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The Himalayas and a Survey of Determining the Height of Mt. Everest
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Europe and India, and the important achievements
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Everest
1. Introduction
The Himalayas are the highest mountain range not
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from the Sanskrit words him-alaja and means ‘abode of
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bat peak (8125 m) in India (in the federal states of Jam
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nmar conjoin. The Himalayas are 2500 km long and the
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that the Himalayas are in fact longer and wider – 3200
km long and 480 km wide.
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bet). The range consists of three parallel ridges that
plunge steeply towards the Indian Ganges plains. The
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as Greater Himalaya. It includes the highest peak in the
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tempts to measure its height. Its horizontal coordinates
have also been determined:
‰ latitude: 27o¶¶¶
‰ longitude: 86o¶¶¶
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Himalaja je smještena u Aziji sjeverno od nizina Inda i
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u knjizi (YHUHVWGLH*HVFKLFKWHVHLQHUH(UNXQGXQJ (Ve
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je duga 3200 km i da je široka 480 km.
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‰ geografska širina:
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1. Uvod
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U Atlasu svijeta Leksikografskog zavoda tiskanom
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The Himalayas and a Survey of Determining the Height of Mt. Everest
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In Atlas svijeta ($WODVRIWKH:RUOG published by the
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An indication of the size and height of this mountain
range can be gleaned from the fact that it includes 14
peaks over the height of 8000 m and 30 over 7620 m. To
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is to be found. The highest peaks in the world are (Times
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‰ Mt. Everest (8848 m)
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‰ Lhotse (8516 m)
‰ Makalu (8481 m)
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the Himalayas were as follows:
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over 8008 m to be conquered)
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2. Formation of the Himalayas
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URL 14). The collision of these huge continental mass
es resulted in the deceleration of the Indian Plate to
wards the Eurasian Continent to a speed of about 5 cm
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km into the Eurasian Continent (Asia). As the masses
of the Eurasian Continent and the Indian Plate pushed
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and rise by 6–8 mm per year (URL 2). According to oth
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merical data which cannot be determined or proven pre
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plates which are moving at different speeds. Nonethe
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tinent and the Himalayas were the result (Figs. 5 and 6).
It can be asserted that the Himalayas consist of an old
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vrhova viših od 8000 m i 30 vrhova viših od 7620 m. Na
sjeverozapadu se na Himalaju nastavlja planinski lanac
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World 1990):
‰ Mt. Everest (visok 8848 m)
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‰ Lhotse (visok 8516 m)
‰ Makalu (visok 8481 m) itd.
Prvi uspješni usponi na najviše vrhove Visoke Hima
laje ostvareni su:
‰ na Annapurnu (visoku 8091 m) (prvi osvojeni vrh iznad
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‰ na Lhotse (visok 8516 m) 1956. godine itd.
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Prije 200 milijuna godina na Zemlji je postojao samo
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na nekoliko dijelova. Od tih dijelova nastali su kontinen
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od 6000 km prije sudara s Euroazijskim kontinentom (sl.
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nu (URL 2). Prema nekim drugim izvorima te su nume
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The Himalayas and a Survey of Determining the Height of Mt. Everest
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3. The First Trigonometric
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The earliest traces of trigonometry are to be found in
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came increasingly important to produce precise charts
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as precisely as possible distances between points on
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until the arrival of modern electronic means of measur
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of this branch of science in the whole of Europe. This in
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locarum u Apianovoj Cosmographia 1533. godine (Šen
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ll van Royen (latinski Snellius) (1580–1626) prvi je pri
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RVWDOLPWURNXWLPDWUHEDL]PMHULWLVDPRGYDNXWDL]PHÿX
VWUDQLFDWURNXWDD]DWLPUDþXQVNLPSXWHPSRVWXSQRSUH
OD]HüLVWURNXWDQDWURNXWL]UDþXQDWLGXOMLQHVYLKRVWDOLK
VWUDQLFDWURNXWDXPUHåL0HÿXWLPQDMþHãüHVHL]PMHUH
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The Himalayas and a Survey of Determining the Height of Mt. Everest
)LJ*UDSKLFSUHVHQWDWLRQRIWKHFROOLVLRQEHWZHHQ
the Indian Plate and the Eurasian Continent
±WKHIRUPDWLRQRIWKH+LPDOD\DV
6OLND*UD¿þNLSULND]VXGDUD,QGLMVNHSORþHL
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±QDVWDQDN+LPDODMH
64
where:
)LJ0RYHPHQWRIWKH,QGLDQ3ODWHGXULQJWKHSDVW
85/
6OLND3RPLFDQMH,QGLMVNHSORþHWLMHNRPSURãORVWL
85/
WULJRQRPHWULFQHWZRUNFDQEHVHHQLQ6RODULü0DQG1
S6QHOOLXV¿UVWSXEOLVKHGKLVPHWKRGLQ
in (UDWRVWHQHV%DWDYXV'HWHUUDHDPELWXVYHUDTXDQWLtate) (URL 19). This work is considered to represent the
ELUWKRIVFLHQWL¿FJHRGHV\,QKHSXEOLVKHGDZRUN
on trigonometry entitled Doctrina triangulorumSULQWHGD
year after his death.
‰ijA andijBDUHWKHJHRJUDSKLFDOODWLWXGHVRIWKH¿UVWDQG
ODVWSRLQWVRIWKHWULJRQRPHWULFQHWZRUNH[SUHVVHGLQ
degrees
‰5 is expressed in measurement units for length which
are also used to express the length of the arc l between
points A and B.
,IZHFRPSDUH6QHOOLXV¶FDOFXODWLRQIRU5 with mod
HUQFDOFXODWLRQVRIWKH(DUWK¶VGLPHQVLRQVZHZLOO¿QG
WKDWKLVPDUJLQRIHUURUZDVRQO\+DDVEURHN
%HJLQQLQJZLWK6QHOOLXVWULJRQRPHWULFQHWZRUNVJUDG
ually become the basis for cadastral and cartographic
measurements of land in all European countries. This
continued to be the case until the introduction of Global
3RVLWLRQLQJ6\VWHP*36DUWL¿FLDOVDWHOOLWHV
,WVKRXOGEHHPSKDVLVHGWKDWLQDQHWZRUNRIWULDQ
JOHVLHDWULJRQRPHWULFQHWZRUNLQZKLFKWKHWULDQJOHV
ERUGHUHDFKRWKHULWLVVXI¿FLHQWWRPHDVXUHDVDFFXUDWH
ly as possible only one side of a triangle in the entire net
ZRUNDWWKHSRLQWDWZKLFKLWLVHDVLHVWWRGRVR$VIDUDV
WKHRWKHUWULDQJOHVDUHFRQFHUQHGLWLVRQO\QHFHVVDU\
WRPHDVXUHWZRDQJOHVEHWZHHQDGMDFHQWVLGHVWKHQE\
SURFHVVRIFDOFXODWLRQPRYHIURPRQHWULDQJOHWRWKHQH[W
calculating the lengths of all the remaining sides of the
WULDQJOHVLQWKHQHWZRUN+RZHYHUDVDPHDQVRIFRQ
WURODOOWKUHHDQJOHVLQWKHWULDQJOHVDUHRIWHQPHDVXUHG
At the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th cen
WXU\-HDQ%DSWLVWH-RVHSK'HODPEUH±DQG
3LHUUH)UDQoRLV$QGUp0pFKDLQ±FRPSOHW
ed the taking of many measurements to survey the Pari
sian meridian from Barcelona (Premia der Mar) in Spain
to Dunkirk in Flanders (URL 20). These measurements
were used to establish the length of the metre as the ba
sic international unit of length. The repeating circle instru
PHQWZLWKWZRWHOHVFRSHVEXLOWE\%RUGDDQG/HQRLUZDV
used to measure the angles of triangles.
Snellius used a trigonometric network to calculate
WKH(DUWK¶VUDGLXV+HGLGWKLVE\GHWHUPLQLQJWKHGLV
tance of one point on its surface from another along the
PHULGLDQE\PHDQVRIWULDQJXODWLRQEHWZHHQ%HUJHQRS
=RRPDQG$ONPDDUWKHQE\XVLQJDVWURQRPLFDOPHDQV
to determine their geographic latitudes ijB andijA. These
PHDVXUHPHQWVHQDEOHGKLPWRFDOFXODWHWKH(DUWK¶VUD
dius (5) using the formula
:LOOLDP5R\±WKH6FRWWLVKVXUYH\RUDQG
PLOLWDU\VNHWFKHU¿UVWDSSOLHGWKHQHZPHWKRGRIJHRGHW
ic measurement using trigonometric networks to estab
lish the foundation of the trigonometric network of Great
%ULWDLQ85/%HWZHHQDQGEDVLFWULJRQR
metric networks were set up (URL 4). Extremely precise
theodolites of huge dimensions were used to measure
angles (Fig. 9). These theodolites were made in 1785 by
.L*
+LPDODMDLSUHJOHGRGUHÿLYDQMDYLVLQD0W(YHUHVWD
PRüXWLKL]PMHUHQLKYHOLþLQDL]UDþXQDRMH=HPOMLQUDGL
jus 5po formuli:
gdje su:
‰ijA iijBJHRJUDIVNHãLULQHNUDMQMHLSRþHWQHWRþNHWULJR
QRPHWULMVNHPUHåHL]UDåHQHXVWXSQMHYLPD
‰5MHL]UDåHQPMHUQLPMHGLQLFDPD]DGXOMLQXNRMLPDMH
L]UDåHQDLGXOMLQDOXNDl RGWRþNH$GRWRþNH%
)LJ7ULJRQRPHWULFQHWZRUNLQZKLFKWKHEDVHOHQJWK
GRIRQHVLGHDQGDWOHDVWWZRDQJOHVLQHDFKWULDQJOH
are measured. In this way, the distance l between
WKH¿UVWDQGODVWSRLQWVLVGHWHUPLQHG
IRUDQDUFRIWKHPHULGLDQ
6OLND7ULJRQRPHWULMVNDPUHåDXNRMRMMHL]PMHUHQD
GXOMLQDRVQRYQHED]HGMHGQHVWUDQLFHLQDMPDQMHSR
GYDNXWDXVYDNRPWURNXWX1DWDMMHQDþLQRGUHÿHQD
XGDOMHQRVWOL]PHÿXSRþHWQHLSRVOMHGQMHWRþNH
SRVWDYOMHQHQDQHNRPOXNXPHULGLMDQD
VYLNXWRYLXWURNXWXVYDWULNXWDMHUVHQDWDMQDþLQSR
VWLåHNRQWUROD
6QHOOLXVMHLVNRULVWLRWULJRQRPHWULMVNXPUHåXGDEL
odredio Zemljin radijus. On je tako odredio udaljenost
l SRPHULGLMDQXVSRPRüXWULJRQRPHWULMVNHPUHåHL]PH
ÿX%HUJHQRS=RRPDL$OPDDUDDDVWURQRPVNLPQDþL
nom izmjerio je njihove geografske širineijB i ijA. S po
.DGVHXVSRUHGLQMHJRYUH]XOWDW]D5sa suvreme
QLPRGUHÿLYDQMLPD=HPOMLQHYHOLþLQHYLGLVHGDMHRGUH
GLR=HPOMLQUDGLMXVVSRJUHãNRPRGVDPR+DD
sbroek 1968).
7ULJRQRPHWULMVNHPUHåHVXSRþHYãLRG6QHOOLXVDSR
stupno postale osnova za svu daljnju katastarsku i kar
WRJUDIVNXL]PMHUX]HPOMLãWDXVYLPHXURSVNLPGUåDYDPD
Tako je bilo sve do uporabe umjetnih Zemljinih satelita
*OREDOQRJDSR]LFLMVNRJVXVWDYD*36D
.UDMHPVWROMHüDLQDSRþHWNXVWROMHüD-HDQ
Baptiste Joseph Delambre (1749–1822) i Pierre Fra
QoRLV±$QGUp0pFKDLQ±]DYUãLOLVXPQRJR
brojna mjerenja na izmjeri pariškog meridijana od Bar
celone (Premia der Mar) u Španjolskoj do Denkerquea
u Flandriji (na sjeveru Francuske) (URL 20). Ta mjerenja
SRVOXåLODVX]DSRWUHEHRGUHÿLYDQMDGXOMLQHPHWUDNDR
RVQRYQHPHÿXQDURGQHMHGLQLFH]DGXOMLQX=DPMHUHQMH
kutova u trokutima upotrijebili su instrument repeating
circleVGYDGDOHNR]RUDãWRVXJDL]UDGLOL%RUGDL/HQRLU
)LJ'HWHUPLQLQJWKH(DUWK¶VUDGLXV5IURPDWKHGLVWDQFHOEHWZHHQWZRSRLQWVRQWKHVDPHDUFRIWKH
PHULGLDQGHWHUPLQHGE\PHDQVRIDWULJRQRPHWULFQHWZRUNDQGEPHDVXULQJJHRJUDSKLFDOODWLWXGHVijDWSRLQWV$
DQG%XVLQJDVWURQRPLFDOPHDQV
6OLND2GUHÿLYDQMH=HPOMLQDUDGLMXVD5L]DXGDOMHQRVWLOL]PHÿXGYLMXWRþDNDNRMHVHQDOD]H
QDOXNXPHULGLMDQDRGUHÿHQLKVSRPRüXWULJRQRPHWULMVNHPUHåHLEL]PMHUHQLKJHRJUDIVNLK
ãLULQDijXWRþNDPD$L%DVWURQRPVNLPQDþLQRP
65
The Himalayas and a Survey of Determining the Height of Mt. Everest
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:LOOLDP/DPEWRQ±D%ULWLVKRI¿FHUVXU
YH\RUDQGJHRJUDSKHUEHJDQVHWWLQJXSWULJRQRPHWULF
FKDLQVLQLQRUGHUWRHVWDEOLVKWKHWULJRQRPHWULFEDV
es for creating precise maps of India (URL 7). His work
on measuring the Great Arc made an important contri
bution to establishing the true contours of the Earth by
geodetic and astronomic measurement.
