2016 Junction City High School Summer Reading Assignments Grade 7
Please Note: These assignments were distributed to each student in a red folder the last week of school.
ALL 7TH GRADERS
Read all four science-themed articles and complete the corresponding questions. Be ready to turn in
completed assignments to your science teacher on the first day of school in August.

Nonfiction Science Articles
o “Nutrients: You Just Can’t Live Without ‘Em”
o “Destroying and Reconstructing Earth”
o “How to Get and Hold On To A Moon”
o “The Insect Empire”
Finalized 5/04/16 CG
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3 ExploRING CengoHyDRATES
NUTRIENTS:
You Just
Cant Live Without'Em
"Do you want fries
with that cheeseburger?"
"Sure, and alar$e
soda, please."
You've ordere d a
An lndian family enjoys dinner.
{reat-tasting lunch,
but is it a healthy
meal? The good news
is that you're getting
many of the nutrients
you need. The bad
news is that you're
also about to eat a lot
of stuff that you don't
need-like extra salt
and fat.
When you choose
what to eat, you need
to think about more
than your taste buds.
You need to know
what your body
needs and what foods
will give it to you.
You need to know
about nutrients.
What are nutrients?
They are the fuels
your body needs to
keep you going. They
are used for growth
and repair. They help
fight disease.
There are six types
of nutrients: carbohydrates, proteins, fats,
vitamins, minerals,
and water. The first
three<arbohydrates,
proteins,' andfatsmake up the three
basic food types.
Foods are part of cultural traditions.
All foods, however, contain one or
more of the same essential nutrients.
Can you tell which of the foods that
you see in the first three photographs
of this article are high in carbohydrates? Fat? Protein?
Tortillas, beans, and trimmings are popular foods in Mexico and
many other countries.
20
STCA{STM Huueu Boov SvsrEMS
LEssoN
g ExploRrNG CenBoHyDRATES
carbohydrate. It is
m-ade of
the same
-
raw matenals as
su$ars:
carbon,
hydrogen,
and oxygen. But
you can't
digest fiber.
Rice and vegetables are mainstays of this Asian family's diet.
So what
good is it?
Garbohydrates:
Energy to Burn
The two most important kinds of carbohydrates are su$ars and
starches. The simplest
carbohydrate is a
sugar called glucose.
Glucose is your body's
first choice for fuel.
Complex carbohydrates are called
starches. When you
eat complex carbohydrates such as pasta,
bread, or rice, your
body breaks them
apart to get the simple sugars that it
needs for fast fuel.
But your body
doesn't waste the leftovers. It turns most
of the extra $ucose
into a substance
called glycogen and
saves it in your muscles and liver. If you
eat more food than
you need at the
moment, some of the
glucose gets turned
into fat. Your body
stores fat to make
sure it has fuel for
its future energy
needs. (It's like
putting the fat away
in a warehouse.)
But watch out: the
warehouse carTget
too full. If you continually eat too much
Fiber provides bulk
that helps move food
through your intestines. Fruits provide
fiber called pectin.
Whole -{rain breads
and cereals cont ain
cellulose, the fiber
that forms a plant's
cell walls.
Proteins: The Body
Builders
Proteins are at work
in every cell of your
body. You need pro-
teins to build tissue
(muscle tissue contains alot of protein).
Your body also uses
proteins to repair
dama{e and to make
substances such as
hemoglobin, which
carcies oxy$en
through your blood.
When your body
digests food, it breaks
the protein down into
simpler substances
called amino acids.
sugar-such as the
su$ar in corn syrup,
candy, and soft
drinks-you
can
quickly put on extra
pounds. What's more,
candy bars and soft
drinks usually don't
contain other nutrients, like minerals
and vitamins that you
can $et from fruits
These foods are good sources of carbohydrates.
and vegetables.
Can
Fiber is another
you name them? Do you know any other
foods that are high in carbohydrates?
STCA{STM HuueN Booy SysrEMS 21,
LEssoN
3 ExpLoRrNG CensoHYDRATES
such as obesity and
heart disease. But fat
isn't all bad news. It
has more energy than
proteins or carbohydrates. A gram of fat
supplies about twice
as much energy as a
gram of protein or
carbohydrates.
For many people, meat is an important source
of protein. Other protein-rich foods include nuts,
egg whites, and cheese.
