International Conference on Agriculture, Environment and Biological Sciences (ICFAE’14) June 4-5, 2014 Antalya (Turkey)
Properties of Soaps Produced From Selected
Seed Oils
Warra, A. A., Babayemi, A. W., and Buga, M. L.

I. INTRODUCTION
Abstract—Some traditional and hexane extracts of selected
indigenous seed oils were chemically analyzed to justify their
utilization for soap production and the following values were
obtained; The neem seed oil had saponification, iodine and acid
values of 148. 8 ± 1. 168 mgKOH/g, 73. 76 ± 0. 397g I2/100g and
22. 37 ±1. 168 mgKOH/g respectively. The chemical analysis of
shea nut fat revealed that it had saponification, iodine and acid values
of 136. 32 ±1. 943 mgKOH/g, 50. 50 ± 8. 023 gI2/100g and 14. 77 ±
0. 065 mgKOH/g respectively. The parameters analyzed for
Jatropha seed oil were Acid value, (1. 20 ± 0. 065 mgKOH/g) Iodine
value,(73. 46 ± 5. 00g I2/100g) and saponification value (122. 49 ±
2. 59 mgKOH/g). The chemical characteristics of Castor seed oil
were: saponification, iodine and acid values of 123. 3 ± 3. 428
mgKOH/g, 76. 93 ± 0. 397g I2/100g and 2. 39 ±0. 065 mgKOH/g
respectively The oils were saponified and skin friendly pH was
obtained from most of the prepared soaps which were within the
range accepted by National Agency for Food and Drug
Administration and Control (NAFDAC). The foam height of the
soaps showed variations which were discussed. The properties
exhibited by the soap solutions indicated their suitability for
commercial production. For the statistical analysis DMRT was
used, homogenous subset testing alpha value was at 0. 05 level of
significance, the saponification value of Castor seeds oil was p=0.
712 and Jatropha seeds oil p=0. 712 which showed no significant
difference between the mean since p=0. 712>0. 05, Shea nut fat(p<0.
05), and Neem seed oil (p<0. 05) showed significant difference For
iodine value, Castor p= 0. 413, Jatropha seeds oil p= 0. 413, Neem
seed oil p= 0. 413 all showed no significant difference since p= 0.
413>0. 05 except Shea nut fat that showed significant difference
(p<0. 05). For acid value, Castor seeds oil (p<0. 05), Jatropha seeds
oil (p<0. 05), Neem seed oil (p<0. 05), Shea nut fat (p<0. 05), all
showed significant difference. For the pH of the soap samples, the
DMRT showed that there was significant difference among all the
seed oil soaps Castor seed oil soap (p<0. 05), Jatropha seed oil
soap(p<0. 05), Neem seed oil soap (p<0. 05), Shea nut fat soap (p<0.
05), likewise the Foam ability, Castor seed oil soap (p<0. 05),
Jatropha seed oil soap(p<0. 05), Neem seed oil soap (p<0. 05), Shea
nut fat soap (p<0. 05), they all showed significant difference (p<0.
05). This means that their pH and foam ability were not equally
effective. The results obtained conclusively indicated that the
selected oils are utilizable for soap making and other cosmetic
preparations.
The importance of fats and oils to the global economy
becomes clear when considering the amount of oilseed and
fruit grown worldwide. The importance of these oils and fats
will increase considerably in the future because they represent
a vast potential of naturally regenerating raw materials in
which the chemical and pharmaceutical industries have a
special interest. Until the previous century, the utilization of
fats and oils as food went hand in hand with their use as fuel,
predominantly for purposes of illumination. Even today, the
name “lampante” for certain qualities of olive oil refers to this.
As a base for ointments and cosmetics, they are still in use
today, just as in the earliest periods [1]. There are many areas
where oils and fats are used for non-food purposes. Thus,
detergents, soaps, glycerine and polymers, inks, lubricants,
and biodiesel may be derived from fatty acids and their
derivative [2].