He began taking measurements along a parallel from
St. Thomas Mount (for which the latitude and longitude
ZHUHNQRZQLQ0DGUDVRQWKHVKRUHRIWKH%D\RI%HQ
JDODQGPRYHGDFURVVWKH,QGLDQSHQLQVXODWR0DQJD
ORUHRQWKHVKRUHRIWKH$UDELDQ6HD,QKHEHJDQ
latitudinal measurements 100 miles from Bangalore. He
ODWHUVXUYH\HGVRXWKZDUGVWR&DSH&RPRULQWKHQFRQ
tinued surveying northwards up to his death.
)LJ5DPVGHQ¶V*UHDW7KHRGROLWH
ZLWKDGLDPHWHURIPIWEXLOWLQ
85/
6OLND5DPVGHQRYYHOLNLWHRGROLWSURPMHUD
KRUL]RQWDOQRJOLPEDPIHHWDL]JRGLQH
85/
66
-HVVH5DPVGHP±WKH(QJOLVKDVWURQRPHU
DQGPDNHURIVFLHQWL¿FLQVWUXPHQWV85/7KH\KDG
KRUL]RQWDOGLVFVPIWLQGLDPHWHUZLWKWKHJUDG
uations of the circle marked to a standard divergence of
only one second (URL 6).
The team of experts which had been led by General
William Roy began the Ordnance Survey using Rams
GHQ¶VH[WUHPHO\SUHFLVH*UHDW7KHRGROLWHVD\HDUDIWHU
5R\¶VGHDWKLHLQ
7KH%ULWLVKXVHGHQRUPRXVWKHRGROLWHVNQRZQORFDO
O\DV/DPEWRQ¶V7KHRGROLWHVWRPHDVXUHWKHKRUL]RQWDO
and vertical angles for triangulation. They were similar
LQVL]HDQGVKDSHWR5DPVGHQ¶V*UHDW7KHRGROLWHDQG
had 500 kg each (Fig. 12). Each theodolite required 12
EHDUHUVWRFDUU\LW9HQDEOHVS7KLVPHDQW
that each man would have carried a load of 42 kg. How
HYHUDFFRUGLQJWRDQRWKHUVRXUFHWKHWKHRGROLWHVZHUH
dismantled and carried by 27 bearers (URL 23). From to
GD\¶VSHUVSHFWLYHZKHQWKHODUJHVWWKHRGROLWHVKDGEH
WZHHQDQGNJWKHWDVNVHHPVXQLPDJLQDEO\GLI¿FXOW
The British paid particular attention to measuring the
length of geodetic baselines (d)XVLQJ&ROE\¶VFRPSHQ
sation bar to determine them. Thomas Fredrick Colby
±D%ULWLVKPDMRUJHQHUDODQGGLUHFWRURIWKH
2UGQDQFH6XUYH\LQYHQWHGWKHFRPSHQVDWLRQEDU,WFRQ
4. The Great Trigonometric
Survey of India
$VDJUHDWFRORQLVLQJSRZHU*UHDW%ULWDLQZDVDQ[
ious to exploit the natural wealth of her colonies. In order
WRGRVRVFLHQWL¿FUHVHDUFKZDVFDUULHGRXWLQWRWKHQDWX
UDOZHDOWKRIWKHFRORQLHVDORQJZLWKH[DFWPDSVRIWKHLU
WHUULWRULHV*RRGSUHFLVHPDSVZHUHHVVHQWLDODQGQHF
HVVDU\IRUPLOLWDU\SHDFHWLPHDQGZDUWLPHDFWLYLWLHVDQG
also formed a basis for planning commercial activities.
The trigonometric network of Great Britain covered
WKHHQWLUHVXUIDFHDUHDRIWKH%ULWLVK,VOHVZKLFKFRP
prise 122 000 square miles (1 square mile = 258.9939
KD7KHVXUIDFHDUHDRI,QGLDLVVTXDUHPLOHV
WLPHVJUHDWHUWKDQWKDWRI*UHDW%ULWDLQ6LJQL¿FDQW
IXQGVZRXOGKDYHEHHQUHTXLUHGWRVXUYH\,QGLDVRLQ
VWHDGRIVHWWLQJXSDWULJRQRPHWULFQHWZRUNWULJRQRPHW
ric chains (triangulation) were used. The same approach
ZDVDGRSWHGLQ)UDQFHDQG5XVVLD85/LQRUGHUWR
cover the large territories of these countries.
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WKH(QJOLVKDVWURQRPHUDQGPDNHURIVFLHQWL¿F
LQVWUXPHQWV85/
6OLND-HVVH5DPVGHQ±
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67
)LJ$ODUJHQXPEHURIEHDUHUVZHUHQHHGHGWRFDUU\WKHLQVWUXPHQWVHUHFWWKHS\UDPLGV
DQGKROGWKHJHRGHWLFWDUJHWVE\SHUPLVVLRQRIWKH5R\DO*HRJUDSKLFDO6RFLHW\ZLWK,%*
6OLND9HOLNLEURMSRPRüQLKUDGQLNDSRPDJDRMHXSUHQRãHQMXLQVWUXPHQDWDSRGL]DQMXSLUDPLGD
LGUåDQMXJHRGHWVNLK]QDþDNDX]GR]YROX5R\DO*HRJUDSKLFDO6RFLHW\ZLWK,%*
:LOOLDP5R\±ãNRWVNLJHRGHWLYRMQLFU
WDþSULPLMHQLRMHX9HOLNRM%ULWDQLMLWXWDGDQRYXPHWRGX
JHRGHWVNLKPMHUHQMDVSRPRüXWULJRQRPHWULMVNLKPUHåD
]DXVSRVWDYXRVQRYQHWULJRQRPHWULMVNHPUHåH9HOLNH%UL
tanije (URL 3). Na uspostavi te osnovne trigonometrijske
PUHåHUDGLORVHXUD]GREOMXRGGR85/
8L]PMHULNXWRYDNRULãWHQLVXYUORWRþQLWHRGROLWLYHOLNLKGL
PHQ]LMDVO7HMHWHRGROLWHL]UDGLRJRGLQH-HV
VH5DPVGHQ±VOHQJOHVNLDVWURQRPL
SURL]YRÿDþ]QDQVWYHQLKLQVWUXPHQDWD85/,PDOLVX
KRUL]RQWDOQHNUXJRYHSURPMHUDPIHHWDVXFU
tanom podjelom kruga sa standardnim odstupanjem od
samo jedne kutne sekunde (URL 6).
(NLSDVWUXþQMDNDNRMXMHYRGLR:5R\JRGLQXGDQD
QDNRQQMHJRYHVPUWLWMJRGLQHSRþHODMHWHUHQ
VNDPMHUHQMDX]XSRUDEXYUORWRþQLK5DPVGHQRYLKWHR
dolita velikih dimenzija.
8VSRVWDYOMDQMHYHOLNH WULJRQRPHWULMVNHPUHåH,QGLMH
9HOLND%ULWDQLMDMHNDRYHOLNDNRORQLMDOQDVLODåHOMH
ODLVNRULVWLWLSULURGQDERJDWVWYDVYRMLKNRORQLMD.DNREL
WRUHDOL]LUDODRUJDQL]LUDODMH]QDQVWYHQDLVWUDåLYDQMDSUL
URGQLKERJDWVWDYDLWRþQRNDUWLUDQMHVYRMLKNRORQLMD1DL
PHGREUHLWRþQHNDUWHSRWUHEQHVX]DYRMQHDNWLYQRVWLX
PLUXLXUDWXNDRLRVQRYD]DSODQLUDQMHXJRVSRGDUVWYX
)LJ/DPEWRQ¶VKXJHWKHRGROLWHKDYLQJNJE\
SHUPLVVLRQRIWKH5R\DO*HRJUDSKLFDO6RFLHW\ZLWK,%*
6OLND9HOLNL/DPEWRQRYWHRGROLWPDVHNJ
X]GR]YROX5R\DO*HRJUDSKLFDO6RFLHW\ZLWK,%*
7ULJRQRPHWULMVNDPUHåDX9HOLNRM%ULWDQLMLSRVWDYOMH
QDMHSUHNRþLWDYHSRYUãLQHQMH]LQLKRWRND3RYUãLQDWLK
otoka je 122 000 kvadratnih milja (1 kvadratna milja =
KDD,QGLMHNYDGUDWQLKPLOMD'DNOH
WDMHSRYUãLQDRNRSXWDYHüDRGEULWDQVNH=DWDNR
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The Himalayas and a Survey of Determining the Height of Mt. Everest
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RIELPHWDOWHPSHUDWXUHFRPSHQVDWLRQLQ85/
6OLND0MHUHQMHGXOMLQHED]HJRGLQHVSRPRüXDSDUDWXUHNRMDMHGMHORYDOD
QDSULQFLSXELPHWDOQHWHPSHUDWXUQHNRPSHQ]DFLMH85/
68
sisted of six measuring poles set horizontally by placing
beneath them smaller tripods. The apparatus was about
20 metres (63 ft) long. The poles were made of bronze
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bronze and iron have different temperature expansion
FRHI¿FLHQWV0LFURVFRSHVZHUHORFDWHGDWWKHHQGVRI
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In order to minimise the effect of the sun and tempera
WXUHVRQWKHOHQJWKRIWKHPHDVXULQJSROHVWKHPHDVXU
ing equipment was protected by tenting (Fig. 13).
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LHNPORQJDQGDIWHUHVWDEOLVKLQJWKHPDQJOHVZHUH
PHDVXUHGXVLQJWKHWKHRGROLWHVIURPWKHH[WUHPHSRLQWV
of the baselines to the third points of the triangles. Then
the remaining triangles in the chain were laid against the
side of the triangle of which one side had been previous
O\FDOFXODWHG7KXVDFKDLQRIFRQQHFWLQJWULJRQRPHWULF
SRLQWVZDVIRUPHG+RZHYHUWKHWULJRQRPHWULFSRLQWV
FRXOGQRWDOZD\VEH¿[HGLQKLJKSODFHVVRS\UDPLGV
made of bamboo were erected. The workers would then
FOLPEWKHVHS\UDPLGVDQGZDYHVLJQDOÀDJV,QVRPH
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points in the trigonometric network.
7KHH[WUHPHO\GHPDQGLQJH[KDXVWLQJWDVNRIHV
WDEOLVKLQJWKHEDVLFWULJRQRPHWULFQHWZRUNLQ,QGLDSHU
IRUPHGLQGLI¿FXOWZHDWKHUDQGWHUUDLQSURJUHVVHGYHU\
slowly over a period of almost 40 years. Entire teams of
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or from attacks by wild animals.
/DPEWRQ¶VVXUYH\LQJWHDPDUULYHGLQFHQWUDO,QGLDLQ
DWZKLFKSRLQWKHGLHG+HZDVVXFFHHGHGE\KLV
DVVLVWDQWWKH:HOVKVXUYH\RUDQGJHRJUDSKHU*HRUJH
(YHUHVW±)LJZKRZDVKLPVHOIZHDN
ened by malaria and dysentery at the time when he
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RISDUDO\VLVVRWKDWPDQ\LQ,QGLDFRQVLGHUHGKHKDGD
strange temper.
Everest continued work on the Great Trigonometric
Survey of India along the arcs of the meridian from South
India to Nepal and some paralels. He himself never set
H\HVRQWKHKLJKHVWSHDNLQWKHZRUOGZKLFKZDVODWHU
JLYHQKLVQDPHEXWZKHQKHUHWLUHGWKHPHDVXUHPHQW
RIWKH³*UHDW$UF´KDGEHHQFRPSOHWHG'HKUD'XQLQ
WKHIRRWKLOOVRIWKH+LPDOD\DVQRUWKRI'HOKLKDGEHHQ
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east arm of the “Great Arc” provided the exact locations
and heights of points from which the locations and heights
of the Himalayan peaks could be determined.
Based on the surveying and astronomical measure
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(Everest 1830). The dimensions of this ellipsoid are giv
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serted for comparison. This ellipsoid was used in survey
ing the former Yugoslavia. The dimensions of the World
*HRGHWLF6\VWHP:*6DUHLQFOXGHGWRR
7KHVHPLPDMRUD[LVRIWKHHOOLSVRLGa and its numeri
cal eccentricity e can be determined from the calculated
radius of curvature (51 in the southern section of the me
ULGLDQ52 in the northern section of the meridian) and the
calculated latitudes in the centres of the arcs measured ij1
andij2XVLQJFXUYDWXUHHTXDWLRQVDORQJWKHPHULGLDQ0
.
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YHOLNXSRYUãLQXWUHEDODEL]QDWQRYHüD¿QDQFLMVNDVUHG
VWYDSDVHX,QGLMLQLMHSULVWXSLORSRVWDYOMDQMXWULJRQRPH
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trebale pokriti velike teritorije svojih zemalja.
=ERJWRJDMHEULWDQVNLþDVQLNJHRGHWLJHRJUDI:LOOLDP/DPEWRQ±VOJRGLQHSRþHR
postavljati trigonometrijske lance za uspostavu trigono
PHWULMVNHRVQRYH]DL]UDGXWRþQLKSODQRYDLNDUDWD,QGL
MH85/2VLPWRJDRQMHVSRPRüXW]YYHOLNRJOXND
(*UHDW$UFJHRGHWVNLPLDVWURQRPVNLPPMHUHQMLPDåHOLR
SULGRQLMHWLLXWYUÿLYDQMXLVWLQLWRJREOLND=HPOMH
=DSRþHRMHPMHUHQMDSRSDUDOHOLRG6W7KRPDV0R
XQWDNRMHJDVXJHRJUDIVNDGXåLQDLãLULQDELOHSR]QDWH
X0DGUDVXQDREDOL%HQJDOVNRJ]DOMHYDSUHNRLQGLMVNRJ
SROXRWRNDGR0DQJDORUHDQDREDOL$UDSVNRJDPRUD8
JRGLQL/DPEWRQMHSRþHRRGUHÿLYDWLJHRJUDIVNHãL
ULQHPLOMDRG%DQJDORUHD2VLPWRJDPMHULRMHQDMXJ
SUHPDUWX&RPRULQDSUHGORåLRMHGDVHQDVWDYHPMHUH
nja prema sjeveru nakon njegove smrti.