You might compare
amino acids with
letters in the alphabet. There are 20
amino acids, and
they combine to
create millions of
different protein
"words." Your body
also builds some
amino acids from
scratch by combining
carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and nitro$en.
There are nine
amino acids that you
can get only from the
food you eat. Your
body can't build them
on its own. These are
called the essential
amino acids. A food
that has all nine
essential amino acids
is called a complete
protein. Food that
comes from animals
(for example, meat,
eggs
, and milk) has
complete proteins.
22
STCA4STM
F'oods that do not
have all the essential
amino acids are
called incomplete
proteins. Foods that
come from plantsfor example, ve$etables, fruit, wheat, and
rice-contain incomplete proteins.
If you don't want to
eat meat or animal
products, you catr still
get your essential
amino acids. Just
make sure you combine foods that have
dffirent incomplete
proteins. For example,
a meal that combines
black beans and rice,
or lentil soup and
corn bread, will grve
you the complete proteins that you need.
What else is good
about fat? Thin layers
of fat act as protective
padding around your
heart and other
organs. Fat helps
insulate your body,
too, so you don't have
to burn too much fuel
to stay warrn.
There are two kinds
of fats: saturated and
unsaturated. Most
fats that come from
animals are saturated
fats. Inside your
body, saturated fats
cart turn into cholesterol-a substance
that may collect
inside your blood vessels and place an
extra burden on your
heart. Most fats that
come from plants (for
example, from nuts
andvegetables) are
unsaturated fats.
Even though your
body cart convert
carbohydrates into
f at, you still need to
eat some foods that
contain fat. Why?
Because your body
can't build some of
the unsaturated fats
that you need.
But be careful. You
need only a small
amount, and the fatty
foods you eat should
contain mostly unsaturated, rather than
Fats: What's the
Skinny?
Tbo much f.at can
Eat only small quantities of foods such as these,
cause health problems
which are high in fat.
HuueN Botv SvsrEMS
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saturated, fat. Meat,
cheese, and butter
have saturated f.at.
Sweet baked goods
like cookies and cakes
also have saturated
fat. Fish, avocados,
and most
liquid cook-
ing oils are sources of
unsaturated fats.
Vitamins: The ABCs
of Health
Vitamins are chemicals that have been
made by living orgartisms. Scientists discovered the first vitamin (B-1, or thiamin)
about 100 years ago.
They have now
identified a total of
13 vitamins. Each of
these vitamins has an
essential role in the
chemi cal reactions
that $o on in our
bodies. Vitamins help
build blood cells and
chemicals that control
the neryous system.
You only need tiny
amounts of vitamins
but your body cart't
manuf.acture them.
The best sources of
most vitamins are
fresh fruits and
vegetables.
Minerals: Little
Things That Mean
a Lot
Minerals are chemicals that occur
naturally in the environment. They do
not need to be made
by a living orsanism.
You need minerals to
build bones, teeth,
and blood cells.
Minerals also regulate
the chemical and
electrical signals that
control the way your
body works. Minerals
come from the earth.
They are absorbed by
plant roots as they
grow, and they are
passed on to animals
that eat plants.
You $et minerals
from many foodsfruits, ve$etables, and
$rains, 4s well as
meat and milk.
You need only tiny
amounts of some minerals (for example,
copper, iodifl€, iron,
and zinc). Thes e are
called trace minerals.
You need more of
other minerals such
as calcium, ma$nesium, potassium, and
sodium. Thes e are
the macrominerals.
Calcium, found in
milk
and cheese, is
especially important
for children wh o are
still growing. Your
body uses calcium to
build the hard, strong
parts of your bodybones and teeth, for
example. Older
3 ExpLoRING CeneoHYDRATES
people need calcium
too, to keep bones
stron$. Iron is a mineral component of
hemo$obin. Because
women lose blood
during their menstrual
cycle, they need more
iron than men. Beef,
tttna, and chickert are
$ood sources of iron.
Water: Where lt All
Comes Together
How can water be a
nutrient? There's
nothing in it! There
may not be much
nutrition in water,
but there's an awful
lot of water in you.
Your brain and muscles are three-fourths
water, and bone is
20 percent water.
Every cell in your
body is packed with
water. Your body
needs
replace some of
it
with food, but be
sure to drink six to
eight glasses of liquid
each day to maintain
your water supply.