This work is aimed at extraction and physicochemical
analysis of some selected indigenous seed oils in order to
justify their industrial utilization for soap production.
II. PROCEDURE FOR PAPER SUBMISSION
2. 1. Source of Research materials
The indigenous Azadiracta Indica seed oil was obtained
from Saberg International Ltd. producers of Nigeria Naija
Neems (Neem oil) at Technology Incubation Centre, Birnin
Kebbi, Kebbi State, Nigeria. Indigenous Jatropha Curcas L.
seeds were obtained from Jatropha Curcas plant in a test plot
in Warra town Ngaski local government area of Kebbi State,
Nigeria. The plant was identified and authenticated by a
Botanist at the Biological Sciences Department, Bayero
University, and Kano, Nigeria. Confirmation of taxonomic
identity of the plant was achieved by comparison with
voucher specimen (voucher No. 110) kept at the Herbarium
of the Department of Biological Sciences and use of
documented literature [3].
Indigenous Castor (Ricinus
communis) beans were plucked directly from plant. The
plant was identified and authenticated by a Botanist at the
Biological Science Department, Bayero University, Kano
Nigeria. Confirmation of taxonomic identity of the plant was
achieved by comparison with voucher specimen (voucher No.
225) kept at the Herbarium of the Department of Biological
Sciences, and use of documented literature [3]. Castor bean
Keywords— Indigenous oils, local extraction, soxhlet extraction,
analysis, soaps.
Warra, A. A. , Dept. of Biochemistry, Kebbi State University of Science
and Technology, Aliero, Nigeria. Email: aliyuwarra@yahoo. com
Babayemi, A. W. , Dept. of Mathematics, Kebbi State University of
Science and Technology, Aliero, Nigeria.
Buga, M. L Raw Materials
Research and Development Council,
Abuja, Nigeria.
http://dx.doi.org/10.17758/IAAST.A0614019
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International Conference on Agriculture, Environment and Biological Sciences (ICFAE’14) June 4-5, 2014 Antalya (Turkey)
variety, which ripens from late October until late December,
was obtained from a test Garden in Warra town of Ngaski
Local Government Area of Kebbi State, Nigeria. Good seeds
were selected, cleaned, de-shelled and dried and ground using
laboratory plastic pestle and mortar prior to extraction as done
for other seeds. The shea butter was obtained from local
market at Warra town of Ngaski Local Government Area of
Kebbi State, Nigeria. Good seeds were carefully selected
cleaned, de-shelled and sundried. It was identified and
authenticated by Dr. Dhramemdra Singh of the Botany unit
Biological Sciences
Department, Kebbi State University of Science and
Technology Aleiro. Confirmation of taxonomic identity of the
shea nut (Vitellaria paradoxa) leaves and stems (voucher No.
320) was achieved by comparing them with the specimens
kept in the Herbarium of Department of Biological Sciences,
Kebbi State University of Science and Technology, Aliero,
Nigeria. The seeds were selected and damaged ones were
discarded. The seeds were cleaned, de-shelled, dried and
ground using laboratory plastic pestle and Mortar prior to
extraction. .
using soaps produced from each fat or oil. .
III. RESULTS
TABLE I
PHYSICO- CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SELECTED INDIGENOUS
SEED OILS*.
* The values are expressed as mean ± standard deviations of triplicates
determinations.
TABLE II
PH OF THE SOAP SAMPLES*.
Soap sample
pH value
Castor seed oil soap
8. 70±0. 057b
2. 2 Oil extraction
The extraction of 50g of the ground seed kernels of
Jatropha and Castor and was conducted in a soxhlet
extractor using n-hexane (boiling point of 40–60 ◦C) for six
hours. The extracted lipid was obtained after the solvent was
removed under reduced temperature and pressure and
refluxing in a boiling water bath. The oil was recovered from
the mixture by drying the residual extracting solvent in an
oven set at 60°C for 1h and stored in the bottle. Extracted
seed oil was stored in freezer at−20 ◦C for subsequent
physicochemical analyses.
