This paper is taken from
Identities and Citizenship Education: Controversy,
crisis and challenges. Selected papers from the
fifteenth Conference of the Children’s Identity and
Citizenship in Europe Academic Network
London: CiCe 2013
Edited by Peter Cunningham
Technical Editor: Angela Kamara and published in London by CiCe,
ISBN 978-1-907675-20-1
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If this paper is quoted or referred to it must always be acknowledged as
Karakatsani, D. (2013) ‘Higher Education, Participation and Active learning in Greece’, in P. Cunningham (ed.)
Identities and Citizenship Education: Controversy, crisis and challenges. London: CiCe, pp. 194 - 204.
© CiCe 2013
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Higher Education, Participation and Active learning in Greece
Despina Karakatsani
University of the Peloponnese (Greece)
Abstract
In this proposal we analyse the model of active citizenship (attitudes-values-knowledge)
promoted by the Higher Education in the Greek context. We underline that nowadays
active citizenship is very highly estimated in the Greek context because of the severe
social problems related to the economic crisis and the growth of the extreme right
forces. Active citizenship appears as an effective way of dealing with everyday problems
and leaves a lot of optimism for the reestablishment of a humanitarian way of living
based on mutual understanding and democratic values. Using as an example a Higher
Education Institution (the University of the Peloponnese) from the Greek case, we
investigate the role of Higher Education, the influence of practices advanced for
community participation, civic commitment, political literacy and participation. We
analyse the impact of these initiatives and practices on students ‘perceptions of active
citizenship, which we explore with 20 semi-directed interviews.
Keywords: active citizenship, Higher Education, students, civic engagement.
1. Introduction
Today’s concern for the promotion and development of ‘active citizenship’ and
‘democratic participation’ clearly indicates that some kind of ‘crisis’ is perceived in the
current functioning of institutions and the ordering of political and social life in the
European Union and its member states. The increasing difficulty of institutions to make
people accept their decisions, the absence of involvement of citizens in political and
public affairs and the weakening of the social link are phenomena that have led to what
is referred to as a "crisis of democracy", which is accentuated in the discourse since the
1980s2. Several overlapping notions are used to stress the importance of the crisis, as
well as the urgent need to look for solutions: ‘democratic deficit’, ‘erosion of the civil
society’ and ‘lack of democratic participation and governance’. Active citizenship and
democratic participation seem to have become the common frame to face these
challenges and to address tensions at different levels: the relation and possible contrast
between citizenship on global/European and national scales; the imbalance between
economic and political, cultural and social dimensions of citizenship; and the renewal of
democratic participation in view of new forms of local and global governance.
Additionally, several initiatives have been launched that seem to converge into a
straightforward project to promote and develop active citizenship and democratic
participation. As well as the assumption that the problem to be faced is the lack of active
citizenship and democratic participation, the initiatives assume that active citizenship
and democratic participation can and should be learned (Biesta & Lawy, 2006; Simons
& Masschelein, 2008). Indeed, citizenship is no longer only framed within juridical
discourse, stressing the civil, political and social dimensions of citizenship (Marshall,
195
1950), but is regarded as something that is in need of lifelong learning processes and of
adequate policy initiatives in order to promote this kind of learning. The framing of
problems in society in terms of lack of citizenship and the translation of this lack into a
learning problem can be regarded as a specific way to handle the crisis. The importance
of active citizenship as part of lifelong learning is acknowledged, and is being
recognised in education and training. Some projects (as for example the ETGACE and
RE-ETGACE projects focusing on “Lifelong Learning, Governance and Active
Citizenship in Europe) conclude: “formal education plays an important background role,
as the well-educated respond positively to interventions for governance and active
citizenship”. It is specially acknowledged that a high level and quality of active
citizenship brings special social and educational benefits. The role of Higher Education
in the promotion of active citizenship is underlined, although the ways in which Higher
Education Institutions affects the development of student attitudes and behaviour have
not been adequately explored.
