while being disappointed and dissatisfied with
passed an existential dimension. This aesthetici-
the opposite qualities. Our tendency to depreci-
zation of what is normally considered disap-
ate the imperfect and the insufficient is based
pointing and difficult to accept facilitates
upon our all-too-human perspective; in terms of
acceptance of the ultimate lot in life: the univer-
ultimate reality, however, they are equally valu-
sal condition of transience, a great equalizer.
able for manifesting their own Buddha nature.
One of the most important themes in Buddhism,
as in many world traditions, concerns how to
Hence,
cope with the challenge of the transience of
When we look at the moon and flowers, it is just
everything existent, particularly of human life.
the moon and flowers we should see, not some dis-
Early Japanese attempts to cope with this irrev-
torted picture created to conform to a preconceived
ocable fact of life ranged from resignation, find-
idea. Experience spring as spring and autumn as
ing analogue and solace in the evanescent as-
autumn. Accept both the beauty and loneliness of
pects of nature, to seeking salvation in the other
both. ... Determination to see all things as they really
world, the Pure Land.32
are, free of preconceived ideas, results in emergence
of true practice.30
Zen Buddhism introduces a positive celebra-
tion of transience, as perhaps most eloquently
expressed by Kenki:
Shunning academic discourses, Zen thinkers
typically transmit their world view to the popu-
If man were never to fade away like the dews of
lace through aesthetic means. Specifically, the
Adashino, never to vanish like the smoke over Tori-
Zen commitment to thorough egalitarianism is
beyama, but lingered on forever in the world, how
embodied in the aesthetic elevation of the mun-
things would lose their power to move us! The most
dane and the ordinary, practiced in particular by
precious thing in life is its uncertainty.33
the tea ceremony and haiku. The former elevates the so-called mundane activities such as
This affirmation of transience receives an aes-
washing hands, boiling water, and drinking tea
thetic support by the penchant for imperfection
to an artistic height, while the latter takes seem-
and insufficiency. Many examples of imperfec-
ingly vulgar objects, such as urination of a
tion are drawn from appreciating the aging ef-
horse, droppings of a warbler, fleas, and flies, as
fects on the object. Chipped or broken objects
subject matters. The aesthetically worthwhile
evoke a history of being used, while faded,
objects and activities are not limited to what is
rusted, or aged appearance of lacquer ware,
normally considered to be noble and elegant.
metalwork, and unpainted architectural interior
Similarly, this Zen egalitarianism raises the
suggest noble patina.34 A garden with a wild,
value of misshapen forms and impoverished ap-
neglected appearance also conjures up an image
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Saito The Japanese Aesthetics of Imperfection and Insufficiency 383
of the passage of time. Instead of lamenting the
thetics, artists are successful in their endeavor
fact that the object no longer exhibits the origi-
only when they overcome or transcend their im-
nal, perfectly shaped, lustrously colored appear-
mediate intentions concerning the design (such
ance, the aesthetics of imperfection elevates this
as to make a misshapen object). This is accom-
fall from the graceful perfection to an even
plished when they submit their ego to the mate-
higher aesthetic plane by celebrating vicissitude
rials and let these materials take a lead in de-
and perishability.
Appreciating chips and cracks of the tea
signing or performing. Specifically, a master
artist lets a form emerge from the given clay, as-
wares not due to aging but rather as a result
sists trees and rocks to articulate their unique
of the firing process also encourages our accep-
characteristics in a garden, listens to pines and
tance of and submission to our condition in life.
bamboos in composing a haiku about them, and
The art of pottery-making consists both of the
enables a spontaneous harmony to emerge from
potter's manipulation of the material and of
the interaction with tea ceremony guests.37 The
the factors beyond the potter's control (such
product or activity executed in this manner,
as the precise temperature of the fire, the exact
though not resulting from accidents or processes
response of the clay and glazing to the particu-
beyond human control, is said to embody spon-
lar fire, etc.). The resultant product often ex-
taneity and freedom. Hence, even when de-
hibits unexpected colors, shape, and texture.