Oil analysis
The chemical analysis of the oils was carried out using
standard methods. Iodine value was estimated as reported
[4], while saponification value was determined according the
method [5]. Acid value was calculated as described in
literature [6]. Saponification procedure was carried out as
described in literature [7]. .
9. 11±0. 057d
Neem seed oil soap
8. 90±0. 200c
Shea nut fat soap
8. 33±0. 200a
*The values are expressed as mean ± standard deviations of triplicates
determinations
TABLE 3: FOAM ABILITY AS A FUNCTION OF FOAM HEIGHT OF THE
VARIOUS SOAP SAMPLES*.
Soap sample
Foam height (cm3)
Castor seed oil soap
1. 6±0. 100a
Jatropha oil soap
5. 4±0. 200d
Neem seed oil soap
2. 0±0. 057b
Shea nut fat soap
4. 2±0. 057c
*The values are expressed as mean ± standard deviations of triplicates
determinations.
The same superscript letter indicates that there is no
significant difference while different superscript letter
indicates that there is significant difference in the Foam
ability of the seed oil soaps.
2. 3. pH Determination
The pH was determined using a pH meter (827 pH lab
Model). 10g of the soap shavings was weighed and dissolved
in distilled water in a 100ml volumetric flask. This was made
up to prepare 10% soap solution in line with literature report
[8]. The electrode of the pH meter was inserted into the
solution. The pH reading was recorded.
IV. DISCUSSION
The physicochemical analysis (TABLE 1), for the soxhlet
extracted indigenous Jatropha seed oil revealed;
Saponification value of 122. 49 ± 2. 591 mgKOH/g the value
obtained was lower than that of Dennettia tripatala fruit oil
(Pepper fruit) 159. 33±1-20 suitable for soap making [10] but
higher than that of beeswax (93mgKOH/g), which are
commonly used in soap making [11]. This indicates that the
oil could be used in soap making since its saponification value
falls within the range of these oils. Higher saponification
justifies the usage of fat or oil for soap production. Iodine
value of 73. 46 ± 5. 00 I2/100g (less than 100) was obtained,
which shows that the oil belongs to the class of Non-drying
2. 4. Foam ability Tests
The method reported [9] for synthetic detergent was
adopted. About 2. 0g each of soap (shavings) was added to a
500ml measuring cylinder containing 100ml of distilled water.
The mixture was shaken vigorously so as to generate foams.
After shaking for about 2 minutes, the cylinder was allowed to
stand for about 10 minutes. The height of the foam in the
solution was measured and recorded. The steps were repeated
http://dx.doi.org/10.17758/IAAST.A0614019
Jatropha seed oil soap
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International Conference on Agriculture, Environment and Biological Sciences (ICFAE’14) June 4-5, 2014 Antalya (Turkey)
and makes it suitable for soap production.
For the Jatropha oil soap the pH was 9. 11 (TABLE 2)
comparably within the higher pH range of 9-11 but favourably
higher than the pH range of 3-5, which are considered as high
and low levels respectively by the National Agency for Food
and Drug Administration and Control [18] mostly due to
incomplete alkali hydrolysis resulting from the saponification
process. This can be overcome by the addition of excess fat
or oil or any other superfatting agent to reduce the harshness
of the soap. Superfatting soaps with 1-2% neutral oils or
glycerine also resulted in the better quality of soaps that were
free of cracks [19]. The foam height of the soap was 5. 4cm3
(TABLE 3) higher than that of all other soap solutions
analysed. The soap forms a clear solution and was and
slightly soluble in distilled water. Although foam generation
has little to do with cleansing ability [20], it is of interesting
importance to the consumer and is therefore considered as a
parameter in evaluating soaps and detergents. Commonly
used test protocols for foam test was mentioned [20]. The
pour foam test was developed [21], which for long has been
accepted method for measuring foaming performance.
