THERE ARE VARIOUS TYPES OF ARGUMENTS
Instead of overwhelming you with a whole bunch of them, we’ll just go through them as we come across
them. We’ll eventually cover all of them.
If you’re feeling anxious about knowing all of them I can give you a list this week.
DON’T FREAK OUT.
Today we’re covering:
THE ROGERIAN APPROACH, ENTHYMEMES AND THE TOULMIN SCHEME
You’re probably already upset from annotating 9 pages of “Letter from Birmingham Jail.”
STOP FREAKING OUT.
You’ll feel better by the end of the day and even better by the end of the week.
BUT BEFORE WE GO ON…
Here’s a meme to make you feel better.
When you see this à
It now becomes a race to yell
“annotate all the things!”
Who ever recognizes it first and
successfully yells it out wins.
Prize TBD…
THE ROGERIAN APPROACH TO ARGUMENT
The Rogerian approach tries to find mutually acceptable solutions to problems using
the following techniques:
§  Seeking common ground
§  Building trust
§  Reducing threat
ANTI-CONFRONTATION
The writer makes every effort to avoid confrontation.
The writer does this by giving as much credit as possible to the opponents’ counterarguments, rather than simply dismissing these counter-arguments outright.
If opponents believe that their arguments are being understood and taken seriously,
they will be more open to listening to the writer’s position.
HOW DOES KING USE THE ROGERIAN APPROACH IN HIS LETTER?
My Dear Fellow Clergymen:
While confined here in Birmingham city jail, I came across your recent
statement calling my present activities "unwise and untimely."...Since I feel that you are
men of genuine good will and that your criticisms are sincerely set forth, I want to try to
answer your statement in what I hope will be patient and reasonable in terms.
I think I should indicate why I am here in Birmingham, since you have been
influenced by the view which argues against "outsiders coming in."...I, along with several
members of my staff, am here because I was invited here. I am here because I have
organizational ties here.
But more basically, I am in Birmingham because injustice is here. Just as the
prophets of the eighth century B.C. left their villages and carried their "thus saith the
Lord" far beyond the boundaries of their home towns, and just as the Apostle Paul left his
village of Tarsus and carried the gospel of Jesus Christ to the far corners of the GrecoRoman world, so am I compelled to carry the gospel of freedom beyond my own home
town. Like Paul, I must constantly respond to the Macedonian call for aid.
HOW DOES KING USE THE ROGERIAN APPROACH IN HIS LETTER?
My Dear Fellow Clergymen:
While confined here in Birmingham city jail, I came across your recent
statement calling my present activities "unwise and untimely."...Since I feel that you are
men of genuine good will and that your criticisms are sincerely set forth, I want to try to
answer your statement in what I hope will be patient and reasonable in terms.
I think I should indicate why I am here in Birmingham, since you have been
influenced by the view which argues against "outsiders coming in."...I, along with several
members of my staff, am here because I was invited here. I am here because I have
organizational ties here.
But more basically, I am in Birmingham because injustice is here. Just as the
prophets of the eighth century B.C. left their villages and carried their "thus saith the
Lord" far beyond the boundaries of their home towns, and just as the Apostle Paul left his
village of Tarsus and carried the gospel of Jesus Christ to the far corners of the GrecoRoman world, so am I compelled to carry the gospel of freedom beyond my own home
town. Like Paul, I must constantly respond to the Macedonian call for aid.
(About to get all AP on you) Additional Examples: King emphasizes that they all
share a common profession and a common goal of ending segregation. King
references biblical and historical figures and philosophers who would be
familiar to the clergymen. Accepts some of the clergymen’s point: the
demonstrations in Birmingham were unfortunate. Verbally draws himself closer
to the audience by switching pronouns from “I” and “you” to “we” (expressing
hope for unity) –TRICKY!-
ROGERIAN APPROACH FOR THE WIN!
Builds trust: “Dear Fellow Clergymen”
King credits the men with being “men of genuine good will” whose arguments are
“sincerely set forth”
King references biblical figures who would be familiar to the clergyman
Additional Examples: King emphasizes that they all share a common profession and
a common goal of ending segregation. King references biblical and historical
figures and philosophers who would be familiar to the clergymen. Accepts some
of the clergymen’s point: the demonstrations in Birmingham were unfortunate.