signed to appear defective, it is possible for
In one sense, pottery embodies the potter's par-
cracked tea bowls to invoke the attitude of ac-
tial surrender to the material and process.35 The
ceptance of the forces and situations beyond
accidental cracks and chips in the firing process
human control. By celebrating the aesthetic
thus reminds us of the fact that one cannot
value of such objects, human submission to and
always manipulate and control events and
eventual affirmation of life with all its contin-
processes in life. Furthermore, by not discard-
gencies become aestheticized.
ing the cracked tea bowl but rather by cherishing
such an object, this submission of one's ego
V. CONCLUDING REMARKS
to the natural process receives a positive aesthetic endorsement.
In this context, a problem arises concerning
Many Japanese artistic activities both presuppose
and encourage the artists' listening to and submit-
the aesthetic value of those objects which are
ting themselves to the voice and dictate of the ma-
designed to appear defective. That is, is not the
terial and subject matter, as well as affirming the
aesthetic justification of transience and human
various elements of accidents and surprises be-
powerlessness over natural process possible
yond their control. The attitude toward society,
only when the signs for these are produced with-
nature, and life as well as artistic work encour-
out any human control? Indeed, some critics
aged as virtuous is to acknowledge and accept the
adopt a purist position regarding this, question-
given condition in toto, even including their
ing the value of those objects made to appear
painful, difficult, or disappointing aspects, and to
impoverished and defective. Yanagi, a contem-
appreciate what is given. I have tried to argue in
porary commentator cited previously, for exam-
the preceding that the traditional Japanese means
ple, regards Korean peasants' bowls superior to
of nurturing this attitude was justifying the un-
those Japanese tea wares which are made by tea
palatable in life and society through aestheticiz-
connoisseurs to emulate the former. The differ-
ing the imperfect and the insufficient.38
ence between the two, according to him, is "be-
tween things born and things made."36
However, I do not believe that this purist
YURIKO SAITO
Division of Liberal Arts
predicament is necessary for the objects with
Rhode Island School of Design
imperfection to justify transience and human
2 College Street
surrender to natural process. Consider the possi-
Providence, Rhode Island 02903
bility of distinguishing, within intentional design activity, contrived design and spontaneous
design. This distinction refers to the difference
1. Needless to say, the concepts of imperfection and in-
in the makers' attitude. According to Zen aes-
sufficiency are wholly dependent upon human expectations.
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384 The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism
This point will be explored subsequently, particularly in the
section on Zen Buddhism.
2. The first passage, not included in the English translation, is from Section 144 of Makura no S6shi (The Pillow
15. See Marc Treib's discussion of the contrasting factors
in the interior of a tea room in "The Dichotomies of Dwell-
ing: Edo/Tokyo," in Tokyo: Form and Spirit, ed. Mildred
Friedman (Minneapolis: Walker Art Center, 1986), p. 122.
Book), ed. Ishida Joji (Tokyo: Kadokawa Shoten, 1984), my
See also Izutsu's discussion on this matter in The Theory of
translation and emphases added. The second passage is
Beauty, p. 57.
taken from The Pillow Book of Sei Sh5nagon, trans. Ivan
16. Sen no RikyO in Izutsu, The Theory of Beauty, p. 146,
Morris (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1982), p. 51. For
emphases added. The passage continues: "Juko-although
further discussion of Sei Sh6nagon's aesthetic taste, I have
it was a time when every tea utensil to be used in tea parties
consulted Tanaka Hisao, Nihon Bi no Sekai (The World of
was supposed to be of the taste of sumptuous exquisite-
Japanese Beauty), included in Nihon Bungaku ni Okeru Bi no
ness-would present the tea-bowl of ido which he had cher-
K5z5 (The Structure of Beauty in Japanese Literature), ed.
ished, avoiding a tea-bowl of tenmoku, wrapping the ido in
Kuriyama Riichi (Tokyo: Ydsankaku, 1982), pp. 371-372.