Measurement of lather drain times was reportedly preferred
[22], whereas rotating a shampoo solution in a glass stoppered
cylinder was called for [23]. Kitchen blender was also used
to produce foam and found that the foam characteristics were
similar to those observed in practice [24].
For the prepared Castor oil soap the pH was 9. 7 (TABLE
2) comparably within the higher pH range of 9-11 but
favourably higher than the pH range of 3-5, which are
considered as high and low levels respectively by the National
Agency for Food and Drug Administration and Control [18]
mostly due to incomplete alkali hydrolysis resulting from the
saponification process. This can be overcome by the addition
of excess fat or oil or any other superfatting agent to reduce
the harshness of the soap. Superfatting soaps with 1-2%
neutral oils or glycerine also resulted in the better quality of
soaps that were free of cracks [19]. The foam height of the
soap was 1. 6 cm (TABLE 3) lower than that of all other soap
solutions analysed. The soap solution was yellow, transparent
and completely soluble in distilled water.
The pH value of the prepared sheanut fat soap was
measured. Soap being salt of strong base and weak acids
should be weakly alkaline in aqueous solution. However,
soap with free alkali (pH 11-14) can cause irritation to the
skin. The pH value of 8. 33 was obtained for the prepared
soap. The value is lower than the pH range of 9-11 and higher
than the pH range of 3-5, which are considered as high and
low levels respectively by National Agency for Food and
Drug Administration and control [18]. The foam ability was
4. 2cm higher than that of 2. 0 for Neem oil soap, 1. 6 cm for
Castor oil based soap.
For the prepared neem oil soap the pH was 9. 90, within
the higher pH range of 9-11 but higher than the pH range of 35, which are considered as high and low levels respectively by
the National Agency for Food and Drug Administration and
Control [18] due to incomplete alkali hydrolysis resulting
oils, which are useful in the manufacture of soaps [3]. An
Acid value of 14. 77 ± 0. 065mgKOH/g was obtained which is
lower than that of olive oil 17 mgKOH/g[12] higher than the
10. 49 3mgKOH/g reported [13], which signifies a maximum
purity and made it suitable for soap production. The results of
the physicochemical analysis (Table 1), for the soxhlet
extracted indigenous castor seed oil includes; Saponification
value of 123. 3 ±3. 428 mgKOH/g the value obtained was
lower than that of Terminalia catappa seed oil 207± 0. 13
suggested for use in the production of liquid soap, shampoos
and lather shaving creams [14] but higher than that of
beeswax (93 mgKOH/g), which are commonly used in soap
making [11]. This indicates that the oil could be used in soap
making since its saponification value falls within the range of
these oils. Higher saponification justifies the usage of fat or
oil for soap production. Iodine value of 76. 93 ± 0. 397
I2/100g (less than 100) was obtained, which shows that the oil
belongs to the class of Non-drying oils, which are useful in
the manufacture of soaps [3 ]. Castor oil has only one double
bond in each fatty acid chain and so is classified as nondrying
oil. An Acid value of 2. 39 ± 0. 065 mgKOH/g was obtained
which
is lower than that of Demettia tripetala fruit
oil(Pepper fruit) 5. 34± 0. 04 mgKOH/g [10] and Shea butter
10. 3mgKOH/g [15], higher than that of Palm kernel seed oil
0. 834± 0. 004mgKOH/g reported [16] suitable for soap
production.
For the sheanut fat, the physicochemical analysis,
relatively similar to the literature values [11]-[ 13 ] was
determined for the indigenous crude shea fat. Saponification
value of 183. 1 mgKOH/g obtained was lower than that of
olive oil (192 mgKOH/g) and sunflower oil (188. 7
mgKOH/g) but higher than that of beeswax (93 mgKOH/g),
which are commonly used in soap making [11]. This indicates
that the oil could be used in soap making since its
saponification value falls within the range of these oils.