Verbally draws himself closer to the audience by switching pronouns from “I” and
“you” to “we” (expressing hope for unity)
ENTHYMEMES: BUT FIRST LET’S PLAY 6 DEGREES OF WIKIPEDIA
Aristotle states that under
logos, (or
the content of the message)
the
2 most powerful tools are the
enthymeme and the example.
The enthymeme is a shortened
syllogism that serves the purpose of a
more practical and expedient way to
argue.
Enthymeme example
All teachers have college
degrees.
(major premise is assumed)
Ms. Clark is a teacher.
(minor premise is stated)
Therefore, Ms. Clark has a
college degree
(conclusion stated)
Restructured as an Enthymeme:
ENTHY
Ms. Clark is a teacher because she has a college
degree…
What is left out? Why?
Enthymeme example
MEME
All teachers have
college degrees.
(major premise is assumed)
Ms. Clark is a
teacher.
(minor premise is stated)
Therefore, Ms. Clark
has a college degree
(conclusion stated)
Let’s get all AP on this: The major premise (aka: the universal principle)
“all teachers have college degrees” is an assumption shared by everyone
and everyone agrees with the statement.
An argument may be vulnerable if the audience does not accept the
unstated principle that supports the argument.
THE TOULMIN SCHEME
Formal logic is an abstract discipline that deals with absolutes. Everyday life,
however, does not operate in the realm of absolutes-it is messier, more
complicated.
Events in life are often random, so people must make decisions based on probability
rather than absolute certainty.
To bridge the gap between the absolute and the practical, philosopher Stephen
Toulmin developed a model of informal logic commonly known as the Toulmin
Scheme or Method…
HOW IT WORKS
1.  Claim
2.  Reasons
3.  Warrant
4.  Grounds
5.  Backing
6.  Conditions of Rebuttal
7.  Qualifier
An enthymeme provides the claim, the reasons, and the warrant.
LET’S BREAK IT DOWN WITH WORDS
Example: King should not be leading local protests because he is an outsider.
To decide whether the claim in this enthymeme is sound, you need to examine the
reasons and the underlying assumptions and decide whether the audience will
accept and grant them.
Claim:
A statement of a position or a stand (thesis statement)
An arguable statement
King should not be leading local protests…
HOW IT WORKS
Claim (arguable statement)
Reasons (supports claim)
Warrant (The unstated assumption that makes the enthymeme work. The audience must accept the
warrant in order to find an argument persuasive)
Grounds (Claims, reasons, and warrants represent an argument in broad outline, stated in phrases or
sentences. The grounds provide the actual evidence in support of the reasons. Includes facts, citations from
authorities, examples and statistics)
Backing (Supports the warrant: If the person making the argument is unclear about the warrant or
unfamiliar with the values and the beliefs of the audience, then the writer must provide backing to support
the warrant.
Conditions of Rebuttal (Brings up and addresses counter-arguments. Attacks the reasons and
grounds and/or the warrant and backing
Qualifier (Limits a claim. Must have a qualifier because any argument dealing in absolutes (always,
never, etc.) can be faulty)
HOW IT WORKS
1.  Claim King should not be leading local protests…
2.  Reasons …because he is an outsider
3.  Warrant Outsiders should not be leading local protests
4.  Grounds We are now confronted by a series of demonstrations by some of our Negro citizens, directed
and led in part by outsiders“
5.  Backing Outsiders should not be leading local protests” is asserted by stating that resolving these local
problems requires people with “knowledge and experience of the local situation.”
6.  Conditions of Rebuttal King refutes both the local clergyman’s reasons (that he is an outsider) and
their grounds (that local leaders are already handling the situation in a peaceful and lawful manner)
…“Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere” He rebuts the clergyman’s warrant (outsiders
should not be leading local protests) and their backing (outsiders lack sufficient knowledge of local
issues)
7.  Qualifier Clergyman should not have used absolutes in their claim – too easy for King to shoot down