Britanci su horizontalne i vertikalne kutove u trigono
PHWULMVNRMPUHåLPMHULOLYHOLNLPWHRGROLWLPDNRMHVXX,QGLML
nazvali /DPEWRQRYLPWHRGROLWLPD. Oni su po obliku i kon
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DLPDOLVXPDVXþDNRNRNJVO3RMHGLQLWHRGR
OLWSUHQRVLORMHSRPRüQLKUDGQLND9HQDEOHVVWU
7REL]QDþLORGDMHVYDNLSRPRüQLUDGQLNPRUDRSUH
QRVLWLRNRNJWRJDLQVWUXPHQWD0HÿXWLPSUHPDGUX
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±SRPRüQLKUDGQLND85/*OHGDMXüLL]GDQDãQMHSHU
VSHNWLYHNDGQDMYHüLWHRGROLWLLPDMXPDVXVDPRRNRGR
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duljina osnovnih geodetskih baza (dSDVXLKRGUHÿLYD
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rao ju je britanski generalmajor i direktor Ordnance Surveya Thomas Frederick Colby (1784–1852). Sastojala se
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69
od šest mjernih motki koje su postavljane u horizontalni
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ãLUHQMDMHUEURQFDLåHOMH]RLPDMXUD]OLþLWHWHPSHUDWXUQH
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VWDQGDUGQLPPRWNDPD'DELVHXEODåLRXWMHFDM6XQFD
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QLSULERUMH]DãWLüLYDQVSRPRüXãDWRUVNLKNULODVO
Duljine osnovnih geodetskih baza iznosile su oko 7
PLOMDWMRNRNPDQDNRQQMLKRYDRGUHÿLYDQMDPMHUHQL
VXNXWRYLVSRPRüXWHRGROLWDRGNUDMQMLKWRþDNDRVQRY
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ti u lancu trokuta naslonjeni na stranice trokuta u kojem
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QDVWDORSROMHWULJRQRPHWULMVNLKWRþDNDSRYH]DQLKXODQ
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signalnim zastavicama. Samo na nekim mjestima zida
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gih tropskih bolesti ili od napada divljih zvijeri.
Geodetska ekipa pukovnika W. Lambtona došla je do
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The Himalayas and a Survey of Determining the Height of Mt. Everest
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rotational ellipsoid
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elipsoida
By solving the two equations for 01=5102=52ZLWK
ij ij1 and ij ij2IURPWZRXQNQRZQVLWWUDQVSLUHVWKDW
70
and
.
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jor axis aDQGWKHHFFHQWULFLW\RIWKH(DUWK¶VHOOLSVRLGe
can be calculated. From eWKHGHJUHHRIÀDWWHQLQJRIWKH
ellipsoid I can be calculated according to the formula:
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HTXDOYDOXHVRIWKHDQJOHVȕ1 ȕ2WKHUDGLXVRIFXUYDWXUHQHDUWKHSROHV52) is greater than the raGLXVRIFXUYDWXUHQHDUWKHHTXDWRU51)
6OLND=HPOMLQDVSORãWHQRVW=DMHGQDNHYULMHGQRVWLNXWRYDȕ1 ȕ2UDGLMXV]DNULYOMHQRVWL52EOL]XSROD
YHüLMHRGUDGLMXVD]DNULYOMHQRVWLEOL]XHNYDWRUD51
referHQFHHOOLSVRLG:*6¶DQGWKDWLWLVDERXWP
GHHS2QWKHRWKHUVLGHWRWKHQRUWKLVWKHUDQJHRIWKH
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The extent of the trigonometric network for India can
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Great Trigonometric Survey of India are shown.
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health suffered. He retired in 1843 and returned to live
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OD\DVKLPVHOIWKRXJKWKHKLJKHVWSHDNLQWKHZRUOGZDV
named after him (Smith 1999).
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region of India certainly affects the accuracy of determin
ing the Everest ellipsoid. Based on modern satellite de
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GHQWDWLRQRIWKHJHRLGLQWKH,QGLDQ2FHDQEHORZWKH
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Andrew Scott Waugh was appointed to take his place.
+HSUHVVHGRQZLWKWKH¿QDOPHDVXUHPHQWV85/,W
should be emphasised that determining the height of the
Himalayan peaks depended on the Great Trigonometric
.
7DEOH'LPHQVLRQVRIVHYHUDO(DUWKUHIHUHQFHHOOLSVRLGV85/
7DEOLFD'LPHQ]LMHQHNROLNRUHIHUHQWQLK=HPOMLQLKHOLSVRLGD85/
Name of ellipsoid
Naziv elipsoida
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Velika poluos
(m)
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1/f
Everest 1830
D Besselov 1841
D :*6
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WKHKHLJKWRIWKH+LPDOD\DQSHDNVZDVGHWHUPLQHGDQG0W(YHUHVWGLVFRYHUHG
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6OLND.DUWDODQDFDWULJRQRPHWULMVNHPUHåHVelike izmjere IndijeL]JRGLQHQDWHPHOMXNRMHVXRGUHÿHQHL
YLVLQHYUKRYD+LPDODMHWHQDMYLãHJYUKDQD=HPOML0W(YHUHVWDX]GR]YROX5R\DO*HRJUDSKLFDO6RFLHW\ZLWK,%*
(YHUHVW±VONRMLMHXWUHQXWNXSUHX]L
PDQMDGXåQRVWLELRRVODEOMHQRGPDODULMHLGL]HQWHULMH3X
kovnik G. Everest bio je postavljen na mjesto glavnog
mjernika (surveyor-general) Indije od 1830. do 1843. go
GLQH'RJDÿDORPXVHGDSRYUHPHQRRVOLMHSLDLPDRMH
L]QDNRYHSDUDOL]HSDVXJDX,QGLMLþHVWRVPDWUDOLþR
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Pukovnik G. Everest nastavio je rad na uspostavi ve
OLNHWULJRQRPHWULMVNHL]PMHUH,QGLMHX]GXåOXNRYDPHULGL
jana na potezu od juga Indije sve do Nepala i nekim pa
UDOHODPD1LNDGDQLMHXJOHGDRQDMYLãLYUKVYLMHWDNRMLMH
SRVOLMHGRELRQMHJRYRLPHDNDGMHRWLãDRXPLURYLQXL]
mjera “velikog luka” bila je završena. S “velikim lukom”
došlo se sve do Dehra Duna u prednjoj Himalaji sjever
QRRG'HOKLMDVO2VLPWRJDWULJRQRPHWULMVNHWRþNH
XLVWRþQRPUXNDYX³YHOLNRJDOXND´GDOHVXWRþQHSRORåD
MHLYLVLQHVWDMDOLãWDVNRMLKVXVHPRJOLRGUHGLWLSRORåDMLL
visine vrhova Himalaje.
usporedbu u nju su unesene dimenzije Besselova elip
VRLGDNRMLMHNRULãWHQXJHRGHWVNRML]PMHULELYãH-XJR
VODYLMHLGLPHQ]LMHHOLSVRLGD:*6
Velika poluos Zemljina elipsoida aLQMH]LQQXPHULþ
ki ekscentricitet ePRJOLVXVHRGUHGLWLL]L]UDþXQDQLKUD
dijusa zakrivljenosti (51QDMXåQRPGLMHOXPHULGLMDQDL52
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skih širina sredina izmjerenih lukova ij1 iij2VSRPRüX
MHGQDGåEH]D]DNULYOMHQRVWSRPHULGLMDQX0:
.
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i ij ij2 s dvije nepoznanice dobije se da je:
i
Na osnovi izvedenih geodetskih i astronomskih mje
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WQRJHOLSVRLGDNRMLMHGRELR(YHUHVWRYRLPH(YHUHVW
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.
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like poluosi a i ekscentricitet Zemljina elipsoida e. Zatim
The Himalayas and a Survey of Determining the Height of Mt. Everest
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highest peak Chimborazo in Equador. Its height (6310 m)
was fairly accurately estimated (Abromeit 2008).
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mariners to determine latitudes. The graduations
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Waugh that the highest peak of all was named after his
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5. Determining the Heights
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point of the “old known world” was Pico de Teide on the
island of Tenerife in the Canary Islands (Atlantic Ocean).
0HDVXULQJKHLJKWZDVH[WUHPHO\GLI¿FXOWHYHQWKRXJK
the sea was relatively close by as a reference point. The
summit of Pico de Teide was measured using a naviga
tional astrolabe.
,WLVQRWNQRZQZKHQWKH¿UVWDVWURODEHZDVPDGHEXW
WKH\FHUWDLQO\H[LVWHGLQWKHWKFHQWXU\DQGWKH$UDEV
developed them in the 8th and 9th centuries. They were
introduced to Europe in the 12th century from Moslem
Spain (Andalusia). They played an important role in de
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DWVHDDQGLQWKHWKDQGWKFHQWXU\HQDEOHGWKHGLV
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that the rays of the sun pass through the upper and low
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suring angles using an astrolabe is only satisfactory to
ZLWKLQIRXURU¿YHGHJUHHV7KXVLWZDVFRQVLGHUDEO\OHVV
accurate than a theodolite. The height of the summit of
Pico de Teide was overestimated by some thousand me
WUHV7RGD\LWLVNQRZQWKDWWKHFRUUHFWKHLJKWLVP
(The 7LPHV$WODVRIWKH:RUOGRUPDFFRUG
ing to the Croatian Atlas svijeta (1966).
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the western Himalayas at the beginning of the 18th cen
tury. Representatives of the British and East India Com
SDQ\ZLWKLWVKHDGTXDUWHUVLQ%HQJDOFDPHWR7LEHWYLD
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stricken mountainous areas. On the 1733 maps of Jean
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est mountains in the Old World came from Major James
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British colony in the 1770s.
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went further than Rennell and demonstrated why the Hi
malayas were the highest mountains in the world. He had
received information from two explorers who had gone
LQWR7LEHWDQGFRQFOXGHGWKDWWKHKLJKHVWSHDNVZHUH
even further distant than anyone had at the time pre
VXPHG$FFRUGLQJWR9HQDEOHV9HQDEOHV-RQHV
PHDVXUHGWKHDQJOHVDWWKHSHDNRI&KRPR/KDUL)LJ
70 km from the western conjunction of the borders of In
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SHDNIURPWKH5LYHU*DQJHVDVNPDQGLWVHVWLPDWHG
height as over 6100 m. This would have meant that the
Himalayas soared above the known heights of the Andes
peaks. The height of Chomo Lharia is 7313m above sea
OHYHODFFRUGLQJWRWKH$WODVRIWKH:RUOGPDS
+RZHYHUWKLVUHVXOWVKRXOGEHWDNHQZLWKUHVHUYH
as the question arises as to the feasibility of measur
ing heights at all under such conditions. At a distance
of 393 km:
‰ the true horizon lies 12.122 km below the apparent
KRUL]RQDVFDQEHFDOFXODWHGE\IRUPXODDQGDV
can be seen from column 2 in Table 3)
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i.e. – 0o¶¶¶DVFDQEHFDOFXODWHGE\IRUPXODV
WRLQ)LJDQGDVFDQEHVHHQIURPFROXPQ
in Table 3).
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IHFWRIUHIUDFWLRQDWWKHKRUL]RQLVFRQVLGHUDEOHDQGWKDW
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problem of viewing below the horizon. If we take into ac
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KRUL]RQWKHQZHFDQVXUHO\FRQFOXGHWKDWDQ\HVWLPDWHV
of height made must have been highly questionable.
Since Jones was unable to prove his theory with ex
DFWGDWDKLVFODLPZDVQRWDFFHSWHGE\WKHVFientists of
the day. Some suspected that the Himalayas were a
FKDLQRIDFWLYHYROFDQRHVDQGPLVWDNHQO\LGHQWL¿HGWKH
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LDNRMHNDRLVKRGLãQDWRþNDX]HWDWRþNDUHODWLYQREOL]X
razini mora. Visina vrha Pico de Teide bila je mjerena s
SRPRüXSRPRUVNRJDVWURODED
)LJ-DPHV5HQQHOO±85/
6OLND-DPHV5HQQHOO±85/
VHL]HNVFHQWULFLWHWDPRåHL]UDþXQDWLLVSORãWHQRVWHOLS
soida I po formuli:
.
.ROLNRVXYHOLNLODQFLWULJRQRPHWULMVNHPUHåH,QGLMH
YLGLVHQDVOJGMHVXSULND]DQLWULJRQRPHWULMVNLODQFL
9HOLNHL]PMHUH,QGLMH.
'DQDVVHPRåHUHüLGDMHQDWRþQRVWRGUHÿLYDQMD
Everestova elipsoida sigurno utjecao oblik geoida na
SRGUXþMX,QGLMH1DRVQRYLVXYUHPHQLKVDWHOLWVNLKRGUH
ÿLYDQMD]QDVHGDMHX,QGLMVNRPRFHDQXYHOLNRXGXEOMH
QMHJHRLGDLVSRGUHIHUHQWQRJHOLSVRLGD:*6¶LGDRQR
iznosi oko 107 m. Osim toga upravo se s druge strane
QDVMHYHUXSUXåDMXYHOLNHPDVH+LPDODMHVQDMYLãLPYU
hom na svijetu.