3. The Pillow Book, Morris translation, p. 138.
4. For the Japanese authors' names, I will follow the custom of putting the first name last and the last name first, ex-
a tea-bowl-pouch giving it the authenticity of a tenmoku."
Ido bowls are plain-looking bowls used by Korean peasants
while tenmoku bowls are opulent-looking wares imported
from China.
cept when citing their writings published in English. I will
17. Kenk6, pp. 117-118. The preference for things ob-
also observe the Japanese custom by referring to classical
scured to things exposed is also expressed by a twentieth-
authors by their personal names. For example, Yoshida Kenk6
century writer, Tanizaki Jun'ichiro, in his In Praise of Shad-
will hereafter be Kenko.
ows, trans. Thomas J. Harper and Edward G. Seidensticker
5. Kenk6 Yoshida, Essays in Idleness: The Tsurezuregusa
of Kenk5, trans. Donald Keene (Columbia University Press,
(New Haven: Leete's Island Books, 1977), pp. 1-17.
18. Soetsu Yanagi, The Unknown Craftsman: A Japanese
Insight into Beauty, adapted by Bernard Leach (Tokyo:
1967), p. 115.
6. Ibid., p. 70. Keene's translation has "uniformity" in-
Kodansha International, 1982), p. 121.
stead of "uniformity and completeness" at the end of this
19. Kenk6, p. 115, emphases added.
passage. I added "completeness" here to capture the entire
20. Cited by Hiroshi Minami in Psychology of the Japa-
meaning of the original term: "koto no totonooritaru."
7. For example, in one garden, cracks on various stone ob-
nese People, trans. Albert R. Ikoma (University of Toronto
Press, 1971), p. 91, emphases added.
jects such as water basins are left unrepaired while in an-
21. For Kenko's biographical information, in particular
other garden the top of a stone lantern was intentionally
concerning his political connections, see pp. 128-135 of
chipped. There is even an explicit instruction for garden
Michele Marra's The Aesthetics of Discontent: Politics and
making which recommends that "if an old stone with moss
Reclusion in Medieval Japanese Literature (University of
is used (for a lantern), place it without cleaning the surface"
Hawaii Press, 1991).
and that "if it is damaged, it is fine, too." Cited by Mori
22. A contemporary architectural critic points out that
Osamu in Teien (Garden) (Tokyo: Kondo Shuppansha,
this appreciation of impoverishment which presupposes af-
1984), my translation, pp. 135-136.
fluence underlies not only the medieval aesthetics of imper-
8. Sen no Riky5 in Namb6roku o Yomu (Reading Nam-
fection but also the contemporary architecture of Tadao
b6roku), ed. Kumakura Isao (Kyoto: Tankosha, 1989), p. 45.
And6. And6's residential architecture, which is character-
Translation taken from Toshihiko and Toyo Izutsu, The The-
ized by raw concrete, is enjoyed by its residents for the cold-
ory of Beauty in the Classical Aesthetics of Japan (The
ness during winter and the leaking roof precisely because
Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1981), p. 146.
9. Sen no Rikya, pp. 343-344.
they can afford more comfort. Kuma Kengo, Jatakuron (Essays on Ten Types of Dwelling) (Tokyo: Toso Shuppan,
10. This incident is discussed in Kuwata Tadachika,
1989), pp. 119-127. It seems to me that the contemporary
Chaki to Kaiseki (Tea Utensils and Tea Ceremony Cooking)
American craze over the "grunge" look in clothing also pre-
(Tokyo: Kodansha, 1991), pp. 37-38, and in Minamoto
supposes affluence.
Toyomune, Nihon Bijutsushi Tankya (Essays in Japanese Art
History), vol. 6, pp. 421-430.