When you're thirstyand even when
you're not-have
some water.
So What's for
Dinner?
The best way to get
the nutrients you
need is to eat good,
fresh food. Get
enough of the right
stuff, and you won't
have to worry about
vitamin or mineral
pills. Knowin$ about
nutrients can help
you choose foods that
give your taste buds
what they want and
the rest of your body
what it needs. tr
it to
transport
nutrients
and wastes,
control
your temperature,
and carry
out chemical teactions.
Each
your
body loses
more than
2liters of
duy,
water. You
Copper is a trace mineral. You need
just
a tiny bit of it in your diet. ln fact, if this
penny were pure copper, it would contain enough of this mineral to meet your
daily needs for three and a half years!
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DESTROYING
AND
RECONSTRUCTING EARTH
We’’ve spent several weeks poking around in the Grand Canyon, looking at the layers of
rocks and reconstructing the geological events that produced the canyon. After observing
rocks from the Grand Canyon and studying how they formed, we gured out that the
layers of rock were produced over millions of years of deposition of sand, silt, and calcium
carbonate. After these mineral materials piled up, usually under water, they turned to
stone. Now that the Colorado River has cut down through the layers of rocks, we can see
them, one on top of the other.
But the story continues... The next question is, where did all the sand, silt, and calcium
come from? This we had to infer. At one time there must have been mountains near what
is now the Colorado Plateau. But those mountains are gone. The slow, steady processes
of weathering and erosion broke the mountains into bits millions of years ago and carried
them down into the basin where they were deposited.
Let’’s follow the story back one step further. Where did those ancient mountains come
from? To answer this one, we need to take a really giant step back and look at the whole
Earth as a system. Here’’s what geologists think is going on.
Earth’’s Dynamic Systems
Scientists describe Earth in terms of four major interacting systems: the geosphere, the
hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere. The geosphere is the solid rocky surface
and the interior of the planet. The hydrosphere is Earth’’s water, both in the seas and on the
land. The atmosphere is the air that surrounds Earth. The biosphere is all the living things
that live on Earth. Our story continues with a closer look at the geosphere.
The geosphere is
composed of a thin,
solid rock layer called
the crust, a massive
uid molten rock
mantle, and a metallic
core (inner core and
outer core). The most
interesting part of the
geosphere to
geologists is the crust
and the rst 100 km or
so of the mantle just
under it. This region is
called the lithosphere.
The thin oceanic crust (5 km), the thick continental crust (100 km), and
uppermost part of the mantle make up the lithosphere.
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542-1404_Earth Hist_RB_pgs 1-106.indd 100
9/16/08 1:28:46 PM
The lithosphere (the part that we stand on and that covers the bottom of all the seas) seems
like it should be one big, continuous covering on Earth, like the shell on an egg. But it is
not. The lithosphere is broken into big slabs, like a hard-boiled egg with a broken shell.
That’’s our picture of Earth today——a planet of molten rock covered with a bunch of solid
plates of rock that t together like puzzle pieces.
Earth’s surface is broken into seven major and several more minor lithographic plates that move
around slowly on Earth’s face.
The lithospheric plates differ from the pieces of shell on a cracked egg in one important
way. The lithospheric plates move around on Earth; the pieces of eggshell stay put. One of
the larger plates is the North American Plate. All
of Canada, most of the United States (except
Hawaii, part of Alaska, and a slice of southern
California), and most of Mexico wander across the
surface of Earth together. Other large plates
include the Pacic Plate, which underlies most of
the Pacic Ocean, African Plate, Eurasian Plate,
Indo-Australian Plate, and South American Plate.
So what makes the plates move around?
Geologists think that magma close to the core
heats and rises toward the surface. Cooler magma
descends to take the place of the heated magma.
Convection currents, created by hot,
rising magma, push plates around.
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This circular movement in the magma, called convection, is what pushes the plates around.
Scientists call these forces that affect the crust of Earth tectonic forces. Tectonic forces drive
some plates away from each other, some plates toward each other, and some plates past
each other. The San Andreas Fault on the west coast of the United States marks where the
North American Plate and the Pacic Plate are scraping past one another.
