From Generation to
Generation: Survival and
Maintenance of Canada’s
Aboriginal Languages
Within Families,
Communities and Cities
Published under the
authority of the Minister
of Indian Affairs and
Northern Development
Ottawa, 2002
QS-7040-000-EE-A1
Catalogue No. R2-234/2002E
ISBN 0-662-33028-5
www.ainc-inac.gc.ca
Indian and Northern
Affaires indiennes
Affairs Canada
et du Nord Canada
Canadian Patrimoine
Heritage
canadien
©Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada
Cette publication peut aussi être obtenue en français sous le titre :
De génération en génération : Survie et préservation des langues
autochtones du Canada au sein des familles, des collectivités et
des villes
History
This poster was developed to communicate the results of research being done by INAC and Canadian Heritage
using census data from 1981 to 1996. It was first presented at the 2001 annual conference of the Canadian
Indigenous/Native Studies Association (CINSA) at the Saskatchewan Indian Federated College, and subsequently
updated based on consultations and feedback with Aboriginal groups and researchers. Most recently, the poster
was presented at the November 2002 Aboriginal Policy Research Conference in Ottawa. The final version of the
poster and the more detailed, stand-alone map adapted from the poster have been well received and generated
much interest among Aboriginal groups, researchers, Friendship Centres and Cultural Education Centres,
educational institutions and government departments and agencies. In an effort to raise awareness about
Aboriginal languages in Canada among both Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal peoples, INAC and Canadian Heritage
are working together to distribute the poster and map to organizations interested in Aboriginal languages and
culture.
Abstracts
The poster “From Generation to Generation: Survival and Maintenance of Canada’s Aboriginal Languages,
Within Families, Communities and Cities” presents recent research findings on various dimensions of Aboriginal
languages. It provides an overview on the viability of languages, factors affecting language survival, language
characteristics of the different Aboriginal groups and the mapping of Aboriginal languages across Canada, for both
Aboriginal communities and cities. In addition, the poster maps the diversity and status of Aboriginal languages
for both indigenous communities, such as First Nations reserves, and major urban areas.
The map “Aboriginal Languages in Canada – 1996" is a separate stand-alone map on Aboriginal languages that
has been adapted from the poster and provides a more detailed version of the original map within the poster. This
enhanced map is based on enumerated communities in the census and also provides information from Indian and
Northern Affairs Canada for those First Nation communities where 1996 census data on Aboriginal languages are
not available. The map illustrates in more detail the linguistic composition within cities and the variations by size
of the urban populations reporting an Aboriginal mother tongue. The map also features an inset with an
enlargement of British Columbia, given the significant diversity of Aboriginal languages within this province (see
Table of Contents).
Table of Contents
Website Contacts
Acknowledgments/Contributors
Languages
Why is Language Important
Background
Regional Characteristics
Viable or Endangered
Trends in Language Use and Maintenance
Families
Communities
Cities
Signs of Language Revival
Conclusion
Data Sources and Definitions
References
Maps from Poster
Enhanced Map: Aboriginal Languages in Canada, 1996
Websites/Contacts:
For further information and enquiries concerning this poster and related research on Aboriginal
languages please visit:
• INAC’s Strategic Research and Analysis Directorate's website at: www.ainc-inac.gc.ca
(see also INAC’s Kids' Stop)
• To order copies of this poster (English or French) or the detailed bilingual map "Aboriginal Languages
in Canada, 1996", please contact INAC General Enquiries and Publications Distribution at
1-800-567-9604, TTY 1-866-553-0554, or [email protected]
Also, for other additional information, enquiries and products on Aboriginal languages in Canada
please visit the following websites:
• Department of Canadian Heritage's Aboriginal Peoples' Program website at: www.pch.gc.ca
• Natural Resources Canada's Atlas of Canada website at: atlas.gc.ca
• Statistics Canada’s website at: www.statcan.ca
• Industry Canada's First Peoples on SchoolNet website at: www.schoolnet.ca/aboriginal/
(For section profiling Aboriginal languages and plaques from across Canada see:
www.schoolnet.ca/aboriginal/tribute/)
• First Nations Confederacy of Cultural Education Centres website at: www.fnccec.com
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 4 of 65
From Generation to Generation: Survival and Maintenance of Canada’s
Aboriginal Languages Within Families, Communities and Cities
Indian and Northern Affairs Canada - 2002
Authors: Mary Jane Norris1 and Lorna Jantzen2
Mapping and Poster Preparation: Tim Albert of GeoSolutions Consulting Inc.
www.geosolutions.com
Contributors: Lucette Dell'Oso1, Karen MacCon1, Gerry Ouellette4 and Cynthia
Davidson1
Acknowledgements: Stephen W. Adcock, Brian R. Harrison4, Réjean
Lachapelle 4, Doug Norris4 and Jean-Pierre Séguin4
Lead Agency:
1 Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC), Research & Analysis Directorate
Participating Agencies:
2 Department of Canadian Heritage, Citizenship and Heritage Sector
3 Natural Resources Canada, The Atlas of Canada
4 Statistics Canada, Demography Division
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 5 of 65
TRANSLATION CONTRIBUTORS
Translation: FROM GENERATION TO GENERATION
• Algonquin: Josée Whiteduck, Kitigan Zibi Anishinabeg (Translation: "The ones with the wisdom
(elders) to the children."), Maniwaki, Quebec
• Coast Salish, Hul'qumi'num dialect: Ron George, Cowichan Tribes (Translation: “From the Elders
to their children”), British Columbia
• Gwich'in: William G. Firth: Fort McPherson, Northwest Territories
• Huron-Wendat, Iroquoian Family: François Vincent, Conseil de la Nation huronne-wendat, Quebec
• Inuktitut (Pangnirtung dialect): Looee Okalik, Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami (Translation: “From Parent to
Child”), Ontario
• Michif (Métis Language, Algonquian Family): Norman Fleury, Manitoba Métis Federation,
(Translation: "Giving the language"), Manitoba
• Micmac: Anne Levi, Big Cove Band Council, New Brunswick
• Mohawk: Margaret Peters, Mohawk Nation, Akwesasne, in collaboration with the Native North
American Travelling College, Ontario
• Montagnais: Angèle Verreault, Conseil des Montagnais du Lac St. Jean, Quebec
• Oji-Cree1: Glen Fiddler, Sandy Lake First Nation, Ontario
• Oji-Cree2: Wawatay Native Communications Society, Ontario
• Ojibwe: Paul Nadjiwan, Ojibwe Cultural Centre, Ontario
• Ojibway: Wawatay Native Communications Society, Ontario
• Oneida, Iroquoian Family: Olive Elm, Onyota'a:ka Language and Cultural Centre, Ontario
(Translation: “ongoing families”)
• Saanich, Salish Family: Adelynne Claxton, Saanich Native Heritage Society, British Columbia
• Stoney, (Dakota) Siouan Family: Peter L. Wesley, Stoney Nation Education Program, Alberta
• Swampy Cree, Algonquian Family: Ojibway and Cree Cultural Centre, Ontario
• Tlingit: Bessie Cooley, Teslin Tlingit Council, (Translation: “From older to younger person”),Yukon
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 6 of 65
LANGUAGES
(Gwich’in)
(Inuktitut)
(Saanich)
(Swampy-Cree)
(Ojibway)
(Stoney)
Anishkutapan auassatsh
(Montagnais)
kha shukàdekhâ xb’êdáxh yîs khâ xh’êde
(Tlingit)
(Oji-Cree-1)
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 7 of 65
LANGUAGES
la lawng aen maykeyawk
(Michif)
Kejeyádizidjig ashidj abinójeenshug
(Algonquin)
(Huron-Wendat)
(Micmac)
(Oji-Cree-2)
(Mohawk)
(Ojibwe)
(Oneida)
Tuni' tus 'uthu Sulhweentst na'ut wul tus 'uthu Smuneemtst
(Coast Salish
Hul'qumi'num dialect)
(Inuktitut)
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 8 of 65
WHY IS LANGUAGE IMPORTANT?
“Canada’s Aboriginal languages are many and diverse, and
their importance to Aboriginal people immense. Language is
one of the most tangible symbols of culture and group identity.
It is not only a means of communication, but a link which
connects people with their past, and grounds their social,
emotional and spiritual vitality.” (Norris, 1998)
• Language is critical in transmitting culture and identity from
one generation to another.
• Loss of language severely handicaps transmission of culture.
• With loss goes unique ways of looking at the world, explaining
the unknown and making sense of life.
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 9 of 65
WHY IS LANGUAGE IMPORTANT?
Why is Intergenerational Transmission of Language Important?
• Language transmission from one generation to another is a
critical factor in Aboriginal language maintenance and
revitalization.
• Unlike other minority language groups, Aboriginal languages
cannot rely on immigration flows for maintaining the
population of speakers.
• According to UNESCO’s (1996) “Atlas of the World’s
Languages in Danger of Disappearing”, a language is
considered endangered if it is not learned by at least 30% of
children in the community.
• 1996 Census indicates that only 20% of Aboriginal children in
Canada learn an Aboriginal mother tongue.
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 10 of 65
WHY IS LANGUAGE IMPORTANT?
Why is Intergenerational Transmission of Language Important?
Intergenerational transmission is necessary for:
• Maintenance: intergenerational transmission of viable
languages in communities where the Aboriginal language is
both the mother tongue and main language of
communication.
• Revitalization: capacity to transmit from one generation to
the next must be restored for endangered languages in
communities that are undergoing shift to the dominant
language.
• It is not enough to increase the number of second-language
speakers, it is also necessary to increase the number of firstlanguage speakers and to restore the transmission of that
language from one generation to the next.
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 11 of 65
WHY IS LANGUAGE IMPORTANT?
Barriers to Intergenerational Transmission
• The forces of modernization and the prevalence of more
dominant languages in everyday life contribute to declining
use of many minority languages, including Aboriginal
languages.
• Historical factors such as the discouragement of Aboriginal
language use in residential schools may have served to
rupture the transmission of language from one generation to
another.
• The fact that most Aboriginal languages were predominately
oral may also have diminished, in an already difficult
environment, their chances of survival.
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 12 of 65
WHY IS LANGUAGE IMPORTANT?
Study Objectives
• To explore which of Canada’s Aboriginal languages are
flourishing and which are in danger of disappearing.
• To examine factors that differentiate viable languages
from endangered ones and that affect language survival
and maintenance.
• To compare language use and maintenance patterns
between 1981 and 1996 to understand what happened
to Aboriginal languages over the years and what the
future may hold for them.
• To analyze the transmission of Aboriginal languages
from generation to generation – from parent to child –
within families.
• To map diversity, distribution and strength of Aboriginal
languages for both communities and cities across
Canada.
For an explanation of terms and concepts used in this
poster, please see section "Data Sources and Definitions."
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 13 of 65
WHY IS LANGUAGE IMPORTANT?
Important Note
The categorization of Aboriginal languages in this study is based on the classification system used in
the censuses of Canada. This classification organizes individual Aboriginal languages by language
families and language isolates (languages that cannot be related to any of the major families). While
this system is standard in its approach, it is recognized that there can be variants of this classification
system (e.g. the language family of “Salish” as used here is elsewhere broken down into Coast Salish
and Interior Salish families); and, that individual languages can be known by names other than those
used in the census (e.g. Nootka in the census is known as Nuu-chah-nulth in British Columbia).
(Source: The First People’s Cultural Foundation of B.C.) As well, names of languages can also vary in
their spelling (e.g. Ojibway in census is also spelled as Ojibwe - see reference for translation in poster).
Furthermore, the categorization used here does not provide for further classification of dialects within
languages (e.g. the Cowichan dialect of “Hul’qumi’num’” used by the Coast Salish people, or the Cree
dialect “Swampy-Cree” – see references for translations in poster).
• In addition, separate analysis of the Métis (Michif – see translation in poster) language was not possible,
since the language was not classified separately in the census, but rather included within the category
“Algonquian languages, n.i.e.”.
• It is not possible within the scope of this study to provide all the variations of language names or their
dialects, furthermore any errors or omissions are unintentional. For more information on Aboriginal
languages in Canada please refer to websites provided below.
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 14 of 65
BACKGROUND
50
Other Algonquian
Languages Combined
40
33,200
90
87,555
80
70
60
25,885
30
20
10
0
Ojibway
• The three largest families are
Algonquian, Inuktitut, and
Athapaskan, which together
represent 93% of Aboriginal mother
tongue population; Cree, Ojibway
and Inuktitut are the largest and
most widespread languages.
• The Algonquian family is the largest of Canada's
Aboriginal language families.
100
Cree
• In the 1996 Census, 207,000
persons reported an Aboriginal
language as their mother tongue.
Major Algonquian Languages
No. of Persons with
Mother Tongue (in thousands)
• Canada’s Aboriginal languages are
many and diverse – the current 50
languages of Canada’s Aboriginal
peoples belong to 11 major
language families or isolates – 10
First Nations and Inuktitut – and
may include several dialects within
each language.
Aboriginal Language
Canada, 1996 Census
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 15 of 65
BACKGROUND
Other Major Aboriginal Language Families
35
30 27,780
25
Haida
Tlingit
Kutenai
Tsimshian
4,295 3,200
2,460 1,650
Iroquoian
0
Wakashan
5
Salish
10
Siouan
15
Athapaskan
20,090
20
Inuktitut
No. of Persons with
Mother Tongue (in thousands)
• Some languages are large, others are small. The eight smallest language families
account for only 7% of the Aboriginal mother tongue population.
590
240
145
120
Language Family or isolate
Canada, 1996 Census
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 16 of 65
REGIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
Aboriginal Mother Tongue Population
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
Province/Territory
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
P.E.I.
New Brunswick
Yukon
Newfoundland
Nova Scotia
N.W.T. (Excluding Nunavut)
B.C.