11. Namb5roku o Yomu, pp. 301. This incident is also discussed in Minamoto, pp. 425-426.
12. The quotation continues: "He will not die a normal
death." Indeed, Oribe was ordered to commit suicide during
23. For this incident, see Theodore M. Ludwig's "Chanoyu
and Momoyama: Conflict and Transformation in Riky5's
Art" included in Tea in Japan, eds. Varley and Kumakura.
This work also contains a color photograph of the modem
replica of Hideyoshi's golden tea room.
24. This continuous movement toward emulating impov-
a battle. Cited in Nambfroku o Yomu, p. 305 (my translation). erishment in a tea hut is recorded in Sen no Rikyui,
13. I explored this design principle used in Japanese gar-
Namboroku, pp. 147-148.
den making in "Japanese Gardens: The Art of Improving
25. For the symbolic expressions of social egalitarianism
Nature," Chanoyu Quarterly (Summer, 1996): 41-61. The
in the tea ceremony, see Izutsu, pp. 57-59. Similarly, one
principle of composition regarding haiku is discussed by
contemporary critic points out, "the tea ceremony was born
Makoto Ueda in his Literary and Art Theories in Japan (The
out of astute political acumen and economic sensitivity
Press of Western Reserve University, 1967), pp. 145-172.
among the wealthy merchants from Sakai. Paradoxically,
14. Cited by Koshiro Haga in "The Wabi Aesthetic
precisely because of their wealth, they tended toward wabi
through the Ages," trans. and adapted by Martin Collcutt, in
tea. The tea hut, 'the urban mountain hut' was a thatched hut
Tea in Japan: Essays on the History of Chanoyu, eds. Paul
Varley and Isao Kumakura (University of Hawaii Press,
in the middle of a palace." Kumakura Isao, Chanoyu no
Rekishi (The History of Tea Ceremony) (Tokyo: Asahi Shin-
1989), p. 196.
bunsha, 1991), p. 146, my translation. We should also note
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Saito The Japanese Aesthetics of Imperfection and Insufficiency 385
the way in which the tea ceremony was used as a political
nation with things such as "a weathered rock, a weatherworn
vehicle in the extraordinary tea party hosted by Hideyoshi in
and grainy piece of wood, a piece of old multi-colored bro-
1587 held in the forest of Kitano. It was the largest tea party
cade with its colors now faded and subdued, an ancient land-
in which literally anyone, whether military attendants,
mark now totally deserted soon to be effaced and go irrevo-
townspeople, or farmers, was invited. For details of this
cably into naught, etc." (Izutsu, p. 52). It is also recorded that
Rikyii preferred short-lived flowers to long-lived flowers for
gathering, see Isao Kumakura, "Sen no RikyTi" in Tea in Japan.
26. Ii Naosuke, Sadc5 no seid5 no tasuke to narubeki o
agetsuraeru bun (1846), cited by Minami, p. 88.
decoration in a tea room. Kumakura, Chanoyu no Rekishi,
p. 230.
27. Dazai Shundai, Dokugo (Solitary Words, 1816), cited
35. This aspect of pottery making is explored in a dia-
by Minami, p. 90. I changed the translation of the last two
logue between the fifteenth generation of the Raku Family
sentences to be more faithful to the original. The translation
(a noted pottery-making family in Kyoto) and Shifichi Kat6,
reads: "The rich and noble, however, must have a reason to
an art critic, recorded in a film entitled Japan Spirit and Form:
find pleasure in copying the poor and humble. Why should
the Cosmos in the Hand, directed by Yuichi Funakoshi,
those who are, from the outset, poor and humble further
NHK, 1989.
copy the poor and humble and make fun of them?"