The plates don’’t move very fast by most standards——maybe 1 cm per year. But, as you
know, geologists rarely think in time units less than a million years, so in a million years a
continent can move 10 km, and in 100 million years 1000 km. Now that’’s getting
somewhere!
Constructive and Destructive Processes
Now back to the Grand Canyon and those mountains that weathered into the sediments
that became the Colorado Plateau. When two plates are driven toward one another and
they crash, something has to
give. Sometimes one plate
slides under another. The part
of the plate driven down into
the magma melts. This melted
material might push up
through the crust and onto the
surface. When that happens
we see a volcano or a lava ow.
Places with lots of volcanoes,
like the west coast of Mexico
An oceanic plate sliding under a continental plate melts
and South America, and
rock that might come up in the form of volcanoes.
Washington, Oregon, and
California, usually indicate
that two plates are colliding. The Cascade Range from Canada to the middle of California
is all created by volcanic activity.
Sometimes when two plates
collide, the plates get rumpled
and folded. The same thing
happens when you push on one
end of a small rug. The rug has
to go someplace, so it forms a
bunch of hills and valleys. The
same thing can happen when
plates collide. We see this
happening in Asia today where
India is colliding with the
Eurasian Plate, rumpling up the
landscape to create the
Himalayan mountains, which
rise higher each year.
A push on the side of
a rug might uplift ridges
just as a push on the side of
a continent might uplift mountains.
102
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It’’s possible that millions of
years ago something like
this happened near what is
now the Grand Canyon. A
mountain range resulted
from a tectonic collision.
After that the forces of
wind and water broke the
mountains down to dust
and carried them into the
basin to form the
sedimentary rocks of the
Grand Canyon.
When two continental plates collide, the result might be the
uplift of a mountain range.
Earth is constantly
recreating its surface and
reconstructing its
landforms as a result of
several processes. The
constructive processes are
mountain building (a
result of plate collisions——
uplifting and volcanism);
new crust formation
(where two plates are
pulling apart); and
sedimentation (resulting
New crust is added where magma flows up between two diverging plates.
from deposition). The
destructive processes are weathering by gravity, wind, and water (which break rocks
apart); erosion (which carries rock away); and tectonic activities (plates sliding under other
plates to be consumed by the magma).
The Kaibab Mystery
Fossils in the Kaibab Limestone
Marco Molinaro photo
Now that we have stepped back and
taken in the big picture of the
constructive and destructive Earthshaping processes, let’’s come back
down to Earth. Here we are, standing
on the Grand Canyon’’s Kaibab
Formation. Right under our feet are
fossils——sponges, brachiopods, and
crinoids. These fossils are the
unmistakable remains of animals that
once lived in a tropical sea. How
could that be? This Kaibab Formation
is more than 8100 feet above sea level!
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Two possibilities spring to mind. Either the sea was once 9000 feet deeper than it is today,
so that the area where we are standing was under water. Or perhaps millions of years ago
the sediments we are standing on were deposited 8100 feet lower in elevation, down below
sea level. Let’’s reason through these two possibilities.
The idea that the seas may have been 9000 feet deeper a few hundred million years ago is
too far out of bounds for serious consideration. There is no evidence anywhere else on
Earth suggesting that there was ever an incredibly vast additional quantity of water. That
leaves the idea that the Kaibab Formation was deposited at or below sea level before being
lifted to such a height. Let’’s see how this idea plays out.
Geologists studied index fossils and other evidence to gure out that the Kaibab Formation
was deposited near the end of the Paleozoic era, around 245 million years ago (mya).
Furthermore, geologists have found clues that suggest that around the end of the Mesozoic
era, about 70 mya, a major geological event caused faulting, folding, and uplifting. What
kind of global event might produce these kinds of massive changes in the landforms?
Maybe a collision between plates or possibly some extreme magma activity under the
North American Plate. The Rocky Mountains started rising at this time, and the area that
would become the Colorado Plateau began its ““elevator ride”” upward.
A fault is a place where Earth’’s crust is
broken and the rocks on the two sides of the
fault move past one another. The Bright
Angel Trail goes down a canyon formed by
erosion along the Bright Angel Fault.
Geologists know that faults result when
extreme force is applied to the crust. When
rocks actually break under the strain and
slip and slide past one another along a fault,
the result is often an earthquake. Today
people at Grand Canyon Village on the
South Rim occasionally feel small
earthquakes that are caused by movements
along either the Bright Angel Fault or other
faults in the area.