1H]QDVHNDGMHL]UDÿHQSUYLDVWURODEQRVLJXUQRMH
SRVWRMDRXVWROMHüXD$UDSLVXJDXVDYUãLOLXLVWR
OMHüX8(XURSXMHXQHVHQXVWROMHüXL]WDGDLVODP
VNHâSDQMROVNH$QGDOX]LMH2GLJUDRMHYDåQXXORJX]D
RGUHÿLYDQMHSRORåDMDSRVHELFHJHRJUDIVNHãLULQHEURGR
YDQDPRUXLOLRFHDQXDRPRJXüLRMHXLVWROMHüX
]QDþDMQDRWNULüDSRPRUVNLKSXWRYDL$PHULNH3ULPMHUH
QMXDVWURODEVORERGQRYLVLDDOKLGDGXWUHEDSRVWDYLWLWDNR
GD6XQþHYH]UDNHSUROD]HNUR]QMH]LQXJRUQMXLGRQMXUX
picu (sl. 19). Na obodu limba ucrtana je stupanjska po
GMHODNRMXVXNRULVWLOLYHüVWDUL%DELORQFL'DQDVPRåH
PRUHüLGDWRþQRVWPMHUHQMDNXWRYDDVWURODERPQLMHELOD
GREUDLGDMHL]QRVLODRELþQRo do 5o'DNOHWRMHELRLQ
VWUXPHQWVDVLJXUQR]QDWQRPDQMRPWRþQRVWLRGWHRGR
lita. Tako je visina vrha Pico de TeideSRJUHãQRRGUHÿH
QD]DYLãHRGPDQMHJRYDYLVLQDNDRãWRMHGD
nas poznato iz suvremenih mjerenja iznosi samo 3718
P7KH7LPHV$WODVRIWKH:RUOGRGQRVQR
m (Atlas svijeta 1966).
3RVOLMHVXPQRJLHXURSVNLVWUXþQMDFLSUHWSRVWDYOMDOLGD
VX$QGHQDMYHüLSODQLQVNLPDVLYLGDMHQDMYLãLYUKQD=H
POML&KLPERUD]RX(NYDGRUXNRMHJDMHYLVLQDPQDG
PRUHPELODUHODWLYQRWRþQRRGUHÿHQD$EURPHLW
-H]XLWVNLPLVLRQDULVWLJOLVXX7LEHWSRþHWNRPVWR
OMHüDSUHNR.DãPLUDL]DSDGQRJGLMHOD+LPDODMH3UHGVWDY
QLFLEULWDQVNHLLVWRþQRLQGLMVNHNRPSDQLMHVDVMHGLãWHPX
Bengalu došli su u Tibet preko Butana krajem 18. sto
OMHüD0HÿXWLPRQLQLVXSRND]LYDOLLQWHUHV]DSODQLQVND
SRGUXþMDMHUVXRQDELODVLURPDãQD=DWRMH+LPDODMDQD
NDUWDPD-HDQ%DSWLVWHG¶$QYLOOHDL]JRGLQHR]QD
þHQDVDPRNDR³VQMHåQLODQDF´EH]YLVLQD
*(YHUHVWXþLQLRMHYHOLNRGMHORX,QGLMLDOLMHQDåD
ORVW]GUDYVWYHQRVWUDGDR8PLURYOMHQMHD]DWLPVH
vratio u Englesku. Paradoksalno je da nikada nije došao
GR+LPDODMHDQDMYLãLYUKQD=HPOMLGRELRMHLPHSRQMH
mu (Smith 1999).
Nakon umirovljenja G. Everesta na njegovo je mje
VWRSRVWDYOMHQEULWDQVNLþDVQLNLJHRGHW$QGUHZ6FRWW
:DXJK±NRMLMHQDVWDYLR]DYUãQDPMHUHQMD
85/1DJODVLPRGDMHRGUHÿLYDQMHYLVLQDYUKRYD+L
malaje oslonjeno na veliku geodetsku izmjeru Indije i da
MHQD:DXJKRYSULMHGORJSULKYDüHQRLPHQDMYLãHJDYUKD
na Zemlji po njegovu velikom prethodniku G. Everestu.
2GUHÿLYDQMHYLVLQDYUKRYD+LPDODMH
8UDQRPVWROMHüX$QGHVXVPDWUDQHQDMYLãLPSOD
QLQDPDQD=HPOMLDQDMYLãLPYUKRP³VWDURJDSR]QDWRJ
svijeta” Pico de TeideQDRWRNX7HQHULIHX.DQDUVNRP
RWRþMXX$WODQWVNRPRFHDQX9LVLQVNDL]PMHUDELODMHWHãND
)LJ:LOOLDP-RQHV±85/
6OLND:LOOLDP-RQHV±85/
73
The Himalayas and a Survey of Determining the Height of Mt. Everest
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WKHKHLJKWRI0W(YHUHVWDQGRWKHU
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E\SHUPLVVLRQRIWKH5R\DO*HRJUDSKLFDO6RFLHW\ZLWK,%*
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YLVLQH0W(YHUHVWDLRVWDOLKYUKRYD+LPDODMHX]GR]YROX
5R\DO*HRJUDSKLFDO6RFLHW\ZLWK,%*
74
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KiG 2010, 14
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QDMYLãLYUKRYLOHåHSXQRGDOMHQHJRãWRVHGRWDGDSUHWSRVWDYOMDOR3UHPD9HQDEOHV:-RQHVMHPMHULRNXWRYHQDYUKChomo LhariVONRMLVHQDOD]LNPRG
]DSDGQHWURPHÿH,QGLMH%XWDQDL.LQH,]UDþXQDRMHGD
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– 0o¶¶¶ãWRVHPRåHL]UDþXQDWLSRIRUPXODPD
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DNWLYQLKYXONDQDMHUVXSRJUHãQRWXPDþLOLEMHOLQXVQLMHJD
NDRGLP'UXJLSDNQLVXYMHURYDOLL]YMHãWDMLPDGDQD+LPDODMLLPDYHOLNLKJOHþHUDLWRXEOL]LQLWURSD
7LMHNRPEULWDQVNHYODGDYLQHX,QGLMLGRãOLVXJHRGHWL
PMHUQLFLNRMLVXQDKRUL]RQWXVMHYHUD,QGLMHRWNULYDOLVYH
YLãHSODQLQVNLKYUKRYDLSRNXãDYDOLL]YHVWLL]PMHUXQMLKRYLKYLVLQD7DNRVXJRGLQHL]%LKDUDNRMLVHQDOD]L
EOL]XMXåQHREDOH*DQJHVDLEOL]XYHüHJQDVHOMD3DWQD
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0HÿXWLPSRVOLMHMHWDMUH]XOWDWELRSRQLãWHQ
1DGDOMHJRGLQHRGUHÿHQDMHYLVLQDYUKDDhaulagiriXVUHGLãQMHP1HSDOXEOL]XYUKD$QQDSXUQD
NPLVWRþQRRG]DSDGQHWURPHÿH,QGLMH.LQHL1HSDOD
VONRMDMHL]QRVLODP'DQDVMHL]VXYUHPHQLK
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GD+LPDODMDQDGYLVXMH$QGH0HÿXWLPQLWDWYUGQMDQLMH
ELODSUL]QDWDX]QDQVWYHQRMMDYQRVWL
3UYLJHRGHWLGRãOLVXGRSODQLQDQD]DSDGX1HSDODL]PHÿXLJRGLQHSDVXVHSRþHOLVNXSOMDWLGRND]LGDVXYUKRYL+LPDODMHYLãLRGQDMYLãHJYUKD$QGD
7DNRMHL]PMHUHQDYLVLQDYUKDNRMLGRPDüHVWDQRYQLãWYR
QD]LYDNanda Devi VODQDOD]LVHX,QGLMLNP]DSDGQRRG]DSDGQHWURPHÿH1HSDOD,QGLMHL.LQH'RELOLVXGDMHQMHJRYDYLVLQDPSDMHWDNRWDMYUKWLMHNRPWULGHVHWDNJRGLQDVWROMHüDELRSR]QDWNDRQDMYLãLYUKQD=HPOML
3UYDRGUHÿLYDQMDYLVLQHYUKD0W(YHUHVWD
&KRPROXQJPH
1DVOMHGQLN*(YHUHVWD$QGUHZ6FRWW:DXJKGRãDR
MHVWULJRQRPHWULMVNRPPUHåRPGRSRGQRåMD+LPDODMH1D
WDMMHQDþLQLPDRNRRUGLQDWHWULJRQRPHWULMVNLKWRþDNDD
WR]QDþLLXGDOMHQRVWLL]PHÿXWLKWRþDNDLQMLKRYHYLVLQH
XSURYLQFLML'DUMLOLQJ7DVHLQGLMVNDSURYLQFLMDQDOD]LL]PHÿX1HSDOD.LQH%XWDQDL%DQJODGHãD
Table 2. Numbers of trigonometric points, names and distances from Mt. Everest, according to the map in Fig. 22.
7DEOLFD%URMWULJRQRPHWULMVNHWRþNHQMH]LQRLPHLQMH]LQDXGDOMHQRVWRG0W(YHUHVWDSUHPDNDUWLVDVO
Nr. of trig. point
%UWULJRQRPHWULMVNHWRþNH
Name of trig. point
,PHWULJRQRPHWULMVNHWRþNH
Distance to the Mt. Everest
Udaljenost do Mt. Everesta (km)
7LURO
254
0LU]DSXU
-KDQMSDWL
242
/DGQLD
+DUSXU
0HQLD
'XPGDQJL
75
The Himalayas and a Survey of Determining the Height of Mt. Everest
76
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)LJ7UXHDQGDSSDUHQWKRUL]RQGXHWRWKHFXUYDWXUHRIWKH(DUWKDQGHOHYDWLRQDQJOHijIURPZKLFKWKHSHDNRI
0W(YHUHVWLVVHHQ7KH¿JXUHGRHVQRWWDNHLQWRDFFRXQWWKHHIIHFWRIUHIUDFWLRQFDXVHGE\WKHDWPRVSKHUHDQG
WKHIRUPXODHE\ZKLFKYDOXHVDUHFDOFXODWHGDUHJLYHQLQ7DEOH
6OLND3UDYLLSULYLGQLKRUL]RQW]ERJ=HPOMLQH]DNULYOMHQRVWLNDRLHOHYDFLMVNLNXWijSRGNRMLPVHYLGLYUK
0W(YHUHVW1DVOLFLMH]DQHPDUHQXWMHFDMUHIUDNFLMHL]D]YDQDWPRVIHURPLQDSLVDQHVXIRUPXOHSRNRMLPDVX
L]UDþXQDQHYULMHGQRVWLXSLVDQHXWDEOLFL
snowcaps as smoke. Other could not believe reports of
JODFLHUVLQWKH+LPDOD\DVVRFORVHWRWKHWURSLFV
)LUVWHVWLPDWLRQRIWKHKHLJKW
RI0W(YHUHVW&KRPROXQJPD
'XULQJ%ULWLVKUXOHLQ,QGLDVXUYH\RUVQRWHGVHYHU
al mountain ranges on the horizon in northern India and
WULHGWRPHDVXUHWKHLUKHLJKW,QWKH\FDOFXODWHG
WKHKHLJKWRIRQHSHDNPHDVXUHGIURP%LKDUQHDUWKH
VRXWKEDQNRIWKH*DQJHVDQGWKHQHDUHVWODUJHUVHWWOH
PHQWRI3DWQD)LJWREHP+RZHYHUWKLVUH
sult was later quashed.
6LU*HRUJH(YHUHVW¶VVXFFHVVRU$QGUHZ6FRWW:DXJK
reached the foot of the Himalayas with his trigonomet
ULFQHWZRUN7KXVKHKDGHVWDEOLVKHGWKHFRRUGLQDWHVRI
DOOWKHWULJRQRPHWULFSRLQWVLQFOXGLQJWKHGLVWDQFHVEH
WZHHQWKHPDQGWKHKHLJKWVRIWKHSRLQWVLQWKHSURY
LQFHRI'DUMHHOLQJZKLFKLVORFDWHGEHWZHHQ1HSDO&KL
QD%KXWDQDQG%DQJODGHVK
,QWKHKHLJKWRI'KDXODJLULSHDNLQFHQWUDO1H
SDOFORVHWR$QQDSXUQDHDVWRIWKHERUGHUFRQMXQF
WLRQRI,QGLD&KLQDDQG1HSDOZDVGHWHUPLQHGDV
P)LJ7RGD\FRQWHPSRUDU\PHDVXUHPHQWVWHOOXV
that the true height is 8167 m. The result was published
LQDFRPSUHKHQVLYHVFLHQWL¿FDUWLFOHZKLFKFODLPHGWKH
+LPDOD\DVZHUHKLJKHUWKDQWKH$QGHV+RZHYHUWKLV
FODLPZDVUHMHFWHGE\WKHVFLHQWL¿FFRPPXQLW\
Measuring the heights of the Himalayan peaks was no
HDV\WDVNLQWKRVHGD\VDVWKHERUGHUVRI1HSDO&KLQD
(Tibet) and Bhutan were closed to foreigners. The border
of Nepal was closed to foreigners from 1815 to 1945. So
Waugh had to estimate the height of the Himlayan peaks
IURP,QGLDIURPDGLVWDQFHRINP85/DQGDF
FRUGLQJWRVRPHVRXUFHVIURPDGLVWDQFHRIRYHUNP
85/$FFRUGLQJWR85/WKHGLVWDQFHZDVEHWZHHQ
DQGNPZKLOHDFFRUGLQJWR85/LWZDVRYHU
NPDQGDFFRUGLQJWR85/DWOHDVWNP+RZ
HYHUWKHPRVWDFFXUDWHGDWDIRU0RXQW(YHUHVWDUHJLYHQ
by Venables in his book (YHUHVW±GLH*HVFKLFKWHVHLQHU
(UNXQGXQJLQZKLFKWKHUHLVDPDSVKRZLQJWKH
WULJRQRPHWULFQHWZRUNRI,QGLDWRDVFDOHRI
which was used to determine the height of the Himala
\DQSHDNV)URPWKLVPDS)LJDQG7DEOHLWFDQ
be see that the height of Mount Everest was determined
from trigonometric points between 178 and 218 km dis
tant from the peak.
7KH¿UVWVXUYH\RUVDUULYHGLQWKHPRXQWDLQVRIZHVW
1HSDOEHWZHHQDQGDQGEHJDQFROOHFWLQJGDWD
proving that the Himalayan peaks were higher than those
of the Andes. The peak which is known by locals today
DV1DQGD'HYL)LJDQGZKLFKLVORFDWHGLQ,QGLD
NPZHVWRIWKHZHVWHUQERUGHUFRQMXQFWLRQRI1HSDO,Q
GLDDQG&KLQDZDVPHDVXUHGDWP$VDUHVXOWLW
was accepted for almost thirty years during the 19th cen
tury as the highest peak in the world.