(Became a Territory in 1999)
Nunavut
Ontario
Alberta
Quebec
Saskatchewan
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Manitoba
Aboriginal Mother Tongue
Population (in thousands)
• Geography influences size and diversity of languages: Because of their large, widely
dispersed populations, the Algonquian languages account for the highest share of
Aboriginal languages in all provinces except British Columbia; British Columbia has the
greatest diversity of languages, home to about half of all individual languages but
because of the small size of these groups, it accounts for only 7% of people with an
Aboriginal mother tongue.
Canada, 1996 Census
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 17 of 65
REGIONAL CHARACTERISTICS
Language Continuity
• Languages, such as Attikamek and Inuktitut in Quebec and Inuktitut in Nunavut are
flourishing; in sharp contrast most of British Columbia’s many small and diverse
languages are endangered.
Province/Territory
Quebec
Nunavut (Became a Territory in 1999)
Newfoundland
N.W.T. (Excluding Nunavut)
Nova Scotia
Manitoba
Saskatchewan
Ontario
New Brunswick
Alberta
Yukon
British Columbia
P.E.I.
0
20
40
60
80
100
Index of Continuity
(No. of persons with home language per 100 with mother tongue)
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canada, 1996 Census
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 18 of 65
VIABLE OR ENDANGERED?
The State of Aboriginal Languages
• For Aboriginal people great losses have occurred: out of
some 50 languages, about half are either close to
extinction or endangered. Over the past 100 years or
more, nearly ten once flourishing languages have become
extinct; at least a dozen are on the brink of extinction.
• Large languages are more likely to flourish – only 3 can
be considered large enough to be secure from threat of
extinction in the long-run.
• While some small languages are viable, many smaller
languages are endangered.
• Passing on the language from one generation to another
is critical for its survival and continuity.
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 19 of 65
VIABLE OR ENDANGERED?
Language Continuity and Intergenerational Transmission
• The ratio between mother tongue and home language is an important indicator of
language vitality – transmission from one generation to the next is difficult when a
language is no longer spoken at home.
• Inuktitut and Cree are highly likely to be passed on to the next generation, with relatively
high continuity (e.g. 86 persons speak Inuktitut at home for every 100 persons with an
Inuktitut mother tongue).
• In sharp contrast, many smaller languages especially in British Columbia, such as Haida,
with only 6 persons speaking it at home for every 100 persons with a Haida mother
tongue, have extremely low chances of being passed on to the younger generation.
• Yet other smaller languages, such as Attikamek and Montagnais-Naskapi, show good
prospects for intergenerational transmission with continuity indexes of greater than 90.
Index of Continuity by Aboriginal Language
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Haida (Isolate)
Iroquoian Family
Kutenai (Isolate)
Tlingit (Isolate)
Nishga
Tsimshian
Wakashan
Salish, n.i.e.
Kutchin-Gwich'in (Loucheux)
Shuswap
Aboriginal Languages, n.i.e.
Nootka
Malecite
Gitksan
Athapaskan, n.i.e.
Algonquian, n.i.e.
Chipewyan
Carrier
South Slave
Ojibway
Algonquin
North Slave (Hare)
Blackfoot
Chilcotin
0
Cree
10
Dogrib
20
Micmac
30
Oji-Cree
40
Inuktitut Family
50
Dene
60
Montagnais-Naskapi
70
Siouan Family (Dakota/Sioux)
80
Attikamek
Index (No. of persons with
home language per 100 with
mother tongue)
90
Thompson (Ntlakapamux)
Canada, 1996 Census
100
Slide # 20 of 65
VIABLE OR ENDANGERED?
Language classification: “viable” and “endangered”
• This 5-category classification of language survival is based on M. Dale Kinkade’s
1991 study, “The Decline of Native Languages in Canada”. Languages which are
reported by the census are classified into the “viable” (including “viable and
small”) and “endangered” categories (See Table). Examples of languages already
extinct or near extinction are provided separately.
1. Already Extinct.
2. Near Extinction: beyond the possibility of revival (spoken by only a few
elderly people).
3. Endangered: spoken by enough people to make survival a possibility if
sufficient community interest and concerted educational programs are
present.
4. Viable but Small: more than 1,000 speakers and spoken in isolated
and/or well-organized communities with strong self-awareness.
5. Viable: large enough population base that long-term survival is relatively
assured.
For discussions on viable and endangered Aboriginal languages see
UNESCO, 1996; RCAP, 1994; INAC, 1990; L. Drapeau, 1995; Norton and
Fettes, 1994; Kinkade, 1991; Burnaby and Beaujot, 1986; and Priest, 1985.
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 21 of 65
VIABLE OR ENDANGERED?
Languages Already Extinct
• Huron, Petun, Neutral, St. Lawrence Iroquoian (Iroquoian Family)
Note: While Huron–Wendat is extinct in the sense that the last Aboriginal speakers died in the first half of the 20th Century, there
are efforts being made to bring the language back to life, as evidenced by the translation in this poster. (John Steckley, Professor,
Humber College, Personal Communication, July 2002).
• Beothuk (Isolate)
• Pentlatch, Comox (1 speaker in 1990, now deceased) (Salish Family)
• Tsetsaut, Nicola (Athabaskan* Family)
Languages Near Extinction
• Abenaki, Delaware (Algonquian Family)
• Tagish, Han, Tahltan, Sarcee (Athabaskan* Family)
• Iroquoian Family – Tuscarora and Seneca
• Straits Salish (Saanich dialect), Squamish, Sechelt (Salish Family)
• Nitinaht (Wakashan Family)
• Southern Tsimshian (Tsimshian Family)
Canadian Aboriginal Languages in the United States
• Some languages have no equivalent in the United States
e.g. Cree, Wakashan,Tsimshian and some Athabaskan* languages
• Languages with equivalent in the United States:
- Languages worse off in the United States:
e.g. Salishan Family, Kutenai, Haida and some Iroquoian languages
- Languages better off in the United States:
e.g. Tlingit (Isolate), Tuscarora, Seneca (Iroquoian Family), Delaware (Algonquian Family)
- Languages doing fairly well in both countries – Ojibway, Inuktitut, Dakota
Source: Kinkade 1991 (*Language spelling as in Kinkade.)
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 22 of 65
VIABLE OR ENDANGERED?
Size, Continuity and Viability
• Cree, Inuktitut and Ojibway are the only viable
languages with large population bases.
• Many of the smaller languages often with far
fewer than 1,000 persons, especially most of
British Columbia’s diverse languages have very
low prospects for continuity and are either
endangered (e.g. Nishga, Haida) or near
extinction.
• But some of the smaller languages elsewhere,
with only a few thousand people or more, can
be considered viable if their prospects for
continuity are high (e.g. Attikamek, Dene).
Classification of Aboriginal Languages by
Viable and Endangered, Canada 1996
Aboriginal Languages
(Viable, Endangered, Uncertain
)
Total Aboriginal Languages
208,610
ALGONQUIAN FAMILY
• Cree
• Ojibway
• Montagnais-Naskapi
• Micmac
• Oji-Cree
• Attikamek
• Blackfoot
• Algonquin
• Malecite
• Algonquian, n.i.e. (inc. Michif)
INUKTITUT FAMILY
ATHAPASKAN FAMILY
• Dene
• South Slave
• Dogrib
• Carrier
• Chipewyan
• Athapaskan, n.i.e.
• Chilcotin
• Kutchin-Gwich'in (Loucheux)
• North Slave (Hare)
146,635
87,555
25,885
9,070
7,310
5,400
3,995
4,145
2,275
655
350
27,780
20,090
9,000
2,620
2,085
2,190
1,455
1,310
705
430
290
4,295
3,200
1,850
745
595
2,460
1,200
795
465
1,650
1,070
590
590
350
235
240
145
120
1,405
SIOUAN FAMILY(Dakota/Sioux)
* Note: Data for the Iroquoian
Family is not representative due to
the significant impact of incomplete
enumeration of reserves for this
language family. Other languages
such as those in the Algonquian
Family may be affected to some
extent by incomplete enumeration.
Source: Adapted from Norris, 1998 (Canadian
Social Trends, Winter, No. 51), Statistics Canada.
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
Mother Tongue
Population
(Single & Multiple)
SALISH FAMILY
• Salish, n.i.e.
• Shuswap
• Thompson (Ntlakapamux)
TSIMSHIAN FAMILY
• Gitksan
• Nishga
• Tsimshian
WAKASHAN FAMILY
• Wakashan, n.i.e.
• Nootka
IROQUOIAN FAMILY*
• Mohawk
• Iroquoian, n.i.e.
HAIDA (Isolate)
TLINGIT (Isolate)
KUTENAI (Isolate)
ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES, n.i.e.
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
STATUS of Language
Mix of Viable and
Endangered
mostly viable
viable large
viable large
viable small
viable small
viable small
viable small
viable small
viable small
viable small
uncertain
viable large
mostly viable
viable small
viable small
viable small
viable small
viable small
uncertain
viable small
endangered
endangered
viable small
endangered
endangered
endangered
endangered
mostly endangered
viable small
endangered
endangered
endangered
endangered
endangered
uncertain
uncertain
uncertain
endangered
endangered
endangered
endangered
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 23 of 65
TRENDS IN LANGUAGE USE AND MAINTENANCE
Continuity of Aboriginal Language
Index of Continuity
• Language vitality declines between 1981 and 1996, with signs of steady erosion in
home language use and increasingly older mother tongue speakers.
• The strength of Aboriginal language continuity has declined steadily over the past
15 years in Canada.
• Practically all age groups, for both males and females, experienced a decline in
language continuity with a shift in home language use from Aboriginal to nonAboriginal.
80
• The decline in continuity is
76
most pronounced for
75
women, especially in the
72
child-bearing/working age
70
67
groups.
65
65
60
55
50
1981
1986
1991
1996
Census Year
Canada, 1981 to 1996 Censuses, based on single responses.
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 24 of 65
TRENDS IN LANGUAGE USE AND MAINTENANCE
Average Age of Population with Aboriginal Mother Tongue
(MT) or Home Language (HL)
• For Aboriginal languages as a whole average ages are getting higher. The average
age of the mother tongue population rose by 3 years, while the average age of
home language speakers increased by 2 years.
32
30.7
31
29.8
Average Age
30
29
28
27.7
27.4
27.4
27
26.6
25.8
25.6
26
23
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
1981
1986
1991
Census Year
HL
MT
HL
MT
HL
MT
HL
24
MT
25
1996
Canada, 1981 to 1996 Censuses,
based on single responses.
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 25 of 65
TRENDS IN LANGUAGE USE AND MAINTENANCE
Continuity of Aboriginal Languages
• Although most languages experienced a steady erosion in linguistic vitality,
endangered ones suffered the most.
• By 1996, for every 100 speakers with an Aboriginal mother tongue, an average of
about 70 used an Aboriginal home language among viable groups, compared with
30 or fewer among endangered groups.
Index of Continuity
100
90
Other Algonquian Languages Combined
Inuktitut
80
70
60
Cree
Athapaskan
Siouan
50
40
30
20
10
0
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
Ojibway
Kutenai
Tsimshian
Wakashan
Tlingit Salishan
Haida
1981
1986
1991
Census Year
1996
Canada, 1981 to 1996 Censuses,
based on single responses.
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 26 of 65
TRENDS IN LANGUAGE USE AND MAINTENANCE
Average Age of Mother Tongue Population by Aboriginal Languages
Average Age
• Average age and rates of population aging (as affected by intergenerational transmission
and fertility) vary by language. Not only do viable languages have younger populations, but
the average age of these groups rises more slowly than that of endangered languages. For
example, between 1981 and 1996, Inuktitut experienced only a slight average age increase
from 23 to 24 years; in sharp contrast, the average age of the population with a Tlingit
mother tongue increased from 47 to 58 years. Endangered languages are aging more
rapidly, thus accelerating their slide towards extinction.
65
Haida
60
Tlingit
55
Wakashan
50
Salishan
45
Kutenai
40
Tsimshian
35
30
ed
guages Combin
n
a
L
n
ia
u
q
n
o
lg
Other A
25
20
Siouan
Ojibway
Athapaskan
Inuktitut
1981
1986
1991
Census Year
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
Cree
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
1996
Canada, 1981 to 1996 Censuses,
based on single responses.
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 27 of 65
Importance of Speaking Language at Home
• To survive, a language must be passed on from one generation to the next
and the most effective way of making this happen is to speak it at home
where children will learn it as their mother tongue.
• Language spoken at home is used as a working tool of everyday life; in
contrast, when learned as a second language, it is often used in potentially
limited situations.
• In 1996, only 26% of 800,000 persons with Aboriginal identity reported an
Aboriginal mother tongue. Even fewer (18%) indicated an Aboriginal home
language. In contrast, 30% reported that they had knowledge of an Aboriginal
language; that is, they could speak and understand well-enough to conduct a
conversation.
• Thus, while some people shift from an Aboriginal to another home language,
there is evidence that others may be learning Aboriginal languages later in
life, but this is still not equivalent to learning a language as a mother tongue.
Family and Life Cycle Events
• We can better understand how language use changes over time by looking at
stages in the life cycle. Events during the transition years, such as movement
away from home, labour force entry and family formation, including
intermarriage, can all potentially accelerate language decline.
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 28 of 65
Language Continuity by Average Age of Mother Tongue
Population
Index of Continuity
• The average age of those who have an Aboriginal mother tongue reveals the extent to
which language transmission has been successful.
• A language that has an “old” mother tongue population, as evidenced by a high average
age (e.g. Kutenai) indicates that few young people have it as a mother tongue. As the
older people who have an Aboriginal mother tongue die, so may their languages.
• The younger the speakers, the healthier the language.