Iodine value of 53. 6 I2/100g (less than 100) was obtained,
which shows that the oil belongs to the class of Non-drying
oils, which are useful in the manufacture of soaps [3]. An
Acid value of 10. 3mgKOH/g was obtained and was similar to
the 10. 49 3mgKOH/g reported [13], which signifies a
minimum purity.
The results of the physicochemical analysis of Neem seed
oil Saponification value of 148. 8 ± 1. 168 mgKOH/g which is
lower than that of Dennettia tripatala fruit oil (Pepper fruit)
159. 33±1. 20 suitable for soap making [10] but higher than
that of African pear oil 143. 76 mgKOH/g which could be
good for soap making [17]. This indicates that the oil could be
used in soap making since its saponification value falls within
the range of these oils. Higher saponification justifies the
usage of fat or oil for soap production. Iodine value of 73. 76
± 0. 397 I2/100g (less than 100) was obtained, which shows
that the oil belongs to the class of Non-drying oils, which are
useful in the manufacture of soaps [3]. An Acid value of 22.
37 ± 1. 168 mg KOH/g was obtained which is higher than that
of olive oil 17 mgKOH/g [12] and shea nut fat 10.
49mgKOH/g reported [17], which signifies a maximum purity
http://dx.doi.org/10.17758/IAAST.A0614019
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International Conference on Agriculture, Environment and Biological Sciences (ICFAE’14) June 4-5, 2014 Antalya (Turkey)
[6]
from the saponification process. This can be overcome by the
addition of excess fat or oil or any other superfatting agent to
reduce the harshness of the soap. Superfatting soaps with 12% neutral oils or glycerine resulted in the better quality of
soaps that were free of cracks [19].
The foam height of the soap was 2. 0 cm lower than that of
Jatropha, sheanut fat soaps analyzed higher than that of castor
soap. The soap was milky in colour and slightly soluble in
water.
Using Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT), the physicochemical analysis results of the seed oils when subjected to
homogenous subset testing alpha value at 0. 05 level of
significance, the saponification value of Castor seeds oil was
p=0. 712 and Jatropha seeds oil p=0. 712 which showed no
significant difference between the mean since p=0. 712>0. 05,
but there was significant difference between shea nut fat(p<0.
05), and Neem seed oil (p<0. 05). For iodine value, Castor
p= 0. 413, Jatropha seeds oil p= 0. 413, Neem seed oil p= 0.
413 all showed no significant difference since p= 0. 413>0.
05 except Shea nut fat that showed significant difference
(p<0. 05). For acid value, there were significant difference
among all the seed oils; Castor seeds oil (p<0. 05), Jatropha
seeds oil (p<0. 05), Neem seed oil (p<0. 05), Shea nut fat
(p<0. 05), hence they are not equally effective.
For the pH of the soap samples, the DMRT showed that
there was significant difference among all the seed oil soaps
Castor seed oil soap (p<0. 05), Jatropha seed oil soap(p<0.
05), Neem seed oil soap (p<0. 05), Shea nut fat soap (p<0.
05), likewise the Foam ability when the homogenous subsets
were displayed, Castor seed oil soap (p<0. 05), Jatropha seed
oil soap(p<0. 05), Neem seed oil soap (p<0. 05), Shea nut fat
soap (p<0. 05), they all showed significant difference (p<0.
05). This means that their foam ability were not equally
effective
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
V. CONCLUSION
[20]
From the results obtained after the chemical analysis of the
oils it can be concluded that the selected oil is utilizable for
soap making. The properties exhibited by the soap solutions
indicated their suitability for commercial production. And this
also shows that locally extracted oils could be compared
favourably with laboratory and
industrially extracted oils
in terms of industrial utilization for soap and other cosmetics.
[21]
[22]
[23]
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