.L*
+LPDODMDLSUHJOHGRGUHÿLYDQMDYLVLQD0W(YHUHVWD
7DEOH'HSHQGHQFHRIWKHOHYHORIWKHDSSDUHQWKRUL]RQKapparentDQGDQJOHVįȖȕ oij
LQWULDQJOH$&(RQGLVWDQFHOPHDVXUHGDORQJWKHDUFIURPWKHVHWSRLQWWRWKHSURMHFWLRQRI0W
(YHUHVWDWVHDOHYHO7KHHIIHFWRIUHIUDFWLRQFDXVHGE\WKHDWPRVSKHUHLVGLVUHJDUGHG
7DEOLFD2YLVQRVWYLVLQHSULYLGQRJKRUL]RQWDKprividniLNXWRYDįȖȕ oijXWURNXWX
$&(RXGDOMHQRVWLOPMHUHQRMSROXNXRGVWDMDOLãQHWRþNHGRSURMHNFLMH0W(YHUHVWDQD
UD]LQXPRUD3ULWRPMH]DQHPDUHQXWMHFDMUHIUDNFLMHL]D]YDQDWPRVIHURP.
Distance to the
Mt. Everest
8GDOMHQRVWGR
Mt. Everesta
ONP
Height of
DSSDUHQWKRUL]RQ
Visina prividnog
KRUL]RQWD
hprividniP
Angle on the
Mt. Everest
Kut na Mt.
Everestu
Ȗo ' ''
Angle of
elevation
(OHYDFLMVNLNXW
ijo ' ''
ȕ oij
Angle in center
of the Earth
Kut u središtu
=HPOMH
įo ' ''
150
85o
2o
1o
170
86o
2o
1o
190
86o
1o
1o
200
86o
1o
1o
220
86o
1o
1o
240
86o 49
1o
2o
393
86o
–0o
3o
Izmjera visina vrhova Himalaje tada nije bila jedno
VWDYQD]DGDüDMHUVXJUDQLFH1HSDOD.LQH7LEHWDL%X
WDQDELOH]DWYRUHQH]DVWUDQFH1DLPHJUDQLFH1HSDOD
bile su zatvorene za strance od 1815. do 1945. godine.
Zato je A. Waugh sa svojim timom mogao odrediti visi
QHQHNLKYUKRYD+LPDODMHVDPRL],QGLMHL]XGDOMHQRVWL
YHüHRGNP85/DSRQHNLPL]YRULPDYLãHRG
240 km (URL 1). Prema (URL 16) ta je udaljenost bila
L]PHÿXLNPSUHPD85/YHüDRGNP
DSUHPD85/QDMPDQMHNP0HÿXWLPQDMWRþQLML
podaci za Mt. Everest dani su u knjizi (YHUHVWGLH*HVFKLFKWHVHLQHU(UNXQGXQJ9HQDEOHVXNRMRMMHSUL
ORåHQDNDUWDVWULJRQRPHWULMVNRPPUHåRP,QGLMHXPMH
ULOXVNRMHVXRGUHÿLYDQLYUKRYL+LPDODMH,]
te karte (sl. 22) i tablice 2 vidi se da je visina Mt. Evere
VWDRGUHÿHQDVWULJRQRPHWULMVNLKWRþDNDXGDOMHQLKRG0W
(YHUHVWDL]PHÿXNPLNP
.DNRELVHGRELODSUHGRGåEDRWLPXGDOMHQRVWLPD
dana je usporedba pa bi primjerice u Hrvatskoj tome od
JRYDUDORRGUHÿLYDQMH
‰YLVLQHYUKD8þNHL]SRGQRåMD6OMHPHQDQDXGDOMHQRVWL
NP
‰YLVLQHYUKD'LQDUHL]=DJUHEDQDXGDOMHQRVWLNP
‰YLVLQHYUKD'LQDUHVSRGQRåMD8þNHQDXGDOMHQRVWL
218 km).
'DQDVJHRGHWLQHELRGUHÿLYDOLYLVLQHYUKRYDSODQL
QDQDWDNRYHOLNLPXGDOMHQRVWLPDþDNQLRQGDNDGELVH
WRþNHPHÿXVREQRGRJOHGDOH
2þLJOHGQRMHGDVHYLVLQDYUKD0W(YHUHVWDPRJOD
RGUHGLWLVDPRVSRPRüXWULJRQRPHWULMVNRJDQLYHOPDQD
77
U Hrvatskoj su se po pravilniku za trigonometrijske mre
åHPRJOHRGUHGLWLYLVLQHWULJRQRPHWULMVNLKWRþDNDVDPR
QDNUDüLPXGDOMHQRVWLPDRGRNRGRNPWMXWULJR
QRPHWULMVNRMPUHåL,,,L,9UHGDLWRYH]DQMHPQDUHSHUH
NRMLKVXYLVLQHELOHRGUHÿHQHJHRPHWULMVNLPQLYHOPDQRP
3ULWRPVXWULJRQRPHWULMVNLPQLYHOPDQRPRGUHÿLYDQHYLVL
QHVDPRQDEUGRYLWRPWHUHQXJGMHYL]XUHSUROD]HYLVRNR
iznad terena. Zbog utjecaja refrakcije na vertikalne kutove
nastojalo ih se izmjeriti u ono doba dana kada je taj utje
FDMQDMPDQMLLSULEOLåQRNRQVWDQWDQDWRMHRNRSRGQHYD
L]PHÿXLVDWL2VLPWRJDELORLKMHREYH]QRPMHULWL
RERVWUDQRQDSR]QDWRMWRþNLLQDRGUHÿLYDQRMWRþNLLWR
SRPRJXüQRVWLLVWRGREQR0DFDUROVWU±
0HÿXWLP:DXJKLQMHJRYWLPQLVXPRJOLPMHULWLYHU
WLNDOQHNXWRYHRERVWUDQRMHUVHWDGDMRãQLMHGDQþRYMHN
QLMHSRSHRQD0W(YHUHVWNRMLMH]DOHÿHQDL]UDNMHQD
YUKX]ERJYHOLNHYLVLQHMDNRULMHGDNWMVQHGRYROMQRNLVL
ND]DþRYMHNDDOLL]DRVWDOHREOLNHåLYRWDQD=HPOML=DWR
su vertikalne kutove mogli mjeriti samo s njihovih trigo
QRPHWULMVNLKWRþDNDX,QGLMLLX]HWLJUXERXUDþXQXWMHFDM
UHIUDNFLMHL]D]YDQDWPRVIHURP85/%XGXüLGDVH
UDGLORRYHOLNRMXGDOMHQRVWL:DXJKLQMHJRYWLPPRUDOLVX
LPDWLLYUORGREURRGUHÿHQ=HPOMLQUDGLMXV=DPDQMHWRþ
QHUDGRYHWM]DSUDNWLþQHUDGRYHQDPDQMHPSRGUXþMX
PRåHVHWDMGLR=HPOMLQHSRYUãLQH]DPLMHQLWLGLMHORPNX
gline plohe polumjera:
(1)
gdje su: 0 – srednji radijus zakrivljenosti po meridijanu
i 1 – srednji radijus zakrivljenosti SRSUYRPYHUWLNDOX u
VUHGLãWXSRGUXþMDJHRGHWVNHL]PMHUH
The Himalayas and a Survey of Determining the Height of Mt. Everest
78
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6OLND8WMHFDMUHIUDNFLMHQDPMHUHQMHYHUWLNDOQLKNXWRYDNRMLMHX]URNRYDQDWPRVIHURP
In order to get a better impression of the distances
FRQFHUQHGWKLVZRXOGEHVLPLODUWRPHDVXULQJWKHIRO
lowing in Croatia:
‰WKHSHDNRI0W8þNDIURPWKHIRRWKLOOVRI6OMHPH
km away)
‰ the peak of Mt. Dinara from Zagreb (210 km away)
‰WKHSHDNRI0W'LQDUDIURPWKHIRRWRI0W8þND
km away)
7RGD\QRVXUYH\RUZRXOGGUHDPRIGHWHUPLQLQJWKH
KHLJKWRIDSHDNIURPVXFKDGLVWDQFHHYHQLIWKHSRLQWV
were mutually visible.
&OHDUO\WKHRQO\ZD\WRGHWHUPLQHWKHKHLJKWRI0W
(YHUHVWZDVE\XVLQJWULJRQRPHWULFOHYHOOLQJ,Q&URDWLD
DVDUXOHWKHKHLJKWRIWULJRQRPHWULFSRLQWVIRUDWULJR
nometric network can only be determined at shorter dis
WDQFHVEHWZHHQDQGNPLHLQWKHWULJRQRPHWULF
QHWZRUNVRIWKHWKLUGDQGIRXUWKRUGHUVE\OLQNVWREHQFK
marks whose heights have been ascertained by geo
PHWULFOHYHOOLQJ7KXVKHLJKWVDUHDVFHUWDLQHGE\WULJR
QRPHWULFOHYHOOLQJRQO\LQKLOO\WHUUDLQZKHUHWKHOLQHVRI
sight lie high above the land. Due to the effect of refrac
WLRQRQYHUWLFDODQJOHVPHDVXUHPHQWVDUHXVXDOO\WDNHQ
DWDWLPHRIGD\ZKHQVXFKUHIUDFWLRQLVPLQLPDOFORVH
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ducted from both sides (at the known point and the point
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SS
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6OLND.XWșNDRSRJUHãNDXNXWXHOHYDFLMHij]ERJ
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+RZHYHU:DXJKDQGKLVWHDPZHUHXQDEOHWRFRQGXFW
PHDVXUHPHQWVRIWKHYHUWLFDODQJOHVIURPERWKVLGHVDV
DWWKDWWLPHQRRQHKDGHYHUVFDOHG0W(YHUHVWZKLFK
ZDVQRWRQO\FRYHUHGLQLFHEXWZDVVRKLJKWKDWWKHDLUDW
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1DGDOMH]DPDQMHWRþQHUDGRYHPRåHVH=HPOMDQD
PDQMHPSRGUXþMX]DPLMHQLWLNXJORPNRMRMMHSROXPMHUMHG
QDNDULWPHWLþNRMVUHGLQLWULMXSROXRVL=D(YHUHVWRYHOLS
soid (1830) dobije se:
2VWDOHYLVLQHSULYLGQRJDKRUL]RQWDPRJXVHQDüLX
stupcu 2 tablice 3.
gdje su a i b velika i mala poluos rotacijskog elipsoida
Zemlje.
,]WDEOLFHXVWXSFXYLGLVHGDELVHNDGVH]D
QHPDULXWMHFDMDWPRVIHUHUHIUDNFLMH0W(YHUHVWYLGLR
pod vrlo malim elevacijskim kutovima od 2o¶GRVDPR
1o ¶'DNOHVDVYLPEOL]XKRUL]RQWD.DGELXGDOMHQRVW
ELODþDNNPRG0W(YHUHVWDNDRãWRMXMHL]PMHULR
:-RQHVQD&KRPR/KDULWDGDELHOHYDFLMVNLNXWQD0W
(YHUHVWELRþDNLVSRGKRUL]RQWDWMQHJDWLYDQ±o¶
Na velikim udaljenostima na kojima je A. Waugh sa
VYRMLPWLPRPRGUHÿLYDRYLVLQHYUKRYD+LPDODMHSUDYLKR
UL]RQWMHLVSRGSULYLGQRJDþDNQHNROLNRNLORPHWDUDVO
7RVHPRåHL]UDþXQDWLSUHPDIRUPXODPDQDYHGHQLPX
0DFDUROVWUL
6YMHWORVWVHQHNUHüHXDWPRVIHULSUDYRFUWQRYHüSR
UHIUDNFLMVNRMNULYXOMLNRMDVHPRåHDSURNVLPLUDWLGLMHORP
NUXåQLFHNRQNDYQRRNUHQXWHSUHPDGROMHN=HPOMLVO
=DVOXþDMMHGQRVWUDQRJRGUHÿLYDQMDYLVLQVNLKUD]OLND
GRELYHQDMHSULEOLåQDIRUPXODýXEUDQLüVWU
NP
RGQRVQRVSRPRüXSULEOLåQHIRUPXOH
gdje je O±XGDOMHQRVWPMHUHQDSROXNXRGWRþNH$GRWRþ
ke B i 5 – radijus Zemlje (sl. 23). Tako se prema dimen
zijama Everestova elipsoida dobije da je za:
‰ udaljenost l = 170 km pravi horizont ispod prividnoga
hprividni = PL]D
‰ udaljenost l = 220 km pravi horizont ispod prividnoga
hprividni = P
gdje je O±udaljenost od stajališta do projekcije Mt. Eve
UHVWDQDUD]LQXPRUDPMHUHQDSROXNXij¶– elevacijski
NXWSRGNRMLPVHYLGLYUK0W(YHUHVWL]VWDMDOLãQHWRþNH
pomaknut zbog refrakcije i N±NRH¿FLMHQWUHIUDNFLMHNRML
MHQDRVQRYLHNVSHULPHQWDOQRJRGUHÿLYDQMDSULEOLåQRMHG
QDN8IRUPXOLMH]DQHPDUHQDYLVLQDVWDMDOLãWD7R
VHPRåHXþLQLWLMHUVXYLVLQHVWDMDOLãWDELOHVDPRRNR
PL]QDGPRUD85/DRVLPWRJDRYGMHVXXþLQMHQD
VDPRSULEOLåQDUDþXQDQMD
Iz stupca (2) tablice 4 vidi se da kut refrakcije İDNRMH
NRH¿FLMHQWUHIUDNFLMHN L]QRVLL]PHÿX¶¶¶L¶¶¶
Iz stupca (4) iste tablice vidi se da su Waugh i njegov tim
7DEOH'HSHQGHQFHRQGLVWDQFHODRIWKHDQJOHRIUHIUDFWLRQİERIWKHHIIHFWRIUHIUDFWLRQRQVKLIWLQJWKHYLHZRI0W(YHUHVWKUHIDQGFDQJOHįLHHUURUVLQWKHDQJOHRIHOHYDWLRQVLQFHWKHKHLJKWRI0W(YHUHVWZDVPLVFDOFXODWHGE\PHWUHV
7DEOLFD2YLVQRVWLRXGDOMHQRVWLODNXWDUHIUDNFLMHİEXWMHFDMDUHIUDNFLMHQDSRPLFDQMHYL]XUHQD
0W(YHUHVWKUHILFNXWDșWMSRJUHãNHXNXWXHOHYDFLMHDNRMHYLVLQD0W(YHUHVWDSRJUHãQD]DP
Distance to the Mt.