Canada, 1996 Census
• High language
100
continuity is
Attikamek
Montagnais-Naskapi
90
associated with
Dene
Inuktitut
“young” mother tongue
80
Oji-Cree
Micmac
populations (e.g.
Dogrib-Cree
70
Dakota/Sioux
Chilcotin
Inuktitut).
Blackfoot
60
Algonquin
50
Algonquian, n.i.e.
Chipewyan
Gitksan
Malecite
Nootka
Athapaskan, n.i.e.
Thompson
Aboriginal Languages n.i.e.
Salish, n.i.e.
Tsimshian
Shuswap
Nishga Tlingit
Wakashan Kutchin-Gwich'in
Iroquoian, n.i.e.
Kutenai
Haida
Mohawk
40
30
20
10
0
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
Ojibway
North Slave (Hare)
South Slave
Carrier
20
30
40
50
Average Age of Mother Tongue Population
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
60
Slide # 29 of 65
% Distribution of Aboriginal Identity and Mother Tongue
Populations by Age Group and Gender
• The population reporting an Aboriginal mother tongue is significantly older than the total
population with an Aboriginal identity, with median average ages of 30.7 and 25.5 years
respectively.
Age
• The mother tongue
Total Population With:
85 +
population pyramid is
80 to 84
Aboriginal Identity
75 to 79
narrower at the base and
Aboriginal Mother
70 to 74
Tongue
65 to 69
wider at older ages,
60 to 64
compared to the pyramid
55 to 59
Male
Female
50 to 54
for the overall Identity
45 to 49
Population.
40 to 44
• The contrast in age-sex
structures demonstrates
that children and young
adults are less likely to
have an Aboriginal mother
tongue than older cohorts.
35 to 39
30 to 34
25 to 29
20 to 24
15 to 19
10 to 14
5 to 9
0 to 4
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Percent (%)
Canada, 1996 Census
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 30 of 65
% of Aboriginal Population with Aboriginal Mother Tongue or
Home Language
• Older persons, especially older men, are more likely than younger generations to
report an Aboriginal mother tongue or home language.
• The use of an Aboriginal language in the home is significantly lower in the working
ages, especially for females.
70
Male
60
Female
Mother Tongue
Home Language
%
50
40
30
20
gue
n
o
rT
the
o
M
me
Ho
age
u
g
Lan
10
04
510 9
-1
15 4
-1
20 9
-24
25
-2
30 9
-3
35 4
-3
40 9
-4
45 4
-4
50 9
-5
55 4
-5
60 9
-6
65 4
-69
70
-7
75 4
-7
80 9
-84
85
+
0
Age
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canada, 1996 Census
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 31 of 65
LIFE CYCLE AND LANGUAGE USE
Following the extent to which a group of people in a particular age cohort shifts from an
Aboriginal to a non-Aboriginal home language, (as measured by the continuity index)
provides some understanding of how the life cycle affects language transmission and
maintenance.
• In 1981, the cohort of young children, under the age of 5 years, had not yet shifted from
speaking an Aboriginal language to a non-Aboriginal at home (as evidenced by a
continuity index of 91 children with an Aboriginal home language, for every 100 with an
Aboriginal mother tongue). As it entered its teen years, this cohort experienced a
significant decline in speaking an Aboriginal language at home; such that by 1996 the
continuity index for this cohort, now aged 15 to 19, had dropped to 76.
• But the decline is most pronounced among youth in their transition years when they move,
enter the labour force and start families, especially among women. The continuity index of
74 for the cohort of women aged 20-24 years in 1981, declined sharply to 45 in 1996, for
the cohort now aged 35 to 39.
• With older cohorts nearing the end of their working lives and moving into their retirement
years the decline in home language use is less pronounced since most of the loss would
have already occurred over younger ages. A similarly slow erosion occurs among seniors.
• The fact that Aboriginal language loss is most pronounced during the family
formation years, especially for women, has serious implications for the
transmission of Aboriginal languages to the younger generations, because these
are the very years during which women tend to bring up young children.
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 32 of 65
LIFE CYCLE AND LANGUAGE USE
Aboriginal Language Continuity Index for
1981-Based Cohorts Aged 0-4 to 25-29
Index of Continuity
100
90
80
70
Age in 1981
0-4
5-9
10-14
15-19
20-24
Age in 1996
15-19
20-24
25-29
25-29
60
30-34
35-39
40-44
50
40
1981
1986
1991
1996
Census Year
Canada, 1981 to 1996 Censuses, based on single responses
Note: Differences in reporting ethno-cultural affiliation from one census to another may have affected the evolution
of language responses, especially between the 1986 and 1991 period. However, an analysis of the evolution of
socioeconomic characteristics of Aboriginal populations living in urban areas, where most of the differences in
reporting occurred, suggests this phenomenon has not contributed significantly to the observed trends in language
use. For more details see: Norris, 1998; Norris & MacCon, forthcoming.
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 33 of 65
LIFE CYCLE AND LANGUAGE USE
Percentage Decrease in Aboriginal
Language Continuity Index
% Decrease
04
59
10
-14
15
-19
20
-24
25
-29
30
-34
35
-39
40
-44
45
-49
50
-54
55
-59
60
-64
65
-69
70
-74
Cohort Age in 1981
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Canada, 1981 to 1996 Censuses, based on single responses
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 34 of 65
FROM PARENT TO CHILD
Language Transmission in Families from Parent to Child
• Looking at the children (aged 5 -14) of those parents who have an Aboriginal mother
tongue can help assess transmission of the language to the next generation. Among
the nearly 58,000 children:
• Overall at least 90% of these children have the ability (knowledge) to conduct a
conversation in the Aboriginal language of their parent; but less than half (47%)
of children have their parents’ Aboriginal mother tongue; while only 38% of
children speak an Aboriginal language at home. Erosion of home language use
is occurring among younger generations.
• Transmission of languages from parent to child is much lower for endangered
languages:
• The proportions of children with an Aboriginal mother tongue are well
below UNESCO’s 30% minimum; furthermore, this also appears to be the
case for some of the smaller viable languages.
• Children are much more likely to learn an endangered language as a
second language, rather than as a mother tongue.
• Practically none of the endangered Aboriginal languages are spoken by
children at home. Therefore, it is reasonable to expect that these
languages could be close to extinction within a generation.
• Children learning an Aboriginal language as a second language may go some way
towards preventing, or at least slowing down, the extinction of endangered languages
– which is encouraging. However, if the language is not their mother tongue they are
less likely to pass it on to their own children.
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 35 of 65
FROM
PARENT
TO
CHILD
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
Passing on Language from Parent to Child by Viable and Endangered Languages
(% of Children with Knowledge of an Aboriginal Language, or
Aboriginal Mother Tongue or Home Language), Canada, 1996
Mother Tongue of Parent(s)
(Viable , Endangered, Uncertain )
% of Children With at Least One Parent
Having An Aboriginal Mother Tongue:
Able to speak
With Aboriginal
With Aboriginal
the language
Mother Tongue
Home Language
ALGONQUIAN FAMILY
94.5
• CREE
96.7
• OJIBWAY
87.1
• MONTAGNAIS-NASKAPI
98.5
• MICMAC
96.0
• OJI-CREE
95.9
• ATTIKAMEK
96.9
• BLACKFOOT
90.7
• ALGONQUIN
89.5
• MALECITE
86.8
INUKTITUT FAMILY
98.1
ATHAPASKAN FAMILY
90.9
• DENE
94.4
• SOUTH SLAVE
93.0
• DOGRIB
96.7
• CARRIER
88.7
• CHIPEWYAN
79.8
• ATHAPASKAN, n.i.e.
80.7
• CHILCOTIN
90.0
• KUTCHIN-GWICH'IN(LOUCHEUX)/NORTH SLAVE(HARE)74.4
SIOUAN FAMILY (DAKOTA/SIOUX)
83.1
SALISH FAMILY
67.5
TSIMSHIAN FAMILY
89.8
WAKASHAN FAMILY
52.5
IROQUOIAN FAMILY
43.8
HAIDA-TLINGIT-KUTENAI (Isolates)
64.7
TOTAL ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
93.7
43.8
45.4
24.9
87.3
49.3
58.0
93.3
7.9
56.8
2.6
79.0
41.4
66.8
28.7
50.0
7.5
11.0
12.3
8.0
11.6
38.6
8.9
10.2
3.4
31.3
23.5
47.1
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
34.0
35.7
16.0
81.1
30.9
43.7
91.8
4.6
17.9
7.9
69.9
33.2
58.1
18.9
32.8
4.7
7.3
7.0
4.0
4.7
33.1
1.6
0.8
0.0
0.0
0.0
37.6
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 36 of 65
FROM PARENT TO CHILD
Language Transmission by Family Structure and Intermarriage
• Family structure and exogamy (intermarriage – mixed Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal
languages) appear to be significant factors in the transmission of an Aboriginal language
from parent to child, either as a mother tongue or home language; but less so in the case
of the child’s knowledge of the language.
• In terms of language transmission, children fare best within endogamous marriages (when
both parents have Aboriginal mother tongue), followed by lone-parent families, and are
generally “worst off” within exogamous marriages.
• Impact of residence on language must also be considered in interpretation, since
endogamous marriages are most likely to occur within Aboriginal communities.
Endogamous
families
KN
MT
Percent of Children with:
HL
KN Knowledge of
KN
Exogamous
familes
HL
MT
Lone-parent
families
MT
KN
HL
0
20
40
60
80
% of children with KN, MT, HL
Aboriginal Language
Aboriginal
MT
Mother Tongue
Aboriginal
HL
Home Language
100
Canada, 1996 Census
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 37 of 65
FROM PARENT TO CHILD
Language Continuity by Exogamy
• A high degree of out-marriage – exogamy – is associated with diminished
continuity of language. There is a strong inverse linear association between
language continuity and exogamy.
100
Attikamek
Montagnais-Naskapi
Inukitut
Dene
Oji-Cree
Index of Continuity
80
Micmac
Dakota/Sioux
Chilcotin
Blackfoot
North Slave (Hare)
Algonquin
South Slave
Ojibway
Dogrib
60
Cree
Carrier
Chipewyan
40
Gitksan Tsimshian
Athapaskan, n.i.e.
Malecite
Nookta
Thompson (Ntlakapamux)
Aboriginal Languages, n.i.e. Shuswap Tsimshian
Kutchin-Gwich’in (Loucheux)
Wakashan
Nishga Salish, n.i.e.
Tlingit
Kutenai
Iroquoian, n.i.e.
Mohawk
Haida
20
0
0
20
40
60
80
Percent of Children with Parents in Mixed Marriages
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
100
Canada, 1996 Census
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 38 of 65
• Groups that live in remote communities or in settlements with concentrated populations of
Aboriginal speakers, such as Registered Indians on-reserve or Inuit, generally find it easier
to retain their language than groups, such as the majority of Non-Status Indians or Métis,
who live off-reserve, outside of such communities.
• The strength or continuity of a particular language varies by location and type of community.
Viable languages tend to be spoken in isolated and/or well-organized communities, with
large population groups.
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
TI
Total Identity Population
MT
TI
TI
MT
OffNon-Status
Reserve
Indian
TI
MT
Registered
OnIndian
Reserve
TI
MT
MT Mother Tongue Population
TI
MT
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
TI
MT
• Registered Indians
account for the
vast majority of
the Aboriginal
population
reporting an
Aboriginal mother
tongue,
disproportionately
higher than their
share of the total
Identity
Population.
(%) of Total Aboriginal or
Mother Tongue Population
Distribution of Aboriginal Groups by Total Identity Population
and by Mother Tongue Population
Métis
Inuit
Aboriginal Groups
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canada, 1996 Census
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 39 of 65
Percent of Group with Aboriginal Mother Tongue
% with Aboriginal Mother Tongue
• Clearly, northern communities and reserves tend to support the
maintenance and transmission of Aboriginal languages. In
contrast, the off-reserve environment poses major threats to
Aboriginal languages.
80
67.3%
70
Image of Algonquin
canoe, courtesy of The
Canadian Canoe
Museum,
www.canoemuseum.net.
60
51.8%
50
40
30
35.7%
25.9%
17.8%
20
10
0
5.7%
Total Registered OnAboriginal Indian
Reserve
OffReserve
NonStatus
Indian
11.1%
6.8%
Métis
Inuit
Other
Identity
Aboriginal Identity Group
Canada, 1996 Census
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 40 of 65
Index of Aboriginal Language Continuity by Aboriginal Group
• Aboriginal language continuity is strongest in Inuit communities and among
Registered Indians on-reserve.
90
Index of Continuity
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Total Registered
OnAboriginal Indian
Reserve
Off- Non-Status Métis
Reserve
Indian
Inuit
Other
Identity
Aboriginal Identity Group
Canada, 1996 Census
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 41 of 65
Index of Aboriginal Language Continuity by On- and Off-Reserve
• Erosion of Aboriginal home language use is most pronounced off-reserve, especially
among the working age population and women in these age groups.
90
erve
s
e
R
On
Index of Continuity
80
70
60
50
Off-R
eser
ve
40
30
20
Off-Reserve
On-Reserve
10
Male
Male
Female
Female
10
-1
4
20
-2
4
30
-3
4
40
-4
4
50
-5
4
60
-6
4
70
-7
4
80
-8
4
04
0
Age Groups
Canada, 1996 Census
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 42 of 65
For sake of simplicity, the term “cities” is being used interchangeably with the Statistics
Canada definition of Census Metropolitan Area (CMA) and Census Agglomeration (CA)
(see: Data Sources and Definitions). However, it should be noted that in some cases
the term city is not necessarily the best characterization of a CA (e.g. Cape Breton).