Folds are another structural feature of the
Colorado Plateau that suggest movement of
Earth’’s crust. The Colorado Plateau is well
known for its monoclines——large sections of
rock layers that slope down on one side. At
the Grand Canyon, the East Kaibab
monocline marks the eastern boundary of
the Kaibab Plateau. The existence of this
monocline and others suggests a time when
portions of the land were compressed and
folded during the elevation of the plateau.
Bright Angel Fault
Marco Molinaro photo
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The rocks on this monocline are deformed so they slope down to the right
side of this picture.
Piecing together the history of the Colorado Plateau is a tough job. Part of the story is still a
mystery. Geologists are sure the Kaibab Formation was deposited about 9000 feet lower in
elevation than where it stands today. And the faulting and folding throughout the
plateau suggest massive uplifting forces. But what primary event or events provided the
driving force to lift the Colorado Plateau? It was one of the constructive processes, but just
how it happened is still one of those lingering mysteries of the Grand Canyon. That’’s part
of the fun of geology——there’’s always another mystery to solve.
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HOW TO GET AND
HOLD ON TO A MOON
C
ounting out from the Sun, Earth is the
rst planet with a satellite, or moon.
Mercury, closest planet to the Sun, doesn’’t
have a moon, nor does Venus. Mars, the
fourth planet out, has two moons, but they
are probably just a couple of big old rocks
that ended up in Mars’’ orbit after they were
fully formed.
It is suspected that Earth didn’’t have a moon
at rst, but acquired one early in its history as
a result of a gigantic planetary collision.
Visualize the event as it may have happened
about 4.5 billion years ago.
MAKING THE MOON
Earth was pretty much formed as a planet.
Most of the dust and gas in the region had
been pulled in, and the proto-Earth was
revolving around the Sun more or less in the
orbit it travels today. However, these were
the early days of the Solar System. There
were a lot of large chunks of matter ying
around in unstable orbits. Some of the
chunks were huge——the size of small planets.
Planetary scientists now think that one of
these large planetesimals, perhaps the size of
Mars, was traveling around the Sun in an
exaggerated elliptical orbit. It’’s not known
why it had such a peculiar orbit——perhaps it
was pulled by the gravitational inuence of
a large planet, or perhaps there were lots of
such strange objects early in the Solar
System’’s history. Anyway, it ended up
heading for Earth.
Had you been on Earth to witness the event,
the incoming object would have rst
appeared as a dot in the heavens. Over a
period of days and weeks, it grew bigger
and bigger until it completely lled the eld
of view above Earth. Then it struck.
Because the colliding object was so large,
the impact itself seemed to happen in slow
motion, lasting several minutes, even
though the planetesimal was traveling at
perhaps 40,000 km/h.
What chaos must have followed the crash!
The incoming object was destroyed on
impact, reduced to vapor, dust, and chunks.
Large surviving parts were driven deep into
the interior of Earth. A signicant portion of
Earth was destroyed as well. The energy
that resulted from the crash produced an
explosion of unimaginable magnitude.
The force of the impact threw a tremendous
quantity of matter into motion——at least 20
billion cubic kilometers of matter. One
portion of the matter, the pieces traveling at
67
542-1460_Force_RB_Pgs_1-76.indd 67
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the highest speeds, ew out into space, never
to be seen again. Another portion of the matter ew up into the air and then was pulled
back to Earth by gravity. Some of the falling
matter fell back almost immediately as huge
rocks, some a little later as granules of various
sizes, and some months or even years later in
the form of dust and chemicals held aloft in
the atmosphere.
A third and signicant portion of the debris
didn’’t y off into space, and it didn’’t return to
Earth. It began orbiting Earth in a disk, like
the rings of Saturn. The ring was probably
about two Earth diameters from the surface of
Earth.
Over the next millions of years, the force due
to gravitation started bringing the pieces of
matter together. Tiny grains formed larger
and larger chunks, which eventually all
pulled together to form the Moon.
the mass, the stronger the force due to
gravitation.
The gravitational force plays two major
roles in planetary system formation.