Everest
Udaljenost od Mt.
Everesta l
(km)
(1)
Angle of refraction
İ
(2)
Shift due to
refraction
Pomak izazvan
refrakcijom
href (m)
(3)
Error in angle of elevation
for 8 m
Pogreška u kutu
elevacije za 8 m
kut ș
(4)
150
170
190
200
220
240
.XWUHIUDNFLMH
79
.L*
The Himalayas and a Survey of Determining the Height of Mt. Everest
where l is the length of measurement along the arc from
point A to point B and 5LVWKH(DUWK¶VUDGLXV)LJ
7KXVDFFRUGLQJWRWKHGLPHQVLRQVRIWKH(YHUHVWHOOLSVRLG
‰ distance l = 170 km true horizon below apparent
h apparent = 2268.37 m and
‰ distance l = 220 km true horizon below apparent
h apparent = 3798.93 m
The other levels of the apparent horizon can be found
in column 2 of Table 3.
80
)LJ5DGKDQDWK6LNGDUZDVWKHOHDGHURIWKHJURXS
charged with the calculations according to which it
ZDVFODLPHGIRUWKH¿UVWWLPHWKDW0W(YHUHVWZDVWKH
KLJKHVWPRXQWDLQLQWKHZRUOG85/
6OLND5DGKDQDWK6LNGDUELRMHYRÿDJUXSH]D
UDþXQDQMHNRMDMHSUYLSXWXWYUGLODGDMH0W(YHUHVW
QDMYLãLYUKQD=HPOML85/
&ROXPQRI7DEOHVKRZVWKDWLIWKHHIIHFWRIDW
PRVSKHULFUHIUDFWLRQLVGLVUHJDUGHG0W(YHUHVWFDQEH
YLHZHGIURPH[WUHPHO\VPDOOHOHYDWLRQDQJOHVIURPo¶
to as small as 1o ¶LHYHU\FORVHWRWKHKRUL]RQ$WD
GLVWDQFHRINPIURP0W(YHUHVWZKLFKZDVWKHSR
VLWLRQFKRVHQE\:LOOLDP-RQHVRQ&KRPR/KDULWKHHO
evation angle on Mt. Everest would actually have been
EHQHDWKWKHKRUL]RQLHDQHJDWLYHDQJOHRI±o¶
team were only able to measure vertical angles using the
WULJRQRPHWULFSRLQWVLQ,QGLDDQGPDNHDURXJKFDOFXOD
tion of the effect of refraction caused by the atmosphere
85/6LQFHWKHGLVWDQFHZDVVRJUHDW:DXJKDQG
KLVWHDPQHHGHGDZHOOGH¿QHGUDGLXVRIWKH(DUWK)RU
OHVVSUHFLVHFDOFXODWLRQVLHIRUSUDFWLFDOZRUNLQVPDOO
HUDUHDVSDUWRIWKH(DUWK¶VVXUIDFHFDQEHWDNHQWREH
WKHHTXLYDOHQWRIDVSKHUH¶VVXUIDFHUDGLXV
Light does not travel through the atmosphere in a
VWUDLJKWOLQHEXWDORQJDUHIUDFWRU\FXUYHZKLFKFDQEH
DSSUR[LPDWHGWRDVHFWLRQRIDFLUFOHIDFLQJ(DUWKFRQ
cavely (Fig. 24). In the case of determining differences in
KHLJKWIURPRQHVLGHRQO\WKLVDSSUR[LPDWHIRUPXODPD\
EHXVHGýXEUDQLüS
(1)
in which 0is the mean radius of curvature along the meridian and 1 is the mean radius of curvature DORQJWKH¿UVW
vertical in the centre of the area of geodetic measurement.
)XUWKHUPRUHIRUOHVVSUHFLVHFDOFXODWLRQVLQDVPDOO
DUHDWKH(DUWKFDQEHUHSODFHGE\DVSKHUHZKRVHUD
GLXVLVHTXDOWRWKHDULWKPHWLFPHDQRILWVWKUHHVHPLD[
es. For the Everest ellipsoid we get the result:
km
(2)
where a and bDUHWKHODUJHDQGVPDOOVHPLD[HVRIWKH
rotational ellipsoid of the Earth.
At the great distances from which Waugh and his
team attempted to determine the heights of the Himalayan
SHDNVWKHWUXHKRUL]RQLVVHYHUDONLORPHWUHVEHORZWKH
apparent horizon (Fig. 23). This can be calculated using
WKHIRUPXODJLYHQE\0DFDURO0DFDUROSS±
(3)
where l is the distance from the set point to the projection
RI0W(YHUHVWDWVHDOHYHOPHDVXUHGDORQJWKHDUFij¶ is
the elevation angle from which the peak of Mt. Everest is
YLHZHGIURPWKHVHWSRLQWVKLIWHGE\UHIUDFWLRQDQGNis
WKHFRHI¿FLHQWRIUHIUDFWLRQZKLFKEDVHGRQH[SHULPHQ
tal estimation is usually taken to be close to 0.13. The
above formula disregards the heights of the set points.
This is possible because the heights of the set points
were around 60 m above sea level (URL 15) and here
we are dealing with only rough calculations.
Column 2 in Table 4 shows that the angle of refrac
tion İWDNLQJWKHFRHI¿FLHQWRIUHIUDFWLRQNWREHLV
EHWZHHQ¶¶¶DQG¶¶¶&ROXPQDOVRVKRZVWKDW
Waugh and his team measured the elevation angles on
0W(YHUHVWZLWKDPDUJLQRIHUURURIEHWZHHQ¶¶DQG¶¶
in spite of the great effect of refraction and other prob
OHPV,QIDFW:DXJKDQGKLVWHDPFDOFXODWHGWKHKHLJKW
RI0W(YHUHVWDWPDQGODWHUPRUHSUHFLVHPHD
VXUHPHQWVKDYHVKRZQWKDWLWLVLQIDFWPPHDQ
ing that the margin of error was only 8 metres (Fig 25).
A comparison of the values in columns 2 and 4 of Ta
EOHVKRZWKDWLQWKHPLGWKFHQWXU\WKH\ZHUHDEOH
to calculate the effect of refraction on measuring angles
UHODWLYHO\VXFFHVVIXOO\HYHQWKRXJKWKH\ZHUHXQDEOHWR
PHDVXUHWKHDQJOHVIURPERWKVLGHVGXHWRWKHLQDFFHV
sibility of the mountain.
or by using the approximate formula
(4)
,QDGGLWLRQZHNQRZWRGD\WKDWWKHGLYHUJHQFHRIWKH
vertical from the normal in an ellipsoid (Fig. 30) in areas
.L*
+LPDODMDLSUHJOHGRGUHÿLYDQMDYLVLQD0W(YHUHVWD
izmjerili elevacijske kutove na Mt. Everest una
WRþYHOLNRPXWMHFDMXUHIUDNFLMHLRVWDOLKSRWHãNR
üDVSRJUHãNRPRG¶¶GR¶¶1DLPHL]UDþX
QDOLVXGDMHYLVLQD0W(YHUHVWDPDND
VQLMDWRþQLMDPMHUHQMDSRND]DODVXGDMHWDYL
VLQDPWMGDMHUD]OLNDELODVDPRPVO
25). Usporedbom vrijednosti iz stupaca (2) i (4)
tablice 4 vidi se da su oni sredinom 19. stolje
üDUHODWLYQRGREURL]UDþXQDOLXWMHFDMUHIUDNFLMH
na mjerenje vertikalnih kutova iako zbog nepri
VWXSDþQRVWL0W(YHUHVWDQLVXPRJOLPMHULWLNX
tove obostrano.
Danas je poznato da i otkloni vertikala od
QRUPDOHQDHOLSVRLGVOXSRGUXþMLPDVWDNR
velikim masama kao što ih ima Himalaja mogu
ELWLYHOLNLLGDXWMHþXQDRGUHÿLYDQMHYLVLQDýX
EUDQLüVWU±8GREDSUYRJRGUH
ÿLYDQMDYLVLQH0W(YHUHVWDJHRGHWLQLVXX]LPD
OLXUDþXQLWDMHIHNW85/
9LVLQHVXUDþXQDQHXRGQRVXQDQDGPRUVNX
YLVLQX%HQJDOVNRJ]DOMHYDXGDOMHQRJRNR
NPRGWULJRQRPHWULMVNLKWRþDNDVNRMLKMHRGUH
ÿLYDQDYLVLQD0W(YHUHVWD2GSR]QDWLKWULJR
QRPHWULMVNLKWRþDNDVNRMLPDVHGRãOREOL]X+L
malaje moglo se:
)LJ3ULVPWULSRGIRUPHDVXULQJGLVWDQFHXVLQJDQHOHFWUR
RSWLFDOGLVWDQFHPHWHUDQGWKHDQWHQQDRIWKH*36WUDQVPLWWHU
/HLFD6\VWHPRQWKHVXPPLWRI0W(YHUHVW
3KRWR(9.&153RUHWWL/HLFD*HRV\VWHPV
6OLND1RVDþSUL]PL]DPMHUHQMHXGDOMHQRVWLVSRPRüX
HOHNWURRSWLþNLKGDOMLQRPMHUDLDQWHQD*36SULMDPQLND
/HLFD*36V\VWHPQDYUKX0W(YHUHVW
)RWR(9.&153RUHWWL/HLFD*HRV\VWHPV
‰ presjekom naprijed odrediti koordinate
SRORåDMD YUKRYD +LPDODMH WM KRUL]RQWDOQH
XGDOMHQRVWLGRSODQLQVNLKYUKRYDVSRPRüX
L]PMHUHQLKKRUL]RQWDOQLKNXWRYDL]PHÿXVXV
MHGQLKSR]QDWLKWULJRQRPHWULMVNLKWRþDNDLYUKRYDD
‰PMHUHüLHOHYDFLMVNHNXWRYHQDYUKRYHPRJODVH]DWLP
RGUHGLWLYLVLQVNDUD]OLNDRGVWDMDOLãQHWRþNHGRSODQLQ
skog vrha.
3ULWRPVHQLMHPRUDORSHQMDWLQDYUKRYHMHUVHRGUHÿL
YDODYLVLQDVQMHåQROHGHQHNDSHQDYUKX7DNRMH:DXJK
najprije odredio visinu planinskog vrha Kangchenjunge
VONRMLVHQDOD]LQDLVWRþQRMJUDQLFL1HSDODL,QGLMH
NPMXåQLMHRGWURPHÿH,QGLMH1HSDODL.LQH7LEHWD
Dobio je da bi ta visina mogla biti 8590 m te da bi to mo
JDRELWLLQDMYLãLYUKQD=HPOML.DVQLMLPPMHUHQMLPDWDMH
YLVLQDSRSUDYOMHQDQDP'DQDVVH]QDGDMHWRWUHüL
po visini vrh na Zemlji. Waugh nije objavio rezultate svo
MLKLVWUDåLYDQMDMHUMHLVSUDYQRSUHWSRVWDYLRGDELYUKXQ
ci na granici Nepala i Tibeta mogli biti još viši. Neizmje
reni vrh nazvao je vrh gamma2VLPWRJDRQMHVLJXUQR
NDRJHRGHWELRVYMHVWDQGDMHWRþQRVWWDNYRJRGUHÿLYD
QMDYLVLQDVYUORYHOLNLKJROHPLKXGDOMHQRVWLRJUDQLþHQD
DOLQDåDORVW]ERJ]DEUDQHGDVWUDQFLXOD]HX1HSDOQLMH
PRJDRSULüLEOLåHWLPSODQLQVNLPYUKXQFLPD
Godine 1847. i 1849. izvedena su nova trigonometrij
ska mjerenja na vrh koji se tada zvano vrh b te se ubrzo
GRãORGR]DNOMXþNDGDMHULMHþRLVWRPYUKXãWRJDMH]D
ELOMHåLRL:DXJK0MHUHQMDVXSRND]DODGDMHWDMYUKYLãL
RG.DQJFKHQMXQJH:DXJKMHWDGDSUHLPHQRYDRVYH
YUKRYHWHMRãMHGQRPX]SRPRüYRGLWHOMDWLPD]DUDþXQD
nja 5DGKDQDWKD6LNGDUDSURYMHULRVYDUDþXQDQMDLGRãDR
GR]DNOMXþNDGDMHYUK (kako je tada nazivao nekadaš
nji vrh gama) najviši vrh na Zemlji. On je 1852. godine
na osnovi trigonometrijskih mjerenja prvi ustvrdio da je
YUKQDMYLãLYUKQDVYLMHWXDREMDYLRMHUH]XOWD
te svoje ekipe. Taj je vrh poslije nazvan Mount Everest i
prema Waughu visok je P7DYLVLQDRGUHÿHQDMH
NDRVUHGLQDL]UH]XOWDWDRGUHÿLYDQMDVDãHVWUD]OLþLWLKWUL
JRQRPHWULMVNLKWRþDNDXGDOMHQLKGRNPNRMLKMH
nadmorska visina bila oko 60 m iznad mora (URL 15).
2GUHÿLYDQMHYLVLQH0W(YHUHVWDX JRGLQL
Nova mjerenja obavljena su 1954. godine od trigo
QRPHWULMVNLKWRþDNDSRVWDYOMHQLK]QDWQREOLåH0W(YHUH
VWXWDNRÿHUX]SRPRüWHRGROLWDWULJRQRPHWULMVNLPPMH
UHQMHPYLVLQD=ERJWRJDMHYMHURMDWQRUH]XOWDWWRþQLMLRG
prethodnih. Dobivena je visina PDWDMHYULMHGQRVW
L]UDþXQDQDNDRDULWPHWLþNDVUHGLQDUH]XOWDWDGRELYHQLK
L]PMHUHQMDQDWULJRQRPHWULMVNLKWRþDNDXGDOMHQLKRG
47 do 76 km od Mt. Everesta (URL 15).