• Compared to the Aboriginal population overall, the off-reserve Aboriginal population,
particularly in “cities”, does not fare well in its language use. About 1 in 5 people (19%)
with an Aboriginal mother tongue reside in cities, while only 1 in 10 people (10%) with an
Aboriginal home language reside in cities. According to the 1996 Census:
• Within cities, 10% of people reporting an Aboriginal Identity indicated an Aboriginal mother
tongue; while for Canada overall 26% of the Identity Population indicated an Aboriginal
mother tongue; similarly,
• 4% of Aboriginal people in cities reported an Aboriginal home language, compared to 18%
overall; and
• 14% of Aboriginal people in cities reported knowledge of an Aboriginal language, compared
to 29% overall.
Distribution of Aboriginal Identity Population by Language Indicators by Place of Residence
Canada
Total
Total Aboriginal Population
Mother Tongue
Home Language
Knowledge
799,000
207,045
145,390
233,900
On Reserve
Off Reserve
Number % of Canada
Number % of Canada
232,145
118,105
94,120
128,135
566,865
88,940
51,270
105,765
29%
57%
65%
55%
71%
43%
35%
45%
Cities – CMA/CAs
Cities – CMA/CAs adjusted
(includes reserves within
CMA/CA boundaries)
(excludes reserves within
CMA/CA boundaries)
Number
% of Canada
Number
381,645
39,600
15,200
52,500
48%
19%
10%
22%
360,600
31,600
9,500
43,400
% of Canada
45%
15%
7%
19%
Canada, 1996 Census
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 43 of 65
Compared to Aboriginal Communities, the Aboriginal population
located in cities is less likely to use an Aboriginal language at
home and more likely to learn it as a second language.
• For every 100 persons with an Aboriginal mother tongue in cities 132 persons reported
knowledge of an Aboriginal language, compared to just 117 persons for Canada overall.
The contrast is even sharper if we consider that the ability index for Registered Indian
population on-reserve is close to 100, indicating that practically all of those with a
knowledge of an Aboriginal language learned it as a mother tongue.
• For every 100 persons with an Aboriginal mother tongue in cities only 40 persons spoke
an Aboriginal language at home, compared to 70 persons for Canada overall. Again, the
contrast is even sharper if we consider that the continuity index for Registered Indians
on-reserve is 80 indicating that a significant majority of those with an Aboriginal mother
tongue also speak it at home.
• Therefore, in cities a greater proportion of the population reporting an ability to conduct
a conversation likely learned it as second language either in school or later in life.
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 44 of 65
30
Home
Language
TOTAL (HLT)
MALE (HLM)
FEMALE (HLF)
MTM
TOTAL
0-14
15-24
25-64
HLM
MTF
HLF
MTM
HLM
HLF
MTM
HLM
MTF
HLF
MTM
HLM
MTM
MTF
HLF
0
HLM
5
MTT
10
MTF
15
MTF
TOTAL (MTT)
MALE (MTM)
FEMALE (MTF)
HLF
Mother
Tongue
20
HLT
• As for Canada overall, much
higher proportions of the older
generations of Aboriginal
people residing in cities report
an Aboriginal mother tongue or
home language compared to
younger generations.
25
% of Aboriginal Population
% of Aboriginal Identity
Population in Cities
(CMA/CAs) with an
Aboriginal Mother
Tongue or Home
Language
65+
Age Groups
Canada, 1996 Census
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 45 of 65
60
50
40
30
0
TOTAL
0-14
15-24
25-64
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
10
Female
20
Male
• The continuity of Aboriginal
languages in cities is lowest
among the working age
population, as people shift
from an Aboriginal to a nonAboriginal home language.
Index of Continuity (No. of Persons With
Home Language per 100 With Mother Tongue)
Index of Continuity for
Aboriginal Identity
Population in Cities
(CMA/CAs)
70
65+
Age Groups
Canada, 1996 Census
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 46 of 65
Index of Ability (No. of Persons With
Knowledge per 100 With Mother Tongue)
180
160
120
100
80
60
0
TOTAL
0-14
15-24
25-64
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
20
Male
40
Female
• Children and youth in cities
are more likely to learn an
Aboriginal language as a
second language compared
to older generations, as
evidenced by the high ratio
of speakers to the mother
tongue population.
140
Male
Index of Ability for
Aboriginal Identity
Population in Cities
(CMA/CAs)
65+
Age Groups
Canada, 1996 Census
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 47 of 65
Specific Languages and Cities
• Language groups with higher continuity
tend not to be concentrated in cities (e.g.
3% of people with an Inuktitut mother
tongue reside in cities); when a high
proportion of First Nations language
groups live in cities there is usually a
reserve within the city (e.g. MontagnaisNaskapi in Sept-Îles). Note: The on- and
off-reserve distinction does not apply to
Inuktitut languages nor to Inuit
communities which are not reserves.
• Some of the more endangered
languages, particularly the smaller ones
in British Columbia, appear to have
relatively high concentrations in cities
(e.g. 35% of people with a Tsimshian
mother tongue reside in cities).
Proportion and Number of People with an Aboriginal Mother
Tongue, Who Reside in Cities (CMA/CAs) by On- and Off-Reserve
Total Aboriginal Languages
Algonquian Family
(30,700)
(15,300)
Cree
Ojibway
(7,205)
Montagnais-Naskapi
(2,230)
(3,715)
Micmac
Oji-Cree
(340)
Attikamek
(285)
Blackfoot
(970)
Algonquin
(220)
Malecite
(255)
Inuktitut Family
(735)
Athapaskan Family
Proportion of Mother Tongue
Population in Cities:
(3,060)
Dene
Off-Reserve
(570)
South Slave
On-Reserve
(205)
Dogrib
(270)
Carrier
(560)
(N) = Number of Persons With
Aboriginal MT residing in Cities
Chipewyan
(950)
Athapaskan, n.i.e.
(160)
Chilcotin
Kutchin-Gwich'in(Loucheux)
North Slave(Hare)
Siouan Family(Dakota/Sioux)
* Note: Data for the Iroquoian Family is not representative
due to the significant impact of incomplete enumeration of
reserves for this language family. Other languages such as
those in the Algonquian Family may be affected to some
extent by incomplete enumeration.
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
(39,545)
(255)
(90)
(710)
Salish Family
(1,485)
Tsimshian Family
(850)
Wakashan Family
(515)
*Iroquoian Family
Haida-TlingitKutenai (Isolates)
(505)
(115)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90 100%
Proportion of Each Mother Tongue Population that
Resides in Cities (CMA/CAs)
Canada, 1996 Census
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 48 of 65
All Cities With Mother Tongue Population Over 200,
Ranked by Aboriginal MT Population (Outside of
Reserves), Show On-/Off-Reserve Distribution
Winnipeg
Edmonton
Saskatoon
Vancouver
Prince Albert
Thunder Bay
Calgary
Grand Centre
• Many of the cities with large
Thompson
mother tongue populations
Toronto
(excluding reserves within
Wood Buffalo
cities) are located in
Yellowknife
Regina
western Canada.
Montréal
• For some cities such as
Ottawa - Hull
Cape Breton and Sept-Îles
Prince Rupert
the large Mother Tongue
Sudbury
Population is due to the
Prince George
presence of reserves within
North Battleford
their boundaries
Brandon
Timmins
Mother Tongue Population
Québec
within City:
Victoria
Off-Reserve
Kenora
North Bay
On-Reserve
Williams Lake
Lethbridge
Lloydminster
London
Quesnel
Sept-Îles
Grande Prairie
Kamloops
Nanaimo
Fredericton
Portage la Prairie
Campbellton
Duncan
Cape Breton
New Glasgow
0
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
1
2
3
4
MT Population in Thousands
5
6
Canada, 1996 Census
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 49 of 65
Language Continuity by Average Age of Mother Tongue
Population for Selected Cities
Aboriginal Language Index of Continuity
• As the Continuity Index increases, the average age of the Aboriginal mother tongue
population decreases.
100
• The population with an
Sept-Îles
Aboriginal mother
90
Cape Breton
Cities (CMA/CAs) with Reserves
tongue is significantly
Cities (CMA/CAs) with no Reserves
80
Lloydminster
older than the Aboriginal
population reporting an
70
Campbellton
English or French
Timmins
60
mother tongue. For
Quesnel
London
Fredericton
example in Vancouver
50
Kenora
Prince Rupert
Grand Centre
Prince Albert
Portage la Prairie
the average age of the
Québec
Wood Buffalo
Brandon
40
Lethbridge
Montréal
Toronto
population with an
Winnipeg
North Battleford
Williams Lake
Thunder Bay
Regina
Duncan
Aboriginal mother
Saskatoon
North Bay
30
Edmonton
Calgary
Yellowknife
New Glasgow
tongue is 45 years,
Ottawa - Hull
20
Prince George
much older than the
Thompson
Nanaimo
Victoria
Grande Prairie
Vancouver
Sudbury
average age of 27 years
10
Kamloops
for the Aboriginal
0
population with an
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
Average Age of Aboriginal Mother Tongue Population
English or a French
mother tongue.
Canada, 1996 Census
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 50 of 65
SIGNS OF LANGUAGE REVIVAL?
100
Aboriginal Language Ability
Male Female
Off-Reserve
On-Reserve
Of
f-R
es
erv
e
On-Reserve
04
10
-14
20
-2
4
30
-3
4
40
-4
4
50
-5
4
60
-6
4
70
-74
80
-8
4
• e.g. Off-reserve, for every 100 Registered
Indian children — aged 10 to 14 — with an
Aboriginal mother tongue, there are 165
children who have the ability to speak an
Aboriginal language. This suggests that
many members of this group learned it as a
second language.
No. of Persons With Ability to Speak
an Aboriginal Language, For Every
100 With an Aboriginal Mother Tongue
According to the 1991 Aboriginal Peoples Survey:
• 9 in 10 Aboriginal adults would like to
relearn the Aboriginal language they once
knew.
• The great majority of Aboriginal adults
who never spoke an Aboriginal language
Index of
would like to learn one (nearly threequarters of urban residents).
• Among some endangered languages,
180
and off-reserve, there are indications
160
(index of ability) that younger generations
are more likely to learn an Aboriginal
140
language as a second language than as a
mother tongue.
120
• Nevertheless this may signal an interest
for the language (e.g. Off - Reserve Head Start Program).
• Growing awareness of Aboriginal culture and identity may be
partly responsible for second language patterns.
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
Age Groups
Registered Indians, Canada, 1996 Census
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 51 of 65
CONCLUSION
• Canada's Aboriginal languages are among the most endangered in the world (UNESCO).
• Only 3 of some 50 Aboriginal languages are considered viable with large population bases;
however some small languages are also viable.
• Viable languages: young speakers, successful in passing on language, spoken in isolated
and/or well-organized communities.
• Endangered languages: small populations, older speakers, lower rates of transmission.
• Reserves and northern communities serve as linguistic enclaves in the maintenance of
Aboriginal languages.
• The use of Aboriginal languages extends beyond Aboriginal communities into cities,
reflecting their composition and diversity across Canada.
• Intergenerational transmission is a major challenge, especially for endangered languages
in general and also for Aboriginal populations off-reserve in cities.
• Language maintenance and revival are critical for the transmission of currently viable
languages to the next generation and to saving endangered languages from extinction.
• Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples recommendation: language use in home and
community is critical for intergenerational transmission and acquiring language as mother
tongue.
“Languages embody the intellectual wealth of the people
that speak them. Losing any one of them is like dropping a
bomb on the Louvre.”
Kenneth Hale, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 52 of 65
DATA SOURCES AND DEFINITIONS
Data sources, quality and comparability:
• This study uses data from the 1981 to 1996 Censuses as well as the 1991 post-censal
Aboriginal Peoples Survey (APS) conducted by Statistics Canada. Because of changes
in concepts and measures of the Aboriginal population over time, the time-series analysis is
restricted to language-based data only, such that Aboriginal language data are reported for
the total population. Prior to 1981, detailed data on individual Aboriginal languages were not
available – the only distinctions made were between First Nations People and Inuit (referred
to as “Indian” and “Eskimo” respectively prior to the 1981 Census).
• To ensure comparability over time (since changes in census questionnaire wording and
design can affect comparability), this study controlled for incomplete enumeration of
reserves between 1981 and 1996, and recoding of languages in the 1986, 1991 and 1996
censuses to correspond to the 1981 classifications. Generally, the level of detail in terms of
individual languages increased with each census. However, some of the smaller languages
coded separately in earlier censuses were collapsed into broader groupings because of
declining numbers.
• The study of the transmission of language from parent to child was based on 1996 Census
data from the Family file.These data permit the comparison of the language characteristics
of children age 5 to 14 with those of their parents – yielding an assessment of the extent to
which languages are passed from one generation to the next, either as the mother tongue or
as a second language. Language outcomes of children are analyzed by husband-wife and
lone-parent families where at least one of the parents has an Aboriginal mother tongue.
Endogamous couples are defined in relation to both the husband and wife having the same
Aboriginal mother tongue; practically all of the exogamous couples were comprised of
Aboriginal-non-Aboriginal language combinations.
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 53 of 65
DATA SOURCES AND DEFINITIONS
Language Indicators Used in This Study
Mother tongue: refers to the first language learned in childhood and still understood by
the individual.
Mother tongue population (MT): in this study, the population whose first language
learned at home, and still understood, is an Aboriginal language.
Home language population (HL): the population whose language spoken most often at
home is an Aboriginal language.
Knowledge or ability population (Kn): the population who report speaking an
Aboriginal language well enough to conduct a conversation.
Index of continuity (HL/MT): measures language continuity, or vitality, by comparing the
number of those who speak a given language at home to the number of those who
learned that language as their mother tongue. A ratio of less than 100 indicates some
decline in the strength of the language (i.e., for every 100 people with an Aboriginal
mother tongue fewer than 100 use it at home). The lower the score, the greater the
decline or erosion.