Gravitational force pulls bits of matter
together to form massive objects. If a little
bit of matter is pulled together, the shape
of the object might be irregular because the
gravity will not be strong. Asteroids are
funny shapes because of their low mass. If a
lot of matter accumulates, however, the
mass will be pulled into a sphere. The other
role of gravitation is to hold planets and
satellites in orbit. The straight-line paths of
planets are deected into circular paths by
the constant application of a force. That
force is the universal force of gravitation.
GRAVITY VERSUS VELOCITY
GRAVITY AND ITS EFFECTS
When the planetesimal hit Earth, matter
ew everywhere. Pieces of matter launched
with high velocity escaped Earth’’s
gravitational attraction and began a phase
of existence as loose space debris. Matter
that didn’’t achieve escape velocity
continued to be inuenced by Earth’’s
gravity. It’’s just that simple.
Gravity is one of the four known forces
in the universe. Gravity, along with
electromagnetism and two forces at work in
the nucleus of atoms, makes everything in the
world behave in ways we understand. It is
the force due to gravitation that causes two
masses to attract each other. Gravitational
force exerted by a small mass, like a marble
or an apple, is so small that we can’’t detect it.
But the force exerted by a large mass, like a
planet or a star, is tremendous. The larger
Before we think more about the matter that
didn’’t y into space, consider another piece
of information about the behavior of mater.
Isaac Newton gured out that an object in
motion will travel in a straight line forever
unless it is acted on by a force that changes
its direction. In other words, things don’’t
travel in curves, circles, spirals, zigzags, or
any other nonstraight paths unless
something acts on them to change their
motion.
We had a moon where previously there was
none, and it must have been a sight hanging
up there maybe 30,000 km above Earth, rather
than the 385,000-km distance we see today.
68
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5/7/08 11:26:35 AM
F
gra
Imagine taking a yo-yo by the end of its
string and swinging it around over
your head in a nice circle. If you
let go of the string, what happens?
The yo-yo stops going in a circle
and ies off in a straight line. As
long as you keep applying a force
(pulling on the string) to change the
direction of the yo-yo, it continues to
orbit your st.
y
vit
F gra
Earth
“Natural” path of Moon
vit
y
Back to the impact debris. Some of the matter
fell back to Earth in the usual way. But some
of the matter that ew out in a straight line
had its path altered by the force due to Earth’’s
gravity. Take a rock the size of a trash can
as an example. It ew off in a straight line
like that shown on the illustration labeled
““Natural”” path of Moon. If there were no
gravity, the rock would keep going off into
space. However, the force of gravity pulls the
rock toward Earth. The pull didn’’t bring the
rock to Earth’’s surface, but it did change the
direction of the rock’’s travel. Remember, an
object travels in a straight line until acted on
by a force. The force that changed the rock’’s
direction of travel in this case was due to
Earth’’s gravity. The continuously altered path
of the rock brought it into orbit.
Fgravity
Force due to gravitation is the ““string””
pulling on the Moon to keep it in a circular
path. Similarly, gravitation is the force
keeping Earth in a circular orbit around the
Sun. In fact, everything that is going around
something else in the Solar System is doing so
because of gravitational force. Gravity rules!
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5/21/08 3:35:26 PM
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How many different kinds of insects can you
think of? Ten, twenty, thirty? Let’’s see, there are
ants, butteries, cockroaches, bees, ies...uuuh,
grasshoppers, mosquitoes, crickets.
Thirty different insects sounds like a lot, but it’’s
not. There are millions of different species of
insects. In fact, there are more species of insects
in the world than all other kinds of organisms
combined! This huge number of species makes
insects the most diverse group of organisms on
the planet, and they outnumber all the other
kinds of animals many times over. It has been
estimated that there are 200 million insects for
every human occupying this planet.
Insects have not invaded the sea, but they
denitely rule the land. They are the chief
consumers of plants; they are the major
predators of plant eaters; they play a major role
in recycling dead organisms (ants alone
scavenge 90% of the dead organisms in their
size class); and they serve as food for countless
other animals. Insects play a critical role in
pollination. Without insects many plants would
die out because they could not reproduce. The
diversity of insects is phenomenal.
How did insects become so successful? There
are lots of reasons——size, mobility, reproductive
potential, and structure, to mention a few.
Structure is a good place to start.