2. Theoretical Framework
2.1. Active Citizenship
The concept of "citizenship" is both crucial and complicated. Crucial, because without
its existence, the EU would remain the matter of a few bureaucrats isolated in their
Brussels ivory tower and would be far from European people. Complicated, because it is
related, either explicitly or implicitly, with the controversial existence of European
identity and, subsequently, to its relationship with national identity. In this report, we do
dwell on this controversy, but we do keep in mind that it exists and influences the
positions taken in the debate concerning "citizenship" 1. The concept of active citizenship
has a long historical tradition (Abowitz and Harnish 2006), characterised by its diffuse
usage and articulation and, as Lawson (2001, 166) underlines, ‘the fact that there does
not exist one, universally held, definition of citizenship has meant that beliefs about what
active citizenship entails differ greatly’. Contemporary literature on citizenship and
active citizenship commonly distinguishes between three main politico-philosophical
understandings of citizenship – liberal, communitarian and civic republican 2 – each of
which advances a differentiated understanding of active citizenship (Jochum, Pratten and
Wilding 2005; Nelson and Kerr 2006). The essential distinction between, on the one
1
Curricular, Pedagogical and Didactic Questions about Participative Citizenship in Lower Secondary
Schools: A comparison of two European countries. Research project under the responsibility of Maria
Pagoni. Final Report written by: Maria Pagoni, Despina Karakatsani, George Stamelos, Richard Etienne
and Julia-Athena Spinthourakis
2
Peterson Andrew & Knowles Catherine “Active Citizenship: a preliminary study into student
teacher understandings”, Educational Research, 51, 1, 2009, 39-59.
196
hand, liberal approaches to active citizenship and, on the other, communitarian and civic
republican conceptions, concerns the belief of proponents in the latter two fields that
citizenship constitutes not simply a legal status but a practice that occurs as a member of
a political community (e.g. Bellah et al. 1985; Oldfield 1990; Sandel 1996). In other
words, from communitarian and civic republican positions, to be a full citizen
necessarily entails active participation in the political community. There are also
different analyses of active citizenship. One defines it as participation in civil society,
community and/or political life, characterised by mutual respect and non-violence and in
accordance with human rights and democracy. It might be worth stressing here that this
definition implies certain values (mutual respect, non-violence, human rights and
democracy). Participation, thus defined, cannot be understood as activity of any kind, but
rather only that which supports the values mentioned above. Another definition defines
education and training for active citizenship as learning opportunities (formal, nonformal and informal), occurring at any stage of the life cycle, that facilitate or encourage
active citizenship. According to other analysts there is a tendency within the ideal of
active citizenship to depoliticize the very idea of citizenship because it is based upon a
consensus notion of democracy and a functionalist understanding of citizenship and the
formation of citizens. Biesta argues that the idea of civic competence reduces civic
learning and political education to a form of socialization, which undermines than
supports political agency. For these reasons, Biesta argues that European higher
education should not aim to become a socializing agent for the production of the
competent active citizen but should seek to support modes of political action and civic
learning that embody a commitment to a more critical and more political form of
European citizenship that what is envisaged in the ideas of active citizenship and civic
competence (Biesta, 2009).
The promotion and development of active citizenship and democratic participation is put
forward as a solution for a multidimensional crisis (political, cultural, social and
economic). In Foucauldian terms, we could say that the notion ‘active citizenship’ starts
to function as both a ‘unique signifier’ and ‘universal signified’. There is a tendency,
indeed, to relate all (societal, cultural, political) problems to (the lack of) active
citizenship, and to approach active citizenship as something that covers everything that
is socially, politically or culturally of importance. The level of active citizenship and
democratic participation is regarded as something that can be measured based on
indicators. And it is considered that performance at this level is what should be
monitored and strategically managed. The following indicators for active citizenship,
assumed to be a competency-based activity, are listed: voluntary work, political
participation, interests groups and public debate. Based on these indicators, we make a
distinction between input and output indicators. Output indicators (for example, political
and civic knowledge, political efficiency, etc.) refer to what has been learned, while
input indicators refer to the learning process itself (content of education and culture in
education).