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 54 of 65
DATA SOURCES AND DEFINITIONS
Language Indicators Used in This Study
Index of ability (Kn/MT): compares the number of people who report being able to speak
the language with the number who have that Aboriginal language as a mother tongue. If
for every 100 people with a specific Aboriginal mother tongue, there are more than 100
persons (from the overall population) able to speak that language, then some clearly
learned it as a second language either in school or later in life. This may suggest some
degree of language revival. Harrison, B. 1997
Single response: occurs when the respondent is providing one language only as his or
her mother tongue, home language or language known. In this study, time series data
(1981-1996) are based on single responses.
Multiple response: occurs when respondent reports two languages that he or she uses
equally often as mother tongue, home language or language known. Data for 1996 are
based on multiple responses.
* Unless otherwise noted all language measures in tables and graphs are based on single
and multiple responses combined.
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 55 of 65
DATA SOURCES AND DEFINITIONS
Aboriginal Populations
• For this study, the Aboriginal population has been classified into four major groups:
Registered (or status) Indians, who are registered under the Indian Act of Canada; NonStatus Indians, who have lost or never had status under the Indian Act; Métis, who are of
mixed Indian and non-Indian origins/identity; and Inuit, who reside mainly in two of
Canada’s Arctic territories (Northwest Territories and Nunavut), but also in northern
Quebec and Labrador.
• Based on 1996 Census counts, those persons who consider themselves to be Aboriginal
- that is, who self-identified with an Aboriginal group (North American Indian, Métis, or
Inuit) or who reported themselves as registered under the Indian Act or as a member of
a First Nation – numbered some 799,000. Of these, the Registered Indian population
(488,100) represents the largest of the four groups, followed by Métis (210,000), NonStatus Indians (90,400) and Inuit (41,100). (Group figures do not sum to total since
separate counts include multiples.)
• About 99% of populations with Aboriginal mother tongue, or home language, or
knowledge of Aboriginal language (98%) report an Aboriginal identity.
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 56 of 65
DATA SOURCES AND DEFINITIONS
Geography, Communities and Cities:
• The following distinctions of place of residence are used in analyzing language patterns
of Aboriginal populations: Reserve and Settlements; Other Aboriginal Communities,
Census Metropolitan Areas (CMAs); and Census Agglomerations (CAs).
• A reserve is legally defined in the Indian Act as a tract of land that has been set aside for
the use and benefit of an Indian band or First Nation. Settlements include Crown land
and other communities with Aboriginal populations as defined by Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada, but do not include all Métis and Inuit communities. Other Aboriginal
communities, mostly in rural areas, were identified for Métis and Inuit populations.
• A CMA is a very large urban area, including urban and rural fringes, with an urban core
population of at least 100,000. A CA is similar to a CMA, except the urban core is at
least 10,000. In some cases, the CMA or CA includes reserves, and while both rural
fringes and reserves were included in the analysis, the extent to which the population
with an Aboriginal language resided in reserves within CMA/CAs was considered in the
interpretation of the data.
• In this study the term “Cities” is used to refer to a CMA or CA, although for some CAs,
e.g. Cape Breton, this term is not necessarily the best characterization.
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 57 of 65
REFERENCES
1. Burnaby, Barbara and Roderic, Beaujot, 1986 "The Use of Aboriginal Languages in Canada: An Analysis of
1981 Census Data" for the Social Trends Analysis Directorate and Native Citizens Directorate, Department of the
Secretary of State.
2. Drapeau, Lynn, 1995 "Perspectives on Aboriginal Language Conservation and Revitalization in Canada",
prepared for the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.
3. Harrison, Brian R., 1997 "Languages Integration: Results of an Intergenerational Analysis", Statistical Journal of
the United Nations ECE 14 (1997) 289 – 303.
4. Indian and Northern Affairs Canada, 1990 "Indians and Inuit of Canada" , Minister of Supply and Services.
5. Kinkade, M. Dale, 1991 "The Decline of Native Languages in Canada" in Endangered Languages, edited by
Robert H. Robins and Eugenius M. Uhlenbeck, Published with the Authority of the Permanent International
Committee of Linguists (CIPL), Berg.
6. Norris, M.J. 1998. "Canada's Aboriginal Languages", Canadian Social Trends (Winter, no. 51), Statistics
Canada, Cat. No. 11-008.
7. Norris, M.J. and Lorna Jantzen, 2002 "Aboriginal Languages in Canada’s Urban Areas: Characteristics,
Considerations and Implications", Research and Analysis Director ate, Indian and Northern Affairs Canada.
8. Norris, M.J. and Karen MacCon, (Forthcoming) "Aboriginal Language Transmission and Maintenance in
Families: Results of an Intergenerational and Gender-Based Analysis for Canada, 1996", in Aboriginal
Conditions: The Research Foundations of Public Policy, edited by Jerry White, Paul Maxim and Dan Beavon,
UBC Press, Vancouver, 2003.
9. Norton, Ruth and Mark Fettes, 1994 "Taking Back the Talk: A Specialized Review on Aboriginal Languages and
Literacy" Paper prepared as part of the Research Program of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.
10. Ponting, J. Rick, 1997 "First Nations in Canada, Perspectives on Opportunity, Empowerment, and SelfDetermination" McGraw-Hill Ryerson Limited.
11. Priest, Gordon E., 1983 "Aboriginal Languages in Canada", Ho using, Family and Social Characteristics
Division, Statistics Canada.
12. Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, 1996, Volume 3, Gathering Strength, Minister of
Supply and Services Canada.
13. UNESCO, 1996 "Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger of Disappearing", edited by Stephen A. Wurm,
Unesco Publishing / Pacific Linguistics, Paris / Canberra.
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 58 of 65
MAPS from Poster
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 59 of 65
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 60 of 65
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 61 of 65
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 62 of 65
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 63 of 65
MAPS from Poster
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 64 of 65
MAPS from Poster
Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada
SURVIVAL AND MAINTENANCE OF CANADA’S ABORIGINAL LANGUAGES
Canadian
Heritage
Slide # 65 of 65
Aboriginal Languages in
Canada, 1996
Les langues autochtones du
Canada, 1996
Published under the authority of the Minister
of Indian Affairs and Northern Development
Ottawa, 2002
Publié avec l’autorisation du ministre des
Affaires indiennes et du Nord canadien,
Ottawa, 2002
www.ainc-inac.gc.ca
Indian and Northern
Affaires indiennes
Affairs Canada
et du Nord Canada
Canadian Patrimoine
Heritage
canadien
QS-7041-000-BB-A1
Catalogue No. R2-231/1996
ISBN 0-662-66905-3
ATHAPASKAN FAMILY /
FAMILLE ATHAPASCANE
Athapaskan, n.i.e. /
Athapascan, n.i.a.
Five Mile 3
54
º
Trout Lake Alec 16
1º
Bella Bella 1
50
º
Quesnel 1
Alexandria 1
53
º
Soda Creek 1
Anahim's Flat 1
Deep Creek 2
Stone 1
Williams Lake
Williams Lake 1
Lohbiee 3
Chilco Lake 1A
Chilco Lake 1
Garden 2A
Dead Point 5
50
º
Toosey 1
Tanakut 4
Johny Sticks 2
Sandy Harry 4
0º
Alkali Lake 1
Dog Creek 1
Dog Creek 2
Canoe Creek 1
Canim Lake 2
52
Canim Lake 1
º
Po
rt
Al
º
Necait 6
Sliammon 1
Sechelt (Part)
Mount Currie 2
Mount Currie 8
Lower Hat
Creek 2
Bonaparte 3
105 Mile
Post 2
North Thompson 1
Skeetchestn
Aboriginal Languages, n.i.e.
4
Langues autochtones, n.i.a. (8)
Aboriginal communities (Census Subdivisions or CSDs) enumerated in the 1996 Census with a minimum Aboriginal Mother Tongue
Population greater than 50. On the map of Canada communities with a Mother Tongue Population >= 100 are labelled, except for north
of 55ºN latitude where all are labelled. On the map of British Columbia, all communities are labelled.
Collectivités autochtones (subdivisions de recensement ou SDR) ayant une population de plus de 50 personnes de langue maternelle
autochtone, selon le Recensement de 1996. La carte du Canada montre les collectivités ayant une population de langue maternelle
autochtone >= 100, à l'exception de la région au nord du 55ºN., où on a indiqué toutes les collectivités de cette catégorie. Sur la carte
de la Colombie-Britannique, toutes les collectivités dans cette catégorie sont indiquées.
B - MOTHER TONGUE POPULATION <= 50 / POPULATION DE LANGUE MATERNELLE <= 50 (345 CSDs / SDR)
Aboriginal communities (Census Subdivisions or CSDs) enumerated in the 1996 Census with an Aboriginal Mother Tongue Population
of 50 or less (330 with one dominant language, 15 with two equally dominant languages). Only communities north of 55ºN latitude are
labelled on the map of Canada. On the map of British Columbia, all communities are labelled.
Collectivités autochtones (subdivisions de recensement ou SDR) ayant une population de langue maternelle autochtone de 50
personnes ou moins, selon le Recensement de 1996 (330 où une langue domine et 15 où deux langues dominent également). Seules
les collectivités au nord du 55ºN. sont présentées sur la carte du Canada. Sur la carte de la Colombie-Britannique, toutes les
collectivités dans cette catégorie sont indiquées.
C - NO ABORIGINAL MOTHER TONGUE REPORTED5 / AUCUNE LANGUE MATERNELLE AUTOCHTONE DÉCLARÉE5 (62 CSDs / SDR)
Aboriginal communities enumerated in the 1996 Census with no Aboriginal Mother Tongue Population. Communities for which there is
no information on Aboriginal language are indicated in white (17 CSDs). Only communities north of 55ºN latitude are labelled on the
map of Canada. On the map of British Columbia, all communities are labelled.
Collectivités autochtones sans population de langue maternelle autochtone, selon le Recensement de 1996. Les collectivités pour
lesquelles il n'y a aucune information concernant des langues autochtones sont représentées en blanc (17 SDR). Seules les
collectivités au nord du 55ºN. sont présentées sur la carte du Canada. Sur la carte de la Colombie-Britannique, toutes les collectivités
dans cette catégorie sont indiquées.
CA / AR
(112)
CMA / RMR
(25)
Pie Charts1,3 / Graphiques circulaires1,3
Pie charts indicate:
• Size of the Aboriginal MT population in that
specific CMA/CA (e.g. 5000).
• Each language's share of the given CMA/CA MT
population
Rainy Lake 17A
Incompletely enumerated reserves or settlements, for which no 1996 Census data are available. All are labelled in italics.
Réserves indiennes et établissements indiens partiellement dénombrés pour lesquels le Recensement de 1996 ne fournit pas de
données. Leur nom est écrit en italique.
• la taille de la population de langue maternelle
autochtone dans une RMR/AR précise
(p. ex., 5 000);
• la part de chaque langue dans la population de
langue maternelle autochtone de cette RMR/AR.
5000
Scale based on Square Root
of Population (e.g. 5,000 )
Échelle déterminée à partir de la racine
carrée de la population (p. ex. 5 000 )
2500
0º
500
(#) = Number of Communities with Language
(#) = Nombre de collectivités ayant cette langue
40º
Bathymetric Tints
Transportation Routes / Voies de transport
Teintes bathymétriques
Major road / Route principale
metres / mètres (sea level /
0 niveau de la mer)
Other road / Autre route
200
Ferry / Traversier
500
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
and below /
et au-dessous
Pic River 50
Thunder Bay
Seine River 23A
Seine River 23B
Neguaguon Lake 25D
65
º
60
º
º
Iroquoian, n.i.e. / Iroquois, n.i.a. (4)
Attikamek
(3)
Winnipeg
(6)
(8)
Aboriginal Languages, n.i.e.
Langues autochtones, n.i.a.
(32)4
Nemiscau
400
500
600
700
800
º
55
Cape Breton
Campbellton
Betsiamites 3
Membertou 28B (Sydney)
Gesgapegiag 2
Listuguj
Red Bank 4
Burnt Church 14
Ouje-Bougoumou
P.E.I. Wagmatcook 1
2
Î.-P.-É.Whycocomagh
Morell 2
Scotchfort 4
Rocky Point 3
Eel Ground 2
Waswanipi
NE
NOUV W BRUNS
W
EAU-B
RUNSICK
WICK
Mashteuiatsh
Richibucto 15
Buctouche 16
Pomquet And Afton 23
Fredericton
Pikogan
Kingsclear 6
Wendake
Atlantic
Ocean
New Glasgow
Millbrook 27
Indian Brook 14
Québec
Eskasoni 3
Chapel Island 5
Fishers Grant 24
Tobique 20
Obedjiwan 28
Weymontachie 23
º
45
Lac-Simon
Manouane
Grand-Lac-Victoria
Lac-Rapide
Océan
Atlantique
Montréal
Kanesatake
Sudbury
Nipissing 10
Kahnawake 14
North Bay
Akwesasne (partie)
Akwesasne (part)
Tyendinaga Mohawk Territory
Scugog 34
rio
Onta o
e
k
a
ri
L
Onta
Lac
Toronto
Distribution of Communities by size of Aboriginal Mother Tongue Population, Canada, 1996 Census
Répartition des collectivités autochtones par taille de population de langue maternelle autochtone, Recensement de 1996
Algonquian Family /
Famille algonquine
Saugeen 29
Classification by Population Size
Classification selon la taille
de la population
A Mother Tongue Population > 50
6
Population de langue maternelle >50
London
Kettle Point 44
Walpole Island 46
300
Saint-Pierreet-Miquelon
(France)
Maliotenam 27A
Mistissini
Kitigan Zibi
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
ÉTATS-UNIS D'AMÉRIQUE
200
Sept-Îles
QUEBEC
QUÉBEC
Thessalon 12
Sheshegwaning 20
Shawanaga 17
West Bay 22 Sheguiandah 24
Wahta Mohawk Territory
Wikwemikong Unceded 26
Curve Lake First Nation 35
Christian Island 30
Neyaashiinigmiing
100
Mingan
Uashat
Golden Lake 39
50
(8)4
Ottawa - Hull
Goulais Bay 15A
Whitefish River (Part) 4
Rankin Location 15D Sagamok
Garden River 14
0
Natashquan 1
Other Combined Languages (CMA/CA)
Autres langues réunies (RMR/AR)
Montagnais-Naskapi (13)
Mattagami 71
Lak
e
Lac Supe
rio
Sup
érie r
ur
La Romaine 2
Mohawk
4
4
Gros Cap 49
Boundaries / Frontières et limites
International /
Frontières internationales
Provincial, Territorial
Limites provinciales et
territoriales
1 Mother Tongue Population is based on single and multiple responses; major language
assigned on basis of single responses.