INSECT STRUCTURES
Insects are covered head to toe with a tough,
rigid, watertight exoskeleton. This protective
outer covering is the insect’’s version of the suit
of armor a knight might have worn during the
Middle Ages. The exoskeleton provides
protection for internal organs, anchors the
muscles, and keeps the insect from drying out.
The exoskeleton is made of a strong, lightweight
substance called chitin (KY••tin). Chitin is also
the base material in horn and is similar to
ngernail.
The insect body is always divided into three
regions: head, thorax, and abdomen. The head
is the business end, furnished with a mouth,
some sensory equipment, and a primitive little
insect brain.
The middle region (the thorax) specializes in
mobility. This is where insects have their six
legs (always six) and wings.
The back end is the abdomen, where most of the
guts are. These include digestive organs,
reproductive organs, and most of the circulatory
and respiratory apparatus.
55
542-1426_Div of Life_RB_pgs_1-76.indd 55
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their environment. Antennae come in a huge
range of sizes and shapes, and may even differ
between male and female of a species.
3
2
1
2
3
1 = head; 2 = thorax; 3 = abdomen
Eyes provide insects with information about light
in the environment. Insects can have two kinds
of eyes. You may have seen pictures of the large
compound eyes located on the sides of the head,
which detect color and motion. Flies and bees
have well-developed compound eyes. These eyes
are made of many small lenses (up to 25,000),
each of which sends a message to the brain. The
image quality of these compound eyes is not
known, but many scientists think that it would be
similar to watching a thousand TV screens at
once, with each screen showing an image of the
object as seen from a slightly different angle.
The three body sections, wings, tough
exoskeleton, and especially the six legs are the
characteristics that dene an insect. It’’s
absolutely amazing what insects have managed
to do with these fundamental
Housefly—sponging
structures to produce the
most diverse collection of
animals on Earth!
Skipper—siphoning
THE HEAD
Insect mouth parts tell us a
lot about the feeding habits
of a particular species. They vary widely
in shape and function, but all have the
same basic parts. They include an upper
lip, jaws, a second set of smaller jaws, a
tongue, and a lower lip. The mouth can
be adapted for chewing (beetle and
grasshopper), piercing/sucking (bug and
mosquito), sponging (housey), or
siphoning (buttery and moth).
Assassin
Assassin bug—
bug—
piercing/sucking
piercing/sucking
Another head structure you may have
noticed is the antenna. Insects always have two
antennae, usually positioned near the eyes.
These are movable and allow insects to sense
odors, vibrations, and other information about
Grasshopper—chewing
Grasshopper—chewing
56
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Insects also have another set of eyes, the simple
eyes. These eyes register changes in light
intensity only. With these simple eyes an insect
can detect day length and determine seasons.
Day-length information somehow programs
insects’’ bodies to get ready for reproduction,
migration,
Hover fly
hibernation, and
other activities.
THE THORAX
The thorax is
divided into three
distinct segments.
One pair of legs is
attached to each
segment of the
thorax. The wings are attached to the last two
segments. Some adult insects may not have
wings, or may have only one pair. In some
groups of insects (such as beetles) the front pair
of wings has evolved into a hard protective
covering for the second pair of wings, the thorax,
and abdomen. Some insects have ridges on their
wings that produce sound when rubbed
together. Examples of this behavior include the
familiar chirping noise of the cricket and the
maddening drone of the cicada.
surfaces like glass. Many insects have uniquely
shaped hooks, spines, and bristles on their legs
for holding onto
twigs and
leaves, and for
personal
grooming.
Insects are
constantly
Horsefly
cleaning their
eyes, faces, and
antennae to ensure that their
sensory tools are in prime
condition.
THE ABDOMEN
The abdomen contains the guts of the insect. It
is here that you will nd the heart, intestines,
and reproductive organs. Did you notice that
lungs were not mentioned? That is because
insects don’’t have any! Insects have blood, but it
doesn’’t carry oxygen. Insect blood ows around
the gut, where it picks up goodies from the
digested food. The blood then carries these
nutrients to the cells, and carries away waste
products.
If you have ever seen a grasshopper jump, an ant
scurry across the ground, or a cockroach sprint
across the oor, you already know that insects
have different types of legs. Insects have legs
adapted for springing (grasshopper), running
(roach), swimming (water boatman), digging
(mole cricket), and grasping (praying mantis).