The Commission has so far made use of the following definition of "active citizenship"
from a research project coordinated by the European Commission’s Centre for Research
on Lifelong Learning JRC/CRELL: "Participation in civil society, community and/or
political life, characterised by mutual respect and non-violence and in accordance with
human rights and democracy. CRELL has proposed that knowledge of human rights and
197
responsibilities along with practical skills, such as critical reflection, research capability,
advocacy, debating skills, active listening, problem solving, and attitudes and values
such as for example autonomy/agency, social justice or gender equality, are important
for the development of active citizenship. Following a similar rationale “education and
training for active citizenship” is defined as “appropriate and effective formal, nonformal and informal learning opportunities at any stage of the life cycle that facilitate or
encourage active citizenship”. CRELL has provided the following list of knowledge,
skills, attitudes and values that are considered necessary for the attainment of active
citizenship (Hoskins 2006):
Knowledge: human rights and responsibilities, political literacy, historical knowledge,
current affairs, diversity, cultural heritage, legal matters and how to influence policy and
society;
Skills: conflict resolution, intercultural competence, informed decision making,
creativity, ability to influence society and policy, research capability, advocacy,
autonomy/agency, critical reflection, communication, debating skills, active listening,
problem solving, coping with ambiguity, working with others, assessing risk;
Attitudes: political trust, political interest, political efficacy, autonomy and
independence, resilience, cultural appreciation, respect for other cultures, openness to
change/difference of opinion, responsibility and openness to involvement as active
citizens, influencing society and policy;
Values: human rights, democracy, gender equality, sustainability, peace/nonviolence,
fairness and equity, valuing involvement as active citizens.
In the recent discourse of citizenship education, the term ‘active citizenship’ can be
understood as referring not only to the nature of citizenship, but also to a process of
experiential learning. In other words, if students are to become active citizens,
citizenship education must provide opportunity for them to learn through active,
participatory activities. Although the curriculum requires that students be taught the
skills of responsible action and participation, minimal explicit conceptual or
methodological guidance is usually provided. For largely pragmatic reasons concerning
the logistical ability of schools to provide meaningful participative experiences for all
pupils, the scope of active citizenship learning was broadened from community-based
experiences to include activities conducted within a classroom context.
2.2. Education, Participation and Active Learning
In the framework of European policy for youth the concept of "education for
participation" becomes important and is in development. According to a Commission
working document, the EU should pay attention to the following items (European
Commission working paper, 2003: 11):
>
>
>
Participation is linked to individual learning processes.
These learning processes must be developed in the framework of formal,
non formal and informal education which plays a fundamental role for the
acquisition of social skills.
Links and complementarities between formal and non-formal education
must be strengthened.
198
>
>
Experiences and projects of young people active participation must be better
known and validated in each country.
Particular attention must be given to young people in difficulty.
These axes are related to the role schools and other educational institutions play in the
process of "education for participation". Thus, in the same document, it is well noted
that: "School is a privileged place of participation learning. Citizen participation should
be part of the curricula. But the school must also be a place of citizenship experience.
Students can be involved in decisions concerning school life. This is an opportunity for
them to be in a position of responsibility and develop self-confidence. They can use their
potential and promote innovative approaches".
In this context, the Council of Europe assigns special importance to the democratic
management of the school and its role with respect to the recognition and preservation of
human rights. Several resolutions have been allocated to school democratic functioning
as well as to teacher training that are necessary for making them able to contribute in this
democratic functioning. By participating in school management authorities and
activities, students are given the opportunity to contribute to the processing of a series of
materials related to their daily school life. Thus, they may be involved in some or all of
the following actions (Eurydice 2005, p.31) 3:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
general organization of life school (decisions regarding school regulations,
transports, uniforms, or menus of the cafeteria/canteen);
preparation of the school curriculum and expression of students' opinions about
the
objectives, content and requirements related to the curriculum;
cooperation with other schools at a national and international level;
promotion of a positive behaviour and combating bullying and racism;
maintenance of discipline and support of students with behavioural difficulties;
edition and publication of a school journal;
organization of some cultural projects, pedagogical and sportive activities under
school supervision.