Population de langue maternelle a été établie à partir des réponses uniques et multiples; la
langue principale a été déterminée à partir des réponses uniques.
2 Cities include Census Metropolitan Areas (CMAs) and Census Agglomerations (CAs) with a
minimum single and multiple Aboriginal mother tongue population of 200.
On compte parmi les villes les RMR et les AR ayant une population d’au moins 200
personnes parlant une (ou plusieurs) langue(s) maternelle(s) autochtone(s).
3 See Language Legends for colours.
Voir les couleurs dans la légende des langues.
4 This number includes communities where two languages are equally dominant or considered
to be major languages (incompletely enumerated).
Ce nombre comprend les collectivités où deux langues sont également dominantes ou
considérées comme des langues principales (partiellement dénombrées).
5 Community language assigned on basis of INAC information.
La langue de la collectivité a été déterminée à l’aide des renseignements détenus par AINC.
6 This symbol is used to indicate communities where two languages are equally dominant.
Ce symbole est utilisé pour représenter les collectivités où deux langues sont également
dominantes.
7 The four Inuit Regions are: Labrador, Nunavik (Northern Quebec), Nunavut and Inuvialuit.
(Source: Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami)
Les quatre régions inuites sont le Labrador, le Nunavik (Nord du Québec), le Nunavut et la
région des Inuvialuit (source : Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami).
Language Data Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Population, 1996; INAC Working File, 1996.
Mapping: © 2000, Government of Canada with permission from Natural Resources Canada
Source des données linguistiques :
Statistique Canada, Recensement de la population de 1996; AINC document de travail, 1996.
Carte : © 2000, Gouvernement du Canada, avec l’autorisation de Ressources naturelles Canada.
(12)
Baie
James
Notes / Nota:
Les graphiques circulaires montrent :
D - INCOMPLETELY ENUMERATED5 / PARTIELLEMENT DÉNOMBRÉS5 (77 CSDs / SDR)
12
70
100º
105º
110º
115
º
12
0º
12
5º
0º
Boundary CMA/CA / Frontière RMR/AR
Algonquin
Micmac
ONTARIO
Wakashan, n.i.e. / n.i.a. (18)
IROQUOIAN FAMILY /
FAMILLE IROQUOISE
Malecite / Malécite
James
Bay
A - MOTHER TONGUE POPULATION > 50 / POPULATION DE LANGUE MATERNELLE AUTOCHTONE > 50 (392 CSDs / SDR)
119
º
119
12
0º
1º
2º
12
(14)4
ALGONQUIAN FAMILY /
FAMILLE ALGONQUINE
900
1000
kilometres
kilomètres
Lambert Conformal Conic Projection, Standard Parallels 49ºN and 77ºN / Projection conique conforme de Lambert, parallèles de référence 49ºN. et 77ºN.
Oneida 41
Six Nations (Part) 40
Six Nations (Part) 40
New Credit (Part) 40A
New Credit (Part) 40A
Munsee-Delaware Nation 1
Chippewa of the Thames First Nation
ie
Er é
ke ri
La ac É
L
B Mother Tongue Population <= 50
Population de langue
maternelle <= 50
3
3
2
6
6
C5 No Aboriginal Mother Tongue Reported
Langue maternelle autochotone
non déclarée
D5 Incompletely Enumerated
Partiellement dénombrés
3 139 3 14 10 62 12 5
47 2
9
4
1
1
2
2
11
1
9
2
5 18 5
2 49 1 18 22 11 2
1
1
1
1
2
4
4
5
29
9 10 2 46
5
3
5
8
2
1
1
6
6
1
1
6
1
1
1 14 17 2 54 4
8
3
1
2
6
3
2
1
1
5 11 12
6
2
1
2
4 54 23 23 4
1
2
3
1
2
Total Language Communities / 12 3
Total des collectivités par langue
40º
Athapaskan Family /
Famille athapascane
3
1
3 203 6 32 13 147 13 24 35 17 7 22 5
2
1
5
392
4
330
1
1
1
21 5
4
1
1
15
4
17
14
1
62
75
2
4 101 31 30 4
7
5
7 14 18
8
17
893
Total Number of Communities (Communities with Equally Dominant Languages only Counted Once)
876
Total des collectivités (les collectivités ayant des langues également dominantes ne sont mentionnées qu'une fois)
º
12
3º
Sanikiluaq
Division No. 23, Unorganized
Clearwater River Dene Band 222
La Loche
(Nunavut7)
Division
No.
18,
Unorganized
Turnor Lake 193B
Turnor
Lake
Michel Village
Clearwater River Dene Band 223
South Indian Lake
Peter Pond Lake 193
Kuujjuarapik
Heart
Wapachewunak 192D
Southend 200
Southend
Whapmagoostui
Lake
Patuanak
Fox
Lake
2
Buffalo Narrows
Brabant Lake
167
Granville
Lake
La Plonge 192
St. George's Hill
Missinipe
Split Lake 171
Fort Severn 89
Île-à-la-Crosse
Grandmother's Bay 219
Beauval
Pinehouse
Beaver Lake 131 Canoe Lake 165
Ilford
Stanley Mission
Wabamun 133A
Nelson
House
170
Pukatawagan
198
York Landing
Nemebien River 156C
Cole Bay
Stanley 157
Shamattawa 1
Alexis 133
La Ronge
Jans Bay
Sandy Bay
Alexander 134
Thompson
Kitsakie 156B
Morin Lake 217
Big Head 124
Lac La Ronge 156 Pelican Narrows
Waterhen 130 Air Ronge
Saddle Lake 125
Peawanuck
Pelican Narrows 184B
Deschambault Lake
Green Lake
Ministikwan 161
Kehiwin 123
Oxford House 24
Puskiakiwenin 122
Cross Lake 19
Meadow Lake 105
Chisasibi
Unipouheos 121
God's River 86A
Cross
Lake
19A
Meadow
Lake
Makwa Lake 129B
Makaoo (Part) 120
Edmonton
Division No. 22, Unorganized
Cross
Lake
19E
Seekaskootch 119 Montreal Lake 106
Makaoo (Part) 120
God's Lake 23
Pigeon Lake
Chitek Lake 191
Division No. 21, Unorganized
Ermineskin 138 New Thunderchild 115B
Sunchild 202 138A
Big River 118
Samson
137
Cumberland
House
O'Chiese 203
Samson 137A
Wemindji
Saulteaux 159 Witchekan Lake 117
Red Sucker Lake 1976 Bearskin Lake
Opaskwayak Cree Nation 21E
Louis Bull 138B
Montana 139
Norway House 17
Little Pine and
Cumberland 20
Wapekeka 2
Lloydminster
Lucky Man 116
Island
Lake
22
Island Lake 22A
Moose Lake 31A
Carrot River 29A
Moosomin 112B
Kasabonika Lake
Sachigo Lake 1
Poundmaker 114
Prince Albert
Attawapiskat 91A
Shoal Lake 28A
Big Trout Lake
Eastmain
Grand
Rapids
33
Sweet Grass 113
James Smith 100
Red Earth 29
Ahtahkakoop 104
Stoney 142, 143, 144
Muskrat
Dam
Lake
Grand
Rapids
Cumberland 100A
Mosquito 109
Kingfisher 1
Webequie
Sturgeon Lake 101
Fort Albany (Part) 67
Sandy Lake 88
North Battleford Saskatoon Red Pheasant 108
Chemawawin 2
Wunnumin 1
Fort Albany (Part) 67
Poplar River 16
Summer Beaver
Beardy's 97 and Okemasis 96
Weagamow
Lake
87
Shoal River Indian
Kee-Way-Win
Deer Lake
Yellowquill 90
Waskaganish
Reserve 65A
North Spirit Lake
Division No. 19,
Lansdowne
House
Siksika No. 146
Mistawasis 103
Pine Creek 66A Unorganized
Berens River 13 Pauingassi First Nation
Factory Island 1
Fishing Lake 89
Waterhen 45
Poplar Hill
Eden Valley 216
Jackhead 43
Little Grand Rapids 14
Poor Man 88
The Narrows 49
Fort Hope 64
Pikangikum 14
Bloodvein 12
Cat Lake 63C
ALGONQUIAN FAMILY / FAMILLE ALGONQUINE
Lethbridge
Little Saskatchewan 48
Algonquian, n.i.e.
Ojibway
(147)4
Peigan 147
(3)4
Fairford 50
Fisher River 44
Algonquin, n.i.a.
Osnaburgh 63B
Oji-Cree / Oji-Cri
(13)
Osnaburgh 63A
Hole or Hollow Water 10
Blackfoot / Pied-noir (3)
Ebb and Flow 52
Alonsa
Blood 148
Dog Creek 46
Other
Combined
Languages
(CMA/CA)
Cree / Cri
(203)4
Waywayseecappo First Nation
Black River 9
Autres langues réunies (RMR/AR)
Fort Alexander 3
Sandy Bay 5
Aroland
Regina
Dakota Tipi 1
Kenora
Savant Lake
Lac Seul 28
Sioux Valley 58
Islington 29
English River 21
Kenora 38B
Shoal Lake
Long
Plain
Oak Lake 59
(Part) 39A
(Part) 6
Rocky Bay 1
Brandon
Shoal Lake (Part) 40
Swan Lake 7
Whitefish Bay 32A
Rosea
Whitefish Bay 33A
Timmins
River 2
Whitefish Bay 34A
Janvier 194
65
4º
Umiujaq
º
70
12
MANITOBA
75º
5º
Brochet 197
SASKATCHEWAN
NEW
FO
UN
DL
TER
A
RE
- N E ND A
UV
N
EE DL
T L AB
AB RA
RA DO
Pakuashipi
DO R
R
7
Kawawachikamach
Matimekosh
80º
12
Grégoire Lake 176A
Grégoire Lake 176
LABRADOR
Lac La Hache 220
Wood Buffalo
Fort Mackay
85º
49º
º
50
Makkovik
Hopedale
Churchill 1
90º
12
º
(7)
LANGUAGE FAMILY / FAMILLE DE LANGUE
Language /
(#)
Langue
Nain
Kuujjuaq
7
Inukjuak
n
uro
eH
Lak Huron
Lac
12
6
Lac Brochet 197A
95º
º
Tsimshian
Hudson Bay
Baie d'Hudson
Chipewyan 201A
Symbols with black centers indicate communities within CMA or CA boundaries.
Les symboles comprenant un point noir représentent les collectivités qui se trouvent dans les régions RMR ou AR.
Language Legends /
Légende des langues
Tasiujaq
NUNAVIK
Fond du Lac 227
Chicken 225
Stony Rapids
Chicken 224
Grande Prairie
Aboriginal communities1,3 / Collectivités autochtones1,3
Nickel Palm 4
Aupaluk
Puvirnituq
Portage la Prairie
Ashcroft 4
ITE
Ashnola 10
ÉTA D ST
Alexis 9
ATE
TS
-UN
S
Blind Creek 6
IS D OF A
'AM ME
Osoyoos 1
ÉR RIC
IQU A
Chopaka
E
Akulivik
Other Combined Languages (CMA/CA)
Autres langues réunies (RMR/AR)
Whispering Pines 4
a
r
St uc
ca e F
Fu n d
de Jua
an e
Ju it d
tro
48
(31)4
Other Combined Languages (CMA/CA)
Autres langues réunies (RMR/AR)
Qualicum
Chilliwack
(5)
Thompson (Ntlakapamux) (30)
Dé
Océan
Pacifique
Vancouver
4
Nishga
Nootka
(54)
South Slave / Esclave du Sud (14)
º
i
(7)
4
º
rn
Gitksan
WAKASHAN FAMILY /
FAMILLE WAKASHANE
(101)4
(2)
Ungava Bay
Baie d'Ungava
60
be
Nequatque 1
Fountain 1
Lillooet 1
Mount Currie 6
Chilhil 6
Nesuch 3
Cayoosh Creek 1
Mount Currie 10
Mount Currie 1
Shuswap
Pavilion 1
Marble Canyon 3
(17)4
SALISH FAMILY /
FAMILLE SALISHENNE
Salish, n.i.e. / n.i.a.