0RåHVHUHüLGDMHWDYLVLQDXOLWHUDWXULXSRVOMHGQMLK
JRGLQDELODQDMþHãüHSULKYDüHQD7UHEDQDJODVLWLGD
MHRGUHÿLYDQDYLVLQDVQMHåQROHGHQHNDSH0W(YHUH
sta jer se nitko nije bio u stanju popeti na vrh i postaviti
81
.L*
The Himalayas and a Survey of Determining the Height of Mt. Everest
RIVXFKKXJHPDVVDVWKH+LPDOD\DVPXVWEHJUHDWDQG
WKXVDIIHFWKHLJKWHVWLPDWLRQýXEUDQLüSS±
572). In the early days of estimating the height of Mt.
(YHUHVWWKHVXUYH\RUVGLGQRWWDNHWKLVHIIHFWLQWRDF
count (URL 16).
The heights were calculated in relation to the sea lev
HOLQWKH%D\RI%HQJDONPIURPWKHWULJRQRPHWULF
points used to determine the height of Mt. Everest. Us
ing the known trigonometric points by which the survey
ing project had reached the region close to the Himala
\DVLWZDVSRVVLEOHWR
‰ establish in advance the coordinates for the positions
RIWKH+LPDOD\DQSHDNVE\FURVVVHFWLRQLHWKHKRUL
]RQWDOGLVWDQFHWRWKHSHDNVE\PHDQVRIPHDVXULQJ
the horizontal angles between neighbouring known
trigonometric points and the peaks
‰ establish the difference in height between the set
point and a particular peak by measuring the elevation
angles at the peaks.
82
,WZDVQRWQHFHVVDU\WRFOLPEWKHSHDNVVLQFHWKH
KHLJKWRIWKHVQRZDQGLFHFDSRQWKHSHDNVKDGDOVR
EHHQGHWHUPLQHG7KXV:DXJK¿UVWGHWHUPLQHGWKHKHLJKW
RI.DQJFKHQMXQJDSHDN)LJZKLFKLVVLWXDWHGRQWKH
HDVWHUQERUGHURI1HSDODQG,QGLDNPVRXWKRIWKH
ERUGHUFRQMXQFWLRQRI,QGLD1HSDODQG&KLQD7LEHW+H
estimated its height at 8590 m and suspected it might be
the highest peak in the world. Later measurements cor
UHFWHGKLVUHVXOWWRP7RGD\ZHNQRZWKDWWKLVSHDN
is the third highest in the world. Waugh did not publish
WKHUHVXOWVRIKLVUHVHDUFKVLQFHKHSUHVXPHGFRUUHFW
O\WKDWWKHSHDNVRQWKHERUGHURI1HSDODQG7LEHWPLJKW
be even higher. He called his unmeasured peak Peak
*DPPD+HDOVRNQHZDVDVXUYH\RUWKDWWKHDFFXUDF\
RIDQ\ORQJGLVWDQFHPHDVXUHPHQWVZRXOGEHOLPLWHG\HW
he was unfortunately unable to get closer to the mountain
SHDNVVLQFHIRUHLJQHUVZHUHIRUELGGHQWRHQWHU1HSDO
,QDQGQHZWULJRQRPHWULFPHDVXUHPHQWV
ZHUHFRQGXFWHGRQWKHSHDNNQRZQDV3HDNEDQGWKH
conclusion was quickly drawn that this was the same
peak referred to by Waugh. Measurements showed that
LWZDVKLJKHUWKDQ.DQJFKHQMXQJD:DXJKWKHQUHQDPHG
DOOWKHSHDNVDQGRQFHDJDLQZLWKWKHKHOSRIWKHOHDGHU
RIKLVWHDPRIFDOFXODWRUV5DGKDQDWK6LNGDUUHFKHFNHG
all the calculations and came to the conclusion that Peak
IRUPHUO\NQRZQDV3HDN*DPPDZDVWKHKLJKHVW
SHDNLQWKHZRUOG,QKHEHFDPHWKH¿UVWSHUVRQ
to establish that Peak 15 was the highest peak in the
ZRUOGEDVHGRQWULJRQRPHWULFPHDVXUHPHQWV:DXJK
¿QDOO\SXEOLVKHGWKHUHVXOWVRIKLVWHDP¶VZRUNLQ
declaring Peak 15 to be the highest in the world. It was
WKLVSHDNZKLFKZDVODWHUUHQDPHG0RXQW(YHUHVWDQG
which Waugh estimated to be m high. His result
was based on the mean derived from the results of mea
VXUHPHQWVWDNHQIURPVL[GLIIHUHQWWULJRQRPHWULFSRLQWV
DWDERXWPDERYHVHDOHYHODQGDWGLVWDQFHVRIEH
tween 170 and 190 km from the mountain.
'HWHUPLQLQJWKHKHLJKW
RI0W(YHUHVWLQ
Mt. Everest was again subjected to measurement in
IURPWULJRQRPHWULFSRLQWVVHWVLJQL¿FDQWO\FORVHU
WRWKHPRXQWDLQDJDLQXVLQJWKHRGROLWHV)RUWKLVUHD
VRQWKHUHVXOWVZHUHERXQGWREHPRUHDFFXUDWH,WZDV
established that Mt. Everest was m high. This val
ue was calculated as the arithmetic mean of results ac
quired from measurements taken at 12 trigonometric
SRLQWVDWGLVWDQFHVRIEHWZHHQDQGNPIURPWKH
mountain (URL 15).
'XULQJWKHSDVWKDOIFHQWXU\WKLV¿JXUHKDVEHHQ
PRVWIUHTXHQWO\DFFHSWHGLQWKHOLWHUDWXUH+RZHYHULW
should be emphasised that the height included the snow
DQGLFHFDSRQWKHVXPPLWDVVRIDUQRRQHKDGEHHQ
DEOHWRUHDFKWKHVXPPLWDQGVHWDJHRGHWLFPDUNHUOHW
DORQHFDUU\RXWPHDVXUHPHQWVWKHUH%HIRUHRQO\
WZRSHRSOHKDGHYHUUHDFKHGWKHVXPPLW6LU(GPXQG
+LOODU\DQG6KHUSD7HQ]LQJ1RUJD\XVLQJR[\JHQERW
tles. It was only in 1956 that the next successful ascent
ZDVPDGHE\IRXU6ZLVV-UJ0DUPHW(UQVW6FKPLHG
Adolf Reist and Hansrudolf von Gunten.
'HWHUPLQLQJWKHKHLJKWRIWKH+LPDOD\DV
IURPWKH&KLQHVHVLGHLQ
The Chinese measured the height of Mt. Everest in
1975 and concluded that it was 8848.13 m. In this case
DOVRWKHKHLJKWLQFOXGLQJWKHVQRZDQGLFHFDSZDVPHD
VXUHGUDWKHUWKDQWKHWRSRIWKHDFWXDOURFNWRS85/
2QWKLVRFFDVLRQWKH&KLQHVHSODFHGDJHRGHWLFVWUXFWXUH
for a marker on the summit and left a theodolite there. In
order to establish the height of the rock top of Mt. Ever
HVWWKH\ZRXOGKDYHQHHGHGWRSHQHWUDWHWKHWKLFNOD\HU
RIVQRZDQGLFHZKLFKZDVSUREDEO\WRRGLI¿FXOWDWDVN
in unfavourable weather conditions.
)LUVW*36PHDVXUHPHQWVLQ
'U5RJHU%LOKDPRIWKH8QLYHUVLW\RI&RORUDGRDORQJ
ZLWKWKH1HSDOL'HSDUWPHQWRI*HRGHWLFVPDGHWKH¿UVW
GPS measurements in India and the Himalayas. Based
RQWKHVHPHDVXUHPHQWVWKH\FRQFOXGHGWKDWWKH,QGLDQ
Plate was moving in a northeasterly direction towards
China (Tibet) at the rate of 5.5 cm per year (URL 17).
The movement of the Indian Plate led to collision with
WKH(XUDVLDQ&RQWLQHQWZKLFKLQWXUQOHGWRWKHGHIRUPD
WLRQRIWKH(DUWK¶VLQWHULRULQWKHUHJLRQRI$VLDDQG,QGLD
which is the probably cause of earthquakes in that region.
,QWHUQDWLRQDO0RXQW(YHUHVW
0HDVXUHPHQW&DPSDLJQLQ
,QWHUQDWLRQDOFRRSHUDWLRQEHWZHHQ&KLQD,WDO\1HSDO
and France led to the opportunity of measuring the height
RI0W(YHUHVWPRUHDFFXUDWHO\XVLQJVWDWHRIWKHDUWWHFK
QRORJ\IRUJHRGHWLFPHDVXUHPHQWDQGUHO\LQJRQWKHVXS
SRUWRIWKH6ZLVVFRPSDQ\/HLFDLQWHUPVRISURYLGLQJ
.L*
+LPDODMDLSUHJOHGRGUHÿLYDQMDYLVLQD0W(YHUHVWD
JHRGHWVNXR]QDNXDNDPROLL]YHVWLRQGMHQHNRPMHUHQMH
1DLPHSULMHWRJDQDYUKVXVHSRSHOLVDPR(GPXQG+L
OODU\LâHUSD7HQVLQJ1RUJD\X]NRULãWHQMHERFDVNLVL
NRP7HNJRGLQHQDYUKVXVHSRSHODMRãþHWYRUL
FDâYLFDUDFD-UJ0DUPHW(UQVW6FKPLHG$GROI5HLVW
i Hansrudolf von Gunten.
*36SULMDPQLNWDNRGDPRåHUHJLVWULUDWLSULPOMHQHVLJQD
OHV*36VDWHOLWDVYDNHGYLMHVHNXQGHDVLJQDOLVXSUL
PDQLPLQXWH2VWDODþHWLUL*36SULMDPQLND/HLFD
V\VWHPLVWRGREQRVXSULPDODVLJQDOHV*36VDWHOLWD
2GUHÿLYDQMHYLVLQH+LPDODMHVNLQHVNH
VWUDQHXJRGLQL
‰QDNUDMXOHGHQMDND5RQJEXNX7LEHWXNRMLVXUHJLV
trirali podatke svake 2 sekunde.
.LQH]LVXRGUHÿLYDOLYLVLQX0W(YHUHVWDJRGL
ne i dobili da ona iznosi P,XWRPVOXþDMXYMH
URMDWQRMHRGUHÿLYDQDYLVLQDYUKDVQMHåQROHGHQHNDSH
DQHYUKDJODYHVWLMHQH85/1DLPH.LQH]LVXWDGD
SRVWDYLOLQDYUK0W(YHUHVWDJHRGHWVNLVWDWLY]D]QDþNX
L]DWHRGROLWNRMLMHRQGMHRVWDYOMHQ'DELRGUHGLOLLYLVL
QXYUKDVWLMHQH0W(YHUHVWDWUHEDOLVXSURELWLGHEHOLVORM
OHGDLVQLMHJDãWRLPMHVLJXUQRELRSUHWHåDN]DGDWDNX
tako nepovoljnim klimatskim uvjetima.
3UYD*36PMHUHQMDXJRGLQL
'U5RJHU%LOKDPVD6YHXþLOLãWDX.RORUDGX]DMHGQRV
2GMHORP]DJHRGH]LMXL]1HSDODL]YHRMHSUYD*36PMH
renja u Indiji i na Himalajima. Na temelju tih mjerenja za
NOMXþLOLVXGDVH,QGLMVNDSORþDSRPLþHXVPMHUXVMHYHUR
LVWRNDSUHPD.LQL7LEHWXFPJRGLãQMH85/7R
SRPLFDQMH,QGLMVNHSORþHL]D]LYDVXGDUDQMHV(XURD]LM
skim kontinentom što dovodi do deformacija i u Zemlji
QRMXQXWUDãQMRVWLQDSRGUXþMX$]LMHL,QGLMHSDVXWRPR
JXüLX]URFLSRWUHVD
0HÿXQDURGQDNDPSDQMD0W(YHUHVWX
JRGLQL
8RNYLUXPHÿXQDURGQHVXUDGQMH.LQH,WDOLMH1HSD
ODL)UDQFXVNHQDVWRMDODVHãWRWRþQLMHRGUHGLWLYLVLQD0W
Everesta primjenom najsuvremenijih tehnologija geodet
skih mjerenja uz veliku instrumentalnu podršku švicar
ske tvrtke Leica. U 1992. godini bila su organizirana si
multana geodetska mjerenja s tibetanske i nepalske stra
QHX]VXGMHORYDQMH]QDQVWYHQLNDLVWUDåLYDþDLDOSLQLVWD
L]]HPDOMDVXGLRQLFD8RNYLUXWHPHÿXQDURGQHVXUDG
QMHL]YHGHQDVXPMHUHQMDX]SRPRü
‰XPMHWQLK =HPOMLQLK VDWHOLWD DPHULþNLK VDWHOLWD *36
*OREDO 3RVLWLRQ 6\VWHP L IUDQFXVNRJ '25,6$D
(Doppler Orbitography and Radiopositioning Inte
grated by Satellite)
‰HOHNWURQLþNLKGDOMLQRPMHUDLWHRGROLWD
‰ astronomskih mjerenja.
D*36PMHUHQMD
Dana 28. rujna 1992. blizu vrha Mt. Everesta postav
OMHQLVX*36DQWHQDL*36SULMDPQLN/HLFD*36V\
VWHP3UHNRQRüLWHPSHUDWXUDMHELOD±oC. Sutradan
UXMQDGUXJDGYRMLFDDOSLQLVWDSRSHODVXVHQDYUKNDG
je u 10:30 sati bila temperatura –15oC. Oni su aktivirali
‰XGROLQL.KXPEXJOHþHUDX1HSDOXNRMLVXUHJLVWULUDOL
SULPOMHQHVLJQDOHV*36VDWHOLWDVYDNLKVHNXQGLL
2þLWRMHGDQLMHELRGREDUGRJRYRUL]PHÿXJUXSDX7L
EHWXL1HSDOXMHUVXX]HOLUD]OLþLWHLQWHUYDOHUHJLVWULUDQMD
SULPOMHQLKVLJQDODV*36VDWHOLWD7R]QDþLGDVXX]D
MHGQLþNRMREUDGLSRGDWDNDPMHUHQMDPRJOLNRULVWLWLVDPR
LQWHUYDORGWHNVHNXQGLWMWRMHQDMPDQML]DMHGQLþNLYL
šekratnik brojeva 2 i 15.