Lawrence Kohlberg's theory (Kohlberg, 1981), has inspired some researchers to study
the impact of pupil participation in school life to their socio-moral development and,
more generally, the role of an ethical reflection in the study of school management. The
studies of Don Rowe are rooted in this question. In a research published in 2003 on
school councils in England, he distinguishes between three types of justification that
teachers propose concerning students' participation in the management of school life
(Rowe 2003):
- Normative, based on moral or social standards, such as : defend the rights of
children, treat them in a democratic way as active and responsible citizens and
3
Council of Europe's Education for Democratic Citizenship (EDC) project (1997-2000) Eurydice :
L'éducation à la citoyenneté à l'école en Europe, 2005, European Commission
199
respect them as individuals;
- Instrumental, that takes into account the consequences of students participation
in school life on the easing of teacher-student relationships, the increasing of
student motivation for learning and the decreasing of discipline problems and
violence;
- Educational, which considers the impact of such practices on the student's
personal development and learning of democracy and skills related to it
(responsibility, critical thinking, cooperation...).
It appears that considering participation as education for democracy means making
the choice between different kinds of participation that are relevant and others that are
not because they can have negative effects on students socio-moral development and
their attitudes towards democratic institutions (Taylor, 2002).
2.2.1. Higher Education and active citizenship
It is suggested that universities have a responsibility to mobilise available resources at
the level of curricular and extra-curricular activities to offer young people opportunities
in acquiring civic competencies. The current way of addressing the problem actually
does not focus on the specificity of the university and higher education, and accordingly
seems to approach universities – similar to schools and all other learning sites – as
organisations that can and have to be ‘responsabilised’ to fulfil this function. In a
competitive knowledge-based economy and society, innovation itself becomes a ‘public
service’ of universities. While academics in the historical university understand
themselves as a detached species capable of modernising society, the academics in the
entrepreneurial university are required to regard their public role in terms of the
innovation of society. But also at the level of the public dimension of the teaching
function, the emergence of the entrepreneurial university seems to be linked up with a
particular reformulation and framing. In line with the concern about European
citizenship, democratic involvement and social inclusion, the public role is framed in
terms of the development of curricula, extra-curricular activities and participation
structures that offer students opportunities to develop civic competencies (Hoskins,
2006).
Community Service-Learning
Service-learning has been described in various broad terms as a pedagogy, a philosophy,
a programme and an experience. It is a form of experiential learning that combines
academic coursework with voluntary service in the community, based on the thought of
John Dewey. By increasing civic responsibility through community engagement and
academic learning, service-learning has been referred to as ‘pedagogy for citizenship’
(Mendel-Reyes, 1998: 34). A major incentive for its introduction in higher education,
however, is the claim that it enhances students’ intellectual skills. One of the key
elements of enhanced intellectual skills is the development of critical thinking. Critical
reflection, which is a form of critical thinking, is an intrinsic aspect of service-learning.
In this context, new meanings and understanding may result from critical reflection on
experience and its connections with academic coursework. Essential requirements of
service-learning are that the service is connected with the coursework and that, through
200
critical reflection, students make the connections between their service experiences and
the abstract concepts of the coursework. Other requirements are that the coursework is
assessed (but not the service per se) and that the service meets community needs. In sum,
civic engagement, or active and positive contributions to the community, and academic
learning are broad but key factors in service-learning. What is unique about servicelearning is that its aim is to benefit students and the recipients of their service in the
community. It is therefore, unlike other forms of experiential learning that aim to benefit
the student only, such as internships, work placements, field education or vocational
training. Similarly, it is also unlike volunteerism, which aims to benefit the recipient of
the voluntary activity and does not include structured learning.