5º
7º
12
45
Hustalen 1
Lytton 4E
51
Nkaih 10
º
Kamloops
Inkluckcheen
21
Quaaout 1
Lytton 9A
Kamloops
1
Tsahaheh 1
Chum
Creek
2
Baptiste
Smith
1B
Stryen
9
Nuuautin
2
Cheakamus 11
Neskainlith 1
Lytton 9B
Papyum 27
Sahhaltkum 4
Ahahswinis 1
Klickkumcheen
18
Waiwakum 14
Neskonlith 2
Nicomen 1
Seaichem 16
Klahkamich 17
Yekwaupsum 18 Kowtain
Macoah 1
Shackan 11
North Bay 5
17
Zacht 5 Kitzowit 20
Skookumchuck 4
Switsemalph 6
Siska Flat 3
Switsemalph 3
Nanoose
Kanaka Bar 1A Kanaka Bar 2 Nooaitch 10
Inkahtsaph 6
Nicola Mameet 1
Tipella 7
Nanaimo Town 1
Kahmoose 4
Salmon River 1
Zoht 4
Enderby 2
Anacla 12
Nicola Lake 1
Nanaimo
Capilano 5
Joeyaska 2
Nanaimo River 3
Kopchitchin
2
Mission 1
Coldwater 1
Douglas Lake 3
Nanaimo River 4
Okanagan
Paul's Basin 2
Malachan 11
Nanaimo River 2
(Part) 1
Burrard Inlet 3 Abbotsford
Oyster Bay 12
Musqueam 2
Lukseetsissum 9
Chemainus 13
McMillan
Okanagan (Part) 1
Gordon River 2
Portier Pass 5
Island 6 Chehalis 5
Spuzzum 1
Coquitlam 2
Kuper Island 7 Coquitlam 1
Lakahahmen
11
Ohamil
1
Duncan
Katzie 1
Squaw-hay-one 11
Holachten 8
Yale Town 1
Tsussie 6
Tsawwassen
Squawkum
Chawathil 4
Halalt 2
Creek 3
Vernon
Duck Lake 7
Whonnock 1
Cowichan 9
Cowichan 1
Kelowna
Schkam 2
Semiahmoo
Theik 2
Tsinstikeptum 10
Peters 1
South Malahat 11Union Bay 4
Seabird Island
50º 40º
Tsinstikeptum 9
Victoria Saanich 1
Matsqui 4
Scowlitz 1
Cole Bay 3
Skwah 4
Matsqui Main 2
East Saanich 2
Cheam 1
Upper Sumas 6
Squiaala 7
Skweahm 10
New Songhees 1A
Sooke 1
Skway
5
Vancouver
Skowkale 10
Sooke 2
Kwawkwawapilt 6
Soowahlie 14
Yakweakwioose 12
Becher Bay 1
Chuchuwayha 2
Penticton
Skowkale 11
Esquimalt
UN
Esowista 3
Ittatsoo 1
rgia
Geo rgia
it of
Stra de Geo
oit
Détr
Comox 1
(35)4
12
nd
Isla r
ver
ve
cou
cou
Van e Van
Île d
Pentledge 2
Marktosis 15
Opitsat 1
Carrier / Porteur
Dakota/Sioux
Campbell River 11
Tork 7
Courtenay
Calgary
TSIMSHIAN FAMILY /
FAMILLE TSIMSHENNE
SIOUAN FAMILY / FAMILLE SIOUX
Bridge River 1
Slosh 1
Lukseetsissum 9
Chuchuwayha 2
South Saanich 1
ATHAPASKAN FAMILY /
FAMILLE ATHAPASCANE
Powell River
Refuge Cove 6
48
º
Victoria
Esquimalt
Campbell River
Ahaminaquus 12 Quinsam 12
Cape Mudge 10
Williams
Lake
Kamloops
Coquitlam 2
Coquitlam 1
Cowichan 1
Union Bay 4
Kutchin-Gwich'in (Loucheux)
Kangirsuk
Whale Cove
Arviat
ALBERTA
Little Buffalo
Duncan's 151A
Horse Lakes 152B
Utikoomak Lake 155 Grand Centre
Utikoomak Lake 155A
Pakashan 150D
Wabasca 166C
Freeman 150B
Prince
Wabasca 166B
Sucker Creek 150A
Desmarais
George Sturgeon Lake 154A
Wabasca 166D
Sturgeon Lake 154
Wabasca 166A
Big Lakes
Swan River 150E
Wabasca 166
Sawridge 150G
Sawridge 150H
Drift Pile River 150
Jean Baptiste Gambler 183
Smoky Lake White Fish
County No. 13 Lake 128
Canim Lake 4
Canoe Creek 2
Pacific
Ocean
Nanaimo
Duncan
Inuktitut
Child Lake 164A
Boyer 164
John d'Or Prairie 215
Beaver Ranch 163
Fox Lake 162
Tall Cree 173A
Dog Head 218
Tall Cree 173
East Moberly Lake 169
West Moberly Lake 168A
Nesuch 3
Sliammon 1
12
Houpsitas 6
Village Island 1
Marktosis 15
Wakashan, n.i.e. / n.i.a.
Nootka
Mohawk
º
55
Alert Bay 1
Gwayasdums 1
Anahim's Meadow 2
Anahim's Meadow 2A
Mount Currie 2
Mount Currie 10
Mount Currie 8
Mount Currie 1
Mount Currie 6
WAKASHAN FAMILY /
FAMILLE WAKASHANE
Labrador Sea
Mer du Labrador
Quaqtaq
(5)
g
ipe
nn
Wi nipeg
ke
La c Win
La
12
COLOMBIEBRITANNIQUE
Pentledge 2
Dogrib / Flanc-de-chien
Doig River 206
Anahim's Meadow 2
Anahim's Meadow 2A
Anahim's Flat 1
Stone 1
Dead Point 5
Alexis Creek 14
Redstone Flat 1
Halfway River 168
Blueberry River 205
Alert Bay 1A
115
º
Quesnel
Alexandria 3
Alert Bay 1A
Quesnel 1
13
Alexis Creek 34
Pacific Ocean
Océan Pacifique
ait
Str otte
tte harl
rlo
ha ne C
n C ei
ee la R
Qu t de
i
tro
Dé
BRITISH
COLUMBIA
0º
Ulkatcho 13
Quaee 7
º
Bella Coola 1
Squinas 2
Katit 1
Tsulquate 4
Kippase 2
Thomas Point 5
Fort Rupert 1
Quatsino Subdivision 18
49
Necoslie 1
Stony Creek 1
Nazco 20
(22)
Woodland Cree 226
Quesnel
Kluskus 1
Salt Plains 195
Fort Smith
Upper Hay River 212
Inuktitut
IROQUOIAN FAMILY /
FAMILLE IROQUOISE
Iroquoian, n.i.e. / Iroquois, n.i.a.
Kangiqsualujjuaq
Dene / Déné
110º
Squinas 2
(7)
Gitksan
Nishga
Tsimshian
Bushe River 207
Woyenne 27
12
9º
12
Détroit de
la Reine
Charlotte
Chipewyan
Hay River Dene 1
13
Cahoose 12
South Slave / Esclave du Sud
INUKTITUT FAMILY /
FAMILLE INUKTITUT
º
Bella Bella 1
Blackwater Meadow 11
(17)
TSIMSHIAN FAMILY /
FAMILLE TSIMSHENNE
50
Prince
Rupert
Fort George 2
Queen
Charlotte
Sound
Chilcotin
Fort Resolution
Tlingit (Isolate / Isolée)
Kutchin-Gwich'in (Loucheux)
North Slave (Hare) /
Esclave du Nord (peau-de-lièvre)
Rankin Inlet
ATHAPASKAN FAMILY / FAMILLE ATHAPASCANE
4
Kangiqsujuaq
Hay Lake 209
New Aiyansh 1
Enlarged Area
Gitanyow 1
Gitwangak 1 Régions agrandies
Kispiox 1
Sik-e-dakh 2
Gitanmaax 1
Hagwilget 1 Babine 6
North Tacla Lake 7
North Tacla Lake 7A
Tacla Lake 9
Babine 17
Gitsegukla 1
Coryatsaqua 2
Moricetown 1
Bulkley River 19
Kitamaat 2
Stony Creek 1
Tzetzi Lake 11
Hay River
Enterprise
Prophet River 4
Fontas 1
Kahntah 3
Fort Ware 1
º
Bella Coola 1
Kakisa
INUKTITUT FAMILY /
FAMILLE INUKTITUT
Kitasoo 1
Prince George
Lutselk'e
Fort Nelson 2
Lachkaltsap 9
Gitwinksihlkw 7
Laketown 3
ake
lave L laves
S
t
a
Gre
s Esc
lac de
d
n
a
Gr
Fort Providence
Salluit
Ivujivik
Chesterfield Inlet
Salish, n.i.e. / n.i.a.
Shuswap
Thompson (Ntlakapamux)
ne y
Stellaquo 1
Nautley 1
Yellowknife
Trout Lake
5º
º
Williams Prairie Meadow 1A
Necoslie 1
12
2º
0º
13
55
Coral Harbour
Detah
Fort Liard
SALISH FAMILY / FAMILLE SALISHENNE
Haida (Isolate) /
Haïda (Isolée)
Hud
Détr son St
ra
oit d
'Hud it
son
Baker Lake
Jean Marie River
BRITISH COLUMBIA
COLOMBIE-BRITANNIQUE
55
Wha Ti
Rae-Edzo
Iskut 6
º
8º
Kimmirut
(2)
Haida (Isolate) / Haïda (Isolée)
Kutenai (Isolate / Isolée)
Carrier / Porteur
Chilcotin
Chipewyan
Dene / Déné
Dogrib / Flanc-de-chien
Dakota/Sioux
Cape Dorset
Snare Lake
Tlingit (Isolate / Isolée) (4)
Athapaskan, n.i.e. / Athapascan n.i.a.
Algonquian, n.i.e. / Algonquin, n.i.a.
SIOUAN FAMILY /
FAMILLE SIOUX
Kutenai (Isolate / Isolée) (4)
(24)
North Slave (Hare) /
Esclave du Nord (peau-de-lièvre) (1)
Two and One-Half Mile Village
Two Mile Village
Dease Lake 9
Telegraph Creek 6A
Telegraph Creek 6
Omineca 1
Cheslatta 1
Skins Lake 16B
Uncha Lake 13A
13
Rae Lakes
Teslin Post 13
McLeod Lake 1
Iqaluit
Wrigley
Nahanni Butte
Pinchie 2
(Nunavut officially became a Territory of Canada on April 1st, 1999.)
(Le 1er avril 1999, le Nunavut est devenu officiellement un territoire canadien.)
Algonquin
es le age
s /
3º
Tagish
Carcross
Carcross 4
NUNAVUT
ATHAPASKAN FAMILY /
FAMILLE ATHAPASCANE
Attikamek
Blackfoot / Pied-noir
Cree / Cri
Malecite / Malécite
Micmac
Montagnais-Naskapi
Ojibway
Oji-Cree / Oji-Cri
Foxe Basin
Bassin de Foxe
Repulse Bay
7
ALGONQUIAN FAMILY /
FAMILLE ALGONQUINE
l
14
Mt. Lorne
Tache 1
Aboriginal Languages, n.i.e. / Langues autochtones, n.i.a.
Bathurst Inlet
NORTHWEST TERRITORIES
TERRITOIRES DU NORD-OUEST
Good Hope Lake
Burns Lake 18
Woyenne 27
Ojibway
(7 205)
Place names and mapping of "communities" are based on 1996 Census sudbivision (CSD) geography.
Please see Statistics Canada's 1996 Census Dictionary at website: (http://www.statcan.ca). In some
cases, the location of the CSD centroid does not correspond to a specific community but rather to a large
area (e.g. Baffin, Unorganized)
Les noms des lieux et l'emplacement des collectivités sont fondés sur les données géographiques sur les
suddivisions du recensement (SDR) de 1996. Voir le Dictionnaire du Recensement de 1996 dans le site
Web suivant: (http://www.statcan.ca). Dans certains cas, la position de la centroïde de la SDR ne
correspond pas à une collectivité spéficique, mais plutôt à une vaste région (p. ex. Baffin, Unorganized
(non organisé)).
Bay Chimo
Great Bear Lake
Grand lac de l'Ours
Tulita
Upper Liard
Lower Post
Palling 1 Ye Koo Che 3
51
º
0º
YUKON
º
Micmac
(3 715)
Pangnirtung
Ross River
º
gna
nta
he le
ka
nn
Ab sh
e
a
Ts
La orig n, n
im
Fa s
ng in .i.
e.
m hia
No ue al
ill n
in s La /
e F
Au form au ng n.i.
ts am
im i
cu at to ua a.
sh ly
la ne ion ch g
W
F
ng i on t e
a
a
en /
m ka
ue nfo A on s,
ne
To s a rm bori es n.i ille sha
g
.
w
,
ta uto atio inal n. e.
ak n F
l ch n s lan i.a /
as am
to u gu .
ha il
n r
Destruction Bay
35
is-N
Baffin, Unorganized
Pelly Bay
. (1 050)
)
230
i(2
p
a
ask
.i.e. / n.i.a
Salish, n
E
14
5º
Burwash Landing
Kulkayu 4
52
14
14
5º
Hall Beach
Gjoa Haven
Babine 25
Kitamaat 2
Broughton Island
Taloyoak
Kugluktuk
Blackfoot / Pied-noir (970
)
Mo
Pelly Crossing
º
Cree / Cri
(15 300)
70)
º
45
º
it
Hecate Stra
cate
Détroit d'Hé
53
Kitimat
56
Ba
f
Île fin Is
de
la
Ba nd
ffin
Igloolik
Cambridge Bay
0º
13
1º
e
on Lak
Willist
Tacla Lake 9
Colville Lake
Stewart Crossing
Ibex Valley
4º
North Tacla Lake 7A
North Tacla Lake 7
Paulatuk
Fort Good Hope
200 kilometres
kilomètres
5º
Babine 6
Victoria Island
Île de Victoria
50)
NO NO
UV VA
EL SC
LE O
-É TIA
CO
SS
150
Holman
Lake Michigan
Lac Michigan
100
Fort McPherson
Beaver Creek
60
)
l
s auLangu
toch ages
, n.i
ton
e
Chipe
wyan(9 s, n.i.a.e. .