Insect legs also display marvelous adaptations
for specialized activities. Honey bees have
bristles on their hindmost legs that hold large
wads of pollen, and ies have sticky pads on
their feet that allow them to walk up smooth
57
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Tracheae
enlarged insect gets back to its business. The
molting process occurs several times during the
life of an insect, and stops when the insect
reaches its adult stage.
Usually the molting process also changes the
body structure of the insect. When the body
structure of an insect changes, it is called
metamorphosis.
Insect cells get oxygen from a huge network of
hollow tubes called tracheae. The tracheae
branch out to provide oxygen to every cell in an
insect’’s body, and are connected to outside air
by openings on the abdomen called spiracles.
The tracheal system of insects is similar to our
circulation system (veins, arteries, and
capillaries) in that it serves every cell, but it
contains only air. Oxygen enters the cells right
through the cell membrane by a process called
diffusion. In this same manner carbon dioxide
leaves the cell, goes through the tracheae, and
out of the insect’’s body through the spiracles.
There are two types of metamorphosis,
complete and incomplete. Insects that develop
by incomplete metamorphosis have three life
stages. The rst stage is an egg. The second
stage is a series of three or more nymphs that
look pretty much like miniature adults without
wings. During this stage each molt produces a
larger, more mature nymph. The nal molt
results in the sexually mature adult.
Examples of insects that have incomplete
Stage 1
egg
INSECTS’ GROWTH
As an insect eats, its muscles and organs get
bigger. But there is a problem——the insect is
encased in its exoskeleton, which cannot
expand. The only way an insect can grow is to
shed the skin that it has outgrown and get a new
one. This process is molting.
When the internal signal to molt is sounded, the
insect produces a new exoskeleton under the
existing one. Then the back of the old
exoskeleton splits open and the insect crawls
out. The new exoskeleton is soft and rubbery.
The freshly molted insect pumps up and
expands the exible new exoskeleton. Within a
few hours the new armor hardens, and the
Stage 3
adult
Stage 2
nymphs
Incomplete metamorphosis: Milkweed bug
metamorphosis are grasshoppers, roaches, true
bugs, dragonies, and praying mantises.
Insects like beetles, moths, and butteries
develop differently. These insects undergo
complete metamorphosis. This is a much more
58
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10/10/08 1:04:38 PM
dramatic story. Complete metamorphosis
involves four life stages. Once again the insect
starts as an egg.
When the egg hatches, out comes a larva.
Larvae don’’t look at all like the adults that they
will eventually become. Larvae are sometimes
Stage 4
adult
Stage 1
egg
Stage 2
larva
Stage 3
pupa
Complete metamorphosis: Painted lady butterfly
mistakenly called worms, like the larva of the
darkling beetle, called the mealworm, or the
larva of the wax moth, called the waxworm.
Larvae are also called grubs and maggots. Even
though the larva does not look very much like
what we generally expect an insect to look like,
close observation will reveal six legs and simple
eyes, putting it in the insect clan.
The larva’’s mission in life is to eat, grow, and
store fat. After several weeks, months, or
(rarely) years, an internal signal starts an
incredible process. The larva molts one last time
and emerges as a pupa. The pupa lapses into a
period of quiet transformation, often enclosed in
a chrysalis or cocoon. During this time the
internal structures of the larva literally melt
59
down and are reassembled into new structures.
Often one of the most spectacular changes is the
appearance of wings. After a period of days,
weeks, or months, the pupa splits and the nal
molt reveals the adult——perhaps a y, beetle,
bee, mosquito, buttery, or moth. And away
ies the sexually mature adult to locate a mate
and produce the eggs for a new generation.
Insects are all around us. They have been on
this planet for 400 million years, so they have a
successful track record. They continue to
fascinate scientists with their diversity and their
unusual structures and behaviors. In fact there
are so many kinds of insects that new species
are being found every day!
Because insects are so well adapted to eating
our food supplies, clothing, and homes, effective
at spreading disease, and armed with weapons
to cause us extreme personal pain, we are
constantly in conict with them. It looks,
however, like a losing battle. It is unlikely that
we will ever manage to do away with the
insects that compete for our resources. Insects
in many ways rule this planet by controlling
many of the systems we depend on for our
survival. Without the important jobs insects do,
our environment would deteriorate, and along
with it the human race.
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