3. The Research in the Greek context
Generally, the history of the Greek educational system is strongly highlighted by a
central objective of building a solid national and religious identity. The Constitution
provides that the priority objectives of education are the physical, moral, intellectual and
professional development of the Greek people, the elaboration of their national and
religious consciousness as well as their training as free and responsible citizens. The
importance accorded to national identity has been studied from a sociological
perspective (Frangoudaki and Dragona 1997) and in relation to difficulties of cultural
minorities' integration into the Greek education system (Askouni 2006; Stamelos 2004;
Spinthourakis 2007). Thus, it can be argued that education policy about participatory
democracy and accompanying tensions are part of certain efforts to transform the
"school habitus" of the Greek educational system, to extend the boundaries of
citizenship and to recognize the same rights and obligations for all members of the
educational community.
Our Research
We conducted semi-structured interviews with students from the Department of Social
and Education Policy involved in different tasks inside a specific course in MA
(Migration-social discrimination and citizenship). The objective of our research is to
analyse student’s experience from participation, involvement inside and outside the
University context.
Topics covered in the interview guide:
1) Objectives or purposes of their project-initiative (personal-institutionalcommunity-group of students)
2) Personal Motivation: Why you got involved in this project? What were
your expectations and/or your fears about it? What were you expecting
from this project?
3) Tools and materials used: Are there any tools (documents, rules, procedures ...)
that have been used during the project? How they have been made? How have
they evolved during the projects development? What do you think about these
tools (were they effective/ineffective, adapted ...)?
4) Difficulties-Fears-Hesitations: Have you experienced difficulties during
the project? What caused these problems in your opinion? How did you
201
resolve them?
5) Evaluation-Gain: What experience have you gained? What knowledge,
attitudes or skills you have acquired?
6) Links with citizenship education: Did you have some collaboration with
teaching of civics or with other professors-projects? Do you think this project is
related to the education of students for active citizenship? Can you explain this
relationship? What does ‘active citizenship’ mean for you? Can you give 3-4
basic elements for this description?
Students were involved in the following sectors:
 Social Solidarity Clinics-Social Grocery – Social pharmacy--The Medecins du
Monde’s Volunteer Clinic
 Doctors of the World in Action -Social Medical Centre
 Helping students with difficulties at school
 Soup kitchens, providing goods
 looking after people with health problems
 taking part in environmental and cultural projects
 Working in NGOs
 Voluntary and Community Sector Organisations
 Refugee Council/Organisations
 local and regional associations/institutions
The project objectives presented by the students who were interviewed can be divided
into the following categories:
 participation
 volunteerism
 engagement-involvement
 formation of a Group of students of Social Policy (from the
Department of Social and Education policy in the University of the
Peloponnese)
The basic axes of their perceptions are:
 Linking Informal with Non-formal Learning for democratic citizenship
 Diversity of voices and dialogue
 From ‘conversation’- to- ‘deliberation’- to- taking action
 Deliberative Democracy and Education for Democratic citizenship
 Structured learning activities (Institutional Design) linked to political decision
making and civic engagement
 Civic Literacy (‘useful knowledge’)
 Civic Understanding (Intercultural)
 Civic Action
Some Difficulties
 Communicating with others, disputes between students regarding the choice
and distribution of tasks. The majority of students are indifferent
 The connection with local communities/local problems
 Communities lack the capacity to work with HE
 Elaborate ways and methods to measure, analyse, use outcomes/outputs/values
202
Personal Ideas and Perceptions of the Students
 Volunteering is a challenge
 optimist ideas ‘we can face the economic recession’
 Seeking a goal!!
 Making more concrete our studies!
 Find a job, create new perspectives and opportunities!
 Looking and enjoying this more practical aspect
 “we are desperately looking for a way to make ourselves useful and to
get a sense of achievement”
Results
We realise that community service learning can be an effective learning experience for
students in higher education to realize an education for citizenship. The basis of this kind
of learning is the reflection of students on their activity of volunteering, civic
engagement and community involvement. As a form of learning it is ‘based not just on
experience but on a structured learning experience with measurable learning outcomes’.
Through community service learning students acquire critical thinking, experience and,
more emphatically, certain knowledge and ability. Social and moral responsibility is
developed, community involvement is strengthened, social and political literacy is
reinforced.
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