(8
LE E
RC AIR
I
C L
C O E
TI E P IQU
C
L T
AR RC RC
E
A
C
Clyde River
A
CE RC
RC TI
C
AR LE C
CT PO IRC
IQ LA LE
U IR
E
E
º
gue
Inuvik
UNITED STATES
OF AMERICA
ÉTATS-UNIS
D'AMÉRIQUE
12
Kshish 4 and 4A
Kulspai 6
50
12
Moricetown 1
25
INUVIALUIT
Pond Inlet
Nanisivik
A
bo
Sy
La rig
m
b
ng ina
Al ol /
go
Sy ues l La
n
m
A nq
lg u
bo aut gu
o in
le oc ag
At nqu
ht es
tik ia
on /
Bl am n, n
es
ac e .i
C kfo k .e. /
re o
A
t
lg
M e/ /P
on
al Cr ie
qu
ec i d
M it
in
-n
,n
ic e
oi
m /M
r
.i.
M ac a
a.
on
lé
t
c
O ag
i
te
jib n
a
O way isjiN
as
C
At re
ka
ha e
pi
C pas / Oj
ar ka iC
C rier n, n ri
hi / .i
lc P .e.
C ot o /
hi in rt A
eu th
D pew
r apa
en y
sc
a
e
D / n
an
og D
,n
é
r
.i.
Ku ib né
a.
/
t
Fl
No ch
a
rth in- nc
G So Slave wi deut (H ch' ch
D h S are in ien
ak l ) / (L
a E
H ota ve scla ouc
ai /S /
da io E ve d heu
In ( u sc u N x
uk Is x la or )
ve d (
Iro tit ola
qu ut
te Sio du peau
) / ua S -d
M oian
H n F ud e-liè
oh , n
a
a
I
vr
.
e)
Ku aw i.e. / nukt ïda mily
k
i
I
te
ro tu (Is / F
t
qu
am
o
Sa na
F
a
oi
l
ill
s, mi ée
li i (
e
ly )
n.
si
Sh sh, Iso
i.a
/F
ou
l
.
us n.i ate
am
x
Th w .e /
Iro ill
e
.
a
qu
om p / n Iso
in
Tl p
.i. lé Famoian ukt
in so
i
a. e)
ill Fa tut
gi n
e m
G t ( (N
iro il
itk Is t
qu y /
N san ola lak
oi
is
se
te ap
hg
Sa
/ I am
Ts a
lis
s
ol ux
im
h
ée )
Fa
N sh
m
)
oo ia
F ily
n
s
t
al am /
W ka
is i
a
Published under the authority of the Minister of Indian
Affairs and Northern Development, Ottawa, 2002
4 295
Lambert Conformal Conic Projection, Standard Parallels 49ºN and 77ºN
Projection conique conforme de Lambert, parallèles de référence 49ºN. et 77ºN.
Coryatsaqua 2
Babine 17
Bulkley River 19
Terrace
Dolphin Island 1
208 610
7
30
ne
/
ko Dén
ta/
Inu
Si é (57
kti
ou 0
t
ut(
x(7 )
Abo
7
r
3
i
g
Lan
5) 10
ina
Aklavik
Pour obtenir plus de renseignements sur les langues autochtones, consultez le site
web de Ressources naturelles Canada, Atlas du Canada, à l'adresse :
http://atlas.gc.ca; et celui de la Direction générale de la Recherche stratégique
d'AINC (http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca) et l'affiche "De génération en génération :
Survie et préservation des langues autochtones du Canada au sein des familles,
des collectivités et des villes", nº R2-234/2002F au catalogue.
1 405
Arctic Bay
Tuktoyaktuk
100º
0
Gitsegukla 1
Kitsumkaylum 1
Aboriginal Languages, n.i.e. /
Langues autochtones, n.i.a.
Total Aboriginal Languages /
Total des langues autochtones
12
Gitanmaax 1
Gitwangak 1
7º
Kispiox 1
Sik-e-dakh 2
Hagwilget 1
12
Gitanyow 1
Prince Rupert
KUTENAI (Isolate / Isolée)
Old Crow
En raison de la portée de cette étude, nous ne pouvons présenter toutes les
variations dans le nom des langues ou de leurs dialectes. Tous les efforts ont été
déployés pour assurer l’exactitude de l’information; toute erreur ou omission n’est
pas intentionnelle.
For more information on Aboriginal languages in British Columbia, please contact "The First
Peoples’ Cultural Foundation of B.C." at website: www.fpcf.ca
Pour obtenir plus de renseignements sur les langues autochtones de la ColombieBritannique, veuillez communiquer avec "The First Peoples' Cultural Foundation of B.C."
au site web : www.fpcf.ca
Port Simpson 1
Tsimpsean 2 North Part
TLINGIT (Isolate / Isolée)
De
Da
105º
12
8º
9º
12
0º
º
6º
54
º
HAIDA (Isolate) / HAÏDA (Isolée)
Enlarged Area of British Columbia /
Région agrandie de la Colombie-Britannique57º
56
Gitwinksihlkw 7
New Aiyansh 1
Lachkaltsap 9
350
235
240
145
120
Authors / Auteurs : Mary Jane Norris and/et Lorna Jantzen
Publié avec l'autorisation du ministre des Affaires
indiennes et du Nord canadien, Ottawa, 2002
Map Preparation / Préparation de la carte :
Tim Albert - GeoSolutions Consulting Inc. www.geosolutions.com
QS-7041-000-BB-A1
Contributors / Collaborateurs :
Catalogue No. R2-231/1996
Lucette Dell’Oso and / et Gerry Ouellette
ISBN 0-662-66905-3
Acknowledgements / Remerciements : Stephen W. Adcock
12
2º
13
13
Kincolith 14
Mohawk
Iroquoian, n.i.e. / Iroquois, n.i.a.
Chenal Parry
(DENMARK)
(DANEMARK)
Haida (Isolate) / Haïda (Isolée)(65)
Kutchin-Gwich'in (Loucheux)(55)
Thompson (Ntlakapamux)(55)
North Slave (Hare) /
Esclave du Nord (peau-de-lièvre)(35)
Tlingit (Isolate / Isolée)(30)
Kutenai (Isolate / Isolée)(20)
)
UNITED STATES
OF AMERICA
590
B
Ba affin
ie
de Bay
Ba
ffin
º
South Slave / Esclave du Sud(205)
Algonquian, n.i.e. / Algonquin, n.i.a.(180)
Athapaskan, n.i.e. / Athapascan, n.i.a.(160)
Iroquoian, n.i.e. /
Iroquois, n.i.a.(215)
Algonquin(220)
Wakashan, n.i.e. / n.i.a.(235)
Tsimshian(235)
Chilcotin(255)
Malecite / Malécite(255)
Dogrib / Flanc-de-chien(270)
Nootka(280)
Attikamek(285)
Gitksan(285)
Mohawk(290)
Nishga(330)
Oji-Cree / Oji-Cri(340)
GREENLAND
GROENLAND
25
60
Di
Dé xon
tro En
it d tra
e D nce
ixo
n
IROQUOIAN FAMILY /
FAMILLE IROQUOISE
Parry Channel
º
Total Aboriginal Mother Tongue Population¹ in Canada's Cities²
(CMAs and CAs), 1996 Census: 39,600
Population¹ totale de langue maternelle autochtone dans les villes²
du Canada, (RMR et AR) Recensement de 1996 : 39 600
Resolute Bay
Sachs Harbour
30
º
t
rai s
St avi
vis e D
Da it d
tro
Dé
"De génération en génération : Survie et préservation des langues autochtones du
Canada au sein des familles, des collectivités et des villes"
To order copies of this map or the poster (English or French), please contact INAC General Enquiries and Publications Distribution
at 1-800-567-9604, TTY 1-866-553-0554, or [email protected]
Pour commander un exemplaire de cette carte ou de l'affiche citée ci-dessous (anglais ou français), veuillez communiquer avec le
Service des renseignements généraux et de la distribution de publications d'AINC au 1-800-567-9604, ATM 1-866-553-0554, ou
rendez-vous à [email protected]
1 070
590
35
) r(5
80 u
(3 rte
ap o
w /P
us e r
Sh rri
a
C
Adapté à partir de l'affiche :
ÉTATS-UNIS
D'AMÉRIQUE
290
SIOUAN FAMILY /
FAMILLE SIOUX (Dakota/Sioux)
1 650
Wakashan, n.i.e. / n.i.a.
Nootka
º
º
45
"From Generation to Generation: Survival and Maintenance of Canada’s Aboriginal
Languages Within Families, Communities and Cities"
WAKASHAN FAMILY /
FAMILLE WAKASHANE
40
Beaufort Sea
Mer de Beaufort
Nota: La catégorisation des langues autochtones sur cette carte est fondée sur le
système de classification utilisé pour les recensements du Canada. Chaque langue
autochtone est rattachée à une famille linguistique ou reconnue comme une langue
isolée (langue n’appartenant à aucune famille linguistique). Bien que ce système
soit général, on reconnaît qu’il peut comporter des variantes et que chaque langue
peut être connue sous d’autres noms que celui mentionné dans le Recensement.
De plus, l’orthographe du nom des langues peut varier. D’autre part, la
catégorisation
employée ici ne permet pas de rattacher les dialectes aux langues
º
0 dont ils sont dérivés. Nous mentionnerons également qu’il a été impossible
5
1
d’indiquer sur la carte les collectivités parlant la langue des Métis (le Michif)
puisqu’elle n’était pas différenciée dans le Recensement, mais plutôt incluse dans la
catégorie des langues algonquines, n.i.a.
1 200
795
465
º
50
Adapted from Poster:
9 000
2 620
2 085
2 190
1 455
1 310
705
430
Gitksan
Nishga
Tsimshian
º
Dene / Déné
South Slave / Esclave du Sud
Dogrib / Flanc-de-chien
Carrier / Porteur
Chipewyan
Athapaskan, n.i.e. / Athapascan, n.i.a.
Chilcotin
Kutchin-Gwich'in (Loucheux)
North Slave (Hare) /
Esclave du Nord (peau-de-lièvre)
2 460
60
20 090
TSIMSHIAN FAMILY /
FAMILLE TSIMSHENNE
º
ATHAPASKAN FAMILY /
FAMILLE ATHAPASCANE
1 850
745
595
65
27 780
Salish, n.i.e. / n.i.a.
Shuswap
Thompson (Ntlakapamux)
º
Grise Fiord
For further details and related information on Aboriginal Languages please see:
Natural Resources Canada's Atlas of Canada website at: http://atlas.gc.ca; INAC's
Strategic Research and Analysis Directorate's website (http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca);
and the Poster: "From Generation to Generation: Survival and Maintenance of
Canada’s Aboriginal Languages Within Families, Communities and Cities"
Catalogue No. R2-234/2002E.
3 200
º
70
INUKTITUT FAMILY /
FAMILLE INUKTITUT
*(Document de travail sur les Premières nations et leur affiliation linguistique, préparé par la Section des
statistiques sur les Premières nations et le Nord, AINC, 1996. Veuillez noter qu'il ne s'agit pas d'une source
définitive.)
º
87 555
25 885
9 070
7 310
5 400
3 995
4 145
2 275
655
350
SALISH FAMILY /
FAMILLE SALISHENNE
75º
Cree / Cri
Ojibway
Montagnais-Naskapi
Micmac
Oji-Cree / Oji-Cri
Attikamek
Blackfoot / Pied-noir
Algonquin
Malecite / Malécite
Algonquian, n.i.e. / Algonquin, n.i.a.
La présente carte montre les principales langues autochtones employées dans les
collectivités dénombrées par Statistique Canada au Recensement de la population de
1996, ainsi que dans les réserves indiennes et les établissements indiens
partiellement dénombrés. En plus des renseignements sur les langues tirés du
Recensement, on a utilisé ceux provenant des Affaires indiennes et du Nord Canada
(AINC)* pour les collectivités sur lesquelles le Recensement ne fournit pas de données
(soit parce qu'elles n'ont été que partiellement dénombrées, soit parce qu'aucune
langue maternelle autochtone n'y avait été déclarée).
55
146 635
75
Arctic Ocean
Océan Arctique
It is not possible within the scope of this study to provide all the variations of
language names or their dialects. All efforts have been made to ensure the accuracy
of the information; any errors or omissions are unintentional.
Population¹
80º
ALGONQUIAN FAMILY /
FAMILLE ALGONQUINE
*(Internal working file profiling Canada's First Nations and their linguistic affiliations, prepared by the First
Nations and Northern Statistics Section of INAC, 1996. Please note that this is not intended to be a definitive
or final source.)
Aboriginal Language /
Langues autochtones
Population¹
85º
Aboriginal Language /
Langues autochtones
º
65
Aboriginal Languages Mother Tongue Populations /
Population de langue maternelle autochtone, par langue autochtone
Note: The categorization of Aboriginal languages in this map is based on the
classification system used in the Censuses of Canada. This classification organizes
individual Aboriginal languages by language families and language isolates
(languages that cannot be related to any of the major families). While this system is
standard in its approach, it is recognized that there can be variants of this
classification system; and, that individual languages can be known by names other
than those used in the census. As well, names of languages can also vary in their
spelling. Furthermore, the categorization used here does not provide for further
classification of dialects within languages. In addition, separate mapping of the Métis
language was not possible, since Métis (Michif) was not classified separately in the
Census, but rather included within the category "Algonquian languages, n.i.e.".
º
90º
This map shows the major Aboriginal languages for those communities enumerated in
Statistics Canada's 1996 Census and for incompletely enumerated reserves and
settlements. In addition to the Census, language information from Indian and Northern
Affairs Canada (INAC)* is used for those communities where census data on
Aboriginal language are not available (due to either "incomplete enumeration" or "no
Aboriginal mother tongue being reported in the Census").
75
95º
Aboriginal Languages in Canada, 1996
Les langues autochtones du Canada, 1996
º
0
15
º
70
5º
15