28. The specific examples of a donkey's jaw and a horse's
36. Yanagi, p. 125.
37. One of the most important design principles for mak-
mouth come from the chapter on Bussh6 (Buddha Nature),
ing a Japanese garden has traditionally been the rule of
the sound of breaking wind and the smell of excrement from
"Kowan ni Shitagau," satisfying the request of the objects.
the chapter on Gy6butsu ligi (The Dignified Activities of
This means that the garden maker arranges rocks or prunes
trees in such a way as to articulate and enhance the unique
Practicing Buddha) from Shobogenz5: The Eye and Treasury
of the True Lawt by Dogen Zenji, trans. Kosen Nishiyama
(Tokyo: Nakayama Shob6, 1986).
29. The notion of "burden of self" is explored by D6gen
characteristics of individual objects. In composing a haiku,
Master Basho (1644-1694) claims that "when we observe
in the Chapter of Genj6k6an (Issues at Hand) and the no-
hence, we must "learn from a pine things about a pine, and
tions of bounds and liberation in the chapter of Sansuikyo
from a bamboo things about a bamboo." Cited by Makoto
calmly, we discover that all things have their fulfillment";
(Scripture of Mountains and Waters), both taken from the
Ueda in "Bash6 and the Poetics of Haiku," The Journal of
Thomas Cleary translation, Sh5b5genz&: Zen Essays by
Aesthetics and Art Criticism 21 (1963): 424. With respect to
Dogen (University of Hawaii Press, 1986).
creating a harmonious atmosphere in the tea ceremony,
30. From the chapter on Yuibutsu Yobutsu (only a Buddha
Rikyii repeatedly stresses the importance of letting such a
can transmit to a Buddha) in Shobogenz5, Nishiyama trans-
harmony between the host and the guests emerge sponta-
lation.
neously without forcing to create it (Namboroku o Yomu, pp.
31. The Zen emphasis on the aesthetic value of that which
21, 256, and 350).
is not normally appreciated still pervades contemporary
38. My discussion suggests at least two areas of compar-
writings on this issue. Consider, for example, the discussion
ative study for further inquiry. One is a comparison between
of the Buddhist beauty of imperfection by Yanagi Soetsu. He
this Japanese aesthetics and the eighteenth-century British
claims that the beauty of the tea ceremony "cannot lie either
cult of the picturesque. There are several points of similarity
in the perfect or the imperfect, but must lie in a realm where
between the two: the celebration of obscurity, agedness, ir-
such distinctions have ceased to exist, where the imperfect
regularity; the creation of an aesthetic value through icono-
is identified with the perfect." However, in defining such a
clastic acts (as in partially destroying the perfect facade of a
beauty as "irregular," he fails to explain why transcending
Palladian edifice to make it picturesque, described by Wil-
both regular and irregular or perfect and imperfect must al-
liam Gilpin); the emphasis on the stimulation to the imagi-
ways result in the irregular. Yanagi, p. 121.
32. I explored the manner in which the Japanese tradi-
nation through association of ideas; fascination with the
passage of time as exemplified by the picturesque cult of
tionally sought solace for their mortality in the evanescent
ruins; and the wealth and social privilege enjoyed by the ad-
aspect of nature in "The Japanese Appreciation of Nature,"
The British Journal of Aesthetics 25 (1985): 239-251, and in
vocates of the picturesque.
"The Japanese Love of Nature: a Paradox," Landscape 31
means of justifying every aspect of one's life through aestheticization (particularly of those aspects which are difficult to accept) and Friedrich Nietzsche's aesthetic justification of life. He develops a way of coping with life's
contingencies by saying "yes" to everything, thereby creating an artwork out of one's life as an organic whole in which
nothing can be missing and everything has to be exactly the
(1991): 1-8.
33. Kenko, p. 7. Michele Marra explains how aestheticizing transience carried a personal meaning to Kenko, because
his own life was greatly affected by the vicissitude of the political situation of his time. See his Aesthetics of Discontent,
chap. 6.
34. Izutsu claims that the aesthetics of imperfection developed in the tea ceremony accounts for the Japanese fasci-
Another comparison can be made between the Japanese
way it is. Both propose a total affirmation of what exists and
happens through aesthetic means.
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