Sigurno je bilo zanimljivo odrediti nadmorsku visinu
0W(YHUHVWDLVSRPRüXXPMHWQLK=HPOMLQLKVDWHOLWDWM
*36D0HÿXWLPEXGXüLGDVHVSRPRüX*36DRGUH
ÿXMXVDPRHOLSVRLGQHYLVLQHWDM]DGDWDNVSRPRüXQDM
suvremenije tehnologije geodetskih mjerenja vrlo je slo
åHQ1DLPHRVLPHOLSVRLGQHYLVLQHRGUHÿHQH*36PMH
UHQMHPWUHEDRGUHGLWLLJHRLGQXXQGXODFLMX0W(YHUHVWD
WMYLVLQXJHRLGDL]QDGRGQRVQRLVSRGUHIHUHQWQRJHOLS
VRLGDDXWRPVXSRGUXþMXQMLKRYHUD]OLNHYUORYHOLNHSD
MHWRþQRVWJHRLGQLKYLVLQDPDQMD*HRLGQHYLVLQHVO
PRJXüHMHRGUHGLWLL]SRUHPHüDMDJLEDQMDXPMHWQLK=H
POMLQLKVDWHOLWDDOLLRSVHåQLKJUDYLPHWULMVNLKPMHUHQMDQD
površini Zemlje.
1DGDOMHSR]QDWRMHGDMHWRþQRVWRGUHÿLYDQMDYLVLQD
GRELYHQLK*36PMHUHQMHPWULSXWDVODELMDRGKRUL]RQWDO
QRJRGUHÿLYDQMDSRORåDMD2VLPWRJDLYHOLNDUD]OLNDXYL
VLQDPDRGUHÿLYDQLKWRþDNDXWMHþHQDWRþQRVW*36RGUH
ÿLYDQMD7UHEDQDSRPHQXWLGDLVRIWYHU]DL]MHGQDþHQMH
*36PMHUHQMDXJRGLQLQLMHELRGRYROMQRNYDOLWHWDQ
E0MHUHQMHXGDOMHQRVWLHOHNWURQLþNLP
GDOMLQRPMHULPDLNXWRYDWHRGROLWLPD
=DRGUHÿLYDQMHYLVLQH0W(YHUHVWDVSRPRüXHOHN
WURRSWLþNLKGDOMLQRPMHUDLWHRGROLWDSRVWDYOMHQHVXWULWRþ
NHX7LEHWXLWULWRþNHX1HSDOX=DVYDNXVNXSLQXWLKWR
þDNDL]PMHUHQLVXVYLPRJXüLNXWRYLLXGDOMHQRVWLNRMLVX
WDNRWYRULOLGYLMHQH]DYLVQHWULJRQRPHWULMVNHPUHåHV0W
(YHUHVWRPNDRMHGQRP]DMHGQLþNRPWRþNRP2QDMH
ELODXGDOMHQD±NP1D0W(YHUHVWXQLVXL]YRÿHQD
PMHUHQMDYHüVXQDQMHPXDOSLQLVWLNRMLVXXNOMXþLOLXUDG
*36SULMDPQLNSRVWDYLOLGUåDþSUL]PLV*36DQWHQRPX
EOL]LQL*36SULMDPQLNDLRULMHQWLUDOLMHGDQVNXSSUL]PLSUH
PDWRþNDPDX1HSDOXDGUXJLVNXSSUHPDWRþNDPDX
Tibetu (sl. 27). Svaki skup prizmi sastojao se od tri priz
PH1DWDMVXQDþLQHOHNWURQLþNLGDOMLQRPMHULPRJOLSUL
PDWLNYDOLWHWQRUHÀHNWLUDQHVYMHWORVQHLPSXOVHVSUL]PL
Na vrhu Mt. Everesta ostali su dva sata. Za mjerenje su
XSRWULMHEOMHQL/HLFLQLHOHNWURQLþNLGDOMLQRPMHULLWHRGROLWL
0(WDGDQDMSUHFL]QLMLGDOMLQRPMHUQDWUåLãWX
PPSSP/HLFD7 i ', i teodolit T2.
83
The Himalayas and a Survey of Determining the Height of Mt. Everest
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84
6OLND*HRLG(*0MHGDQMHRGPRGHOD=HPOMHNRMLRGVWXSDRGUHIHUHQWQRJHOLSVRLGDVQDMYHüRPYLVLQRPPLQDMYHüRPGXELQRP±PX,QGLMVNRPRFHDQX,VSRG0W(YHUHVWDJHRLGQDXQGXODFLMDMHQHJDWLYQDLL]QRVLRNR±P85/
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participating countries. Within the framework of this in
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the assistance of:
‰DUWL¿FLDO VDWHOOLWHV$PHULFDQ *36 VDWHOOLWHV DQG WKH
French DORIS satellite (Doppler Orbitography and
Radiopositioning Integrated by Satellite)
‰ electronic distance meters and theodolites
‰ astronomic measurement
D*36PHDVXUHPHQW
2Q6HSWHPEHUD*36DQWHQQDDQG*36/HL
ca System 200 receiver were installed close to the sum
PLWRI0W(YHUHVW2YHUQLJKWWKHWHPSHUDWXUHUHDFKHG
–30o&7KHQH[WGD\6HSWHPEHUWZRFOLPEHUVVFDOHG
WKHVXPPLWZKHUHWKHWHPSHUDWXUHDWZDV±o
C. They activated the GPS receiver so that it registered
signals received from the GPS satellite every two sec
RQGVIRUDSHULRGRIPLQXWHV)RXURWKHU*36UHFHLY
ers (Leica System 200) also received simultaneous sig
nals from the GPS satellite:
‰WZRLQWKHYDOOH\RIWKH.KXPEX*ODFLHULQ1HSDOZKLFK
registered signals received from the GPS satellite
HYHU\VHFRQGVDQG
intervals for registering signals received from the GPS
satellite. This meant that their joint results were only val
LGIRUSHULRGVRIVHFRQGVLHWKHORZHVWFRPPRQPXO
tiplier of 2 and 15 seconds.
It must have been fascinating to establish the height
RI0W(YHUHVWDERYHVHDOHYHOXVLQJDUWL¿FLDOVDWHOOLWHV
LH*36+RZHYHUVLQFH*36FDQRQO\EHXVHGWRGHWHU
PLQHHOOLSVRLGKHLJKWVHYHQZLWKWKHKHOSRIWKHPRVWXS
WRGDWHWHFKQRORJ\IRUJHRGHWLFPHDVXUHPHQWWKHWDVN
was extremely complex. Apart from the ellipsoid height
GHWHUPLQHGE\*36PHDVXUHPHQWLWZDVQHFHVVDU\WR
GHWHUPLQHWKHJHRLGDOXQGXODWLRQRI0W(YHUHVWLHWKH
heights of the geoid above or below the reference ellip
VRLG,QWKLVSDUWLFXODUUHJLRQWKHGLIIHUHQWLDOVDUHKLJK
therefore the accuracy of the geoidal heights is compro
mised. The geoidal heights (Fig. 28) can be calculated
IURPGLVWXUEDQFHVLQWKHPRYHPHQWVRIDUWL¿FLDOVDWHO
OLWHVEXWDOVRIURPFRPSUHKHQVLYHJUDYLPHWULFDOPHD
VXUHPHQWVDWWKH(DUWK¶VVXUIDFH
)XUWKHUPRUHLWLVNQRZQWKDWWKHDFFXUDF\RIGHWHU
mining height through GPS measurement is three times
less reliable than horizontal estimation of position. The
FRQVLGHUDEOHGLIIHUHQFHLQWKHKHLJKWVRIVSHFL¿FSRLQWV
affects the accuracy of GPS estimation. It should be men
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surement was not of a high enough quality.
‰WZRDWWKHHQGRIWKH5RQJEXNJODFLHULQ7LEHWZKLFK
registered data every two seconds.
It seems that the groups in Tibet and Nepal failed to
UHDFKFRPSOHWHDJUHHPHQWVLQFHWKH\DGRSWHGGLIIHUHQW
In order to determine the height of Mt. Everest using
HOHFWURQLFGLVWDQFHPHDVXUHPHQWDQGWKHRGROLWHVWKUHH
E(OHFWURQLFGLVWDQFHPHDVXUHPHQWDQGPHD VXUHPHQWRIDQJOHVE\WKHRGROLWHV
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+LPDODMDLSUHJOHGRGUHÿLYDQMDYLVLQD0W(YHUHVWD
VQLMHJD%XãHQMHPVQMHåQHNDSHQDQHNROLNRPMHVWDX
EOL]LQLVWDWLYDL]PMHULOLVXGDMHGXELQDVQLMHJDP
I)RWRJUDPHWULMD
=DXVSRUHGEXGRELYHQLKUH]XOWDWD*36PMHUHQMLPDL
PMHUHQMLPDHOHNWURRSWLþNLPGDOMLQRPMHULPDLWHRGROLWLPD
ELORMHYDåQRRGUHGLWLUHODWLYQLSRORåDML]PHÿX*36DQWH
QHLSUL]PLVFHQWLPHWDUVNRPWRþQRVWL1MLKRYPHÿXVREQL
SRORåDMRGUHÿHQMHPMHUQRPYUSFRPLNRPSDVRPDRVLP
toga snimljen je stereopar za fotogrametrijsku izmjeru.
J3UHWKRGQDPMHUHQMD
)LJ7KHHOOLSVRLGKHLJKWLVWKHKHLJKWRIWKHSRLQW
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theoretically most closely touches the entire Earth, and
WKHGHYLDWLRQRIWKHYHUWLFDOLVWKHDQJOHEHWZHHQWKH
QRUPDORQWKHUHIHUHQFHHOOLSVRLGDQGWKHGLUHFWLRQ
RIWKHSOXPEOLQH
6OLND(OLSVRLGQDYLVLQDMHYLVLQDWRþNHWHUHQD
L]QDGUHIHUHQWQRJHOLSVRLGDNRMLVHWHRULMVNLQDMEROMH
SULOMXEOMXMHX]þLWDYX=HPOMXDRWNORQYHUWLNDOHMHNXW
L]PHÿXQRUPDOHQDUHIHUHQWQLHOLSVRLGLVPMHUDYLVND
1DQHSDOVNRMJHRGHWVNRMPUHåLQDWRþNDPDRVQRY
QRJWURNXWD.1L/PMHULOLVX7DOLMDQLDQDWLEHWDQVNRM
QDRVQRYQLPWRþNDPD5,,,L:.LQH]LVO
F0MHUHQMHPHWHRURORãNLKSRGDWDND
=DãWRWRþQLMHRGUHÿLYDQMHXWMHFDMDDWPRVIHUHQDPMH
UHQMHNXWRYDXGDOMHQRVWLDOLL]D*36PMHUHQMDELRMH
L]UDÿHQSRVHEDQVHQ]RUNRMLMHPMHULRWHPSHUDWXUXLWODN
zraka na vrhu Mt. Everesta i slao te informacije radiopu
WHPSULMDPQLNXXGROLQXVYDNLKVHNXQGL2VLPWRJD]D
YULMHPHPMHUHQMDSUHPDYUKXELRMHRGUHÿLYDQLYHUWLNDOQL
WHPSHUDWXUQLJUDGLMHQWVSRPRüXPHWHRURORãNLKVRQGDå
nih balona puštanih iz dvaju mjesta. Na mjestima opa
åDQMD]DSLVLYDQHVXL]PMHUHQHYULMHGQRVWLWHPSHUDWXUH
YODåQRVWLLWODND]UDNDVYDNLKVHNXQGL
G$VWURQRPVNDPMHUHQMD
1DþHWLULPDWRþNDPDL]PHÿX/XNODL.DPSDED]H(YH
UHVWRGUHÿHQHVXDVWURQRPVNHNRRUGLQDWHDVWURQRP
VNDãLULQDLGXåLQDVSRPRüXWHRGROLWD7WYUWNH/HL
FDSRYH]DQRJVMHGLQLFRP]DWRþQRPMHUHQMHYUHPHQD
.DNRVXL]PMHUHQHLJHRGHWVNHNRRUGLQDWHij i Ȝ na refe
UHQWQRPHOLSVRLGX:*6µVSRPRüX*36SULMDPQLND
ELORMHPRJXüHRGUHGLWLRWNORQHYHUWLNDODRGQRUPDOHQD
elipsoid WGS ‘84.
H'XELQDVQLMHJD
Dvojica alpinista popela su se na vrh Mt. Everest dan
QDNRQ*36PMHUHQMDWMUXMQDNDNRELRGUHGLOLGXELQX
3ULMHNDPSDQMH(YHUHVW.LQH]LVXSUHQLMHOLQDGPRU
VNXYLVLQXRGäXWRJDPRUDXGDOMHQRJRNRNPRG
0W(YHUHVWDVDVYRMRPQLYHOPDQVNRPPUHåRPGRWRþ
NH5L,,,LRGUHGLOLJHRLGQHYLVLQHXQGXODFLMHL]UDþX
nane iz gravimetrijskih mjerenja izvedenih sve do visine
7900 m u 1979. godini.
K2EUDGDUH]XOWDWDPMHUHQMD
6YLSRGDFLPMHUHQMDELOLVXRGYRMHQRREUDÿHQLX.LQLL
X,WDOLMLDUH]XOWDWLRGUHÿLYDQMDYLVLQH0W(YHUHVWDL]*36
LWHUHVWULþNLKSRGDWDNDVNXSOMHQLKPMHUHQMDWLMHNRPNDP
panje Mt. Everest u 1992. godini objavljeni su 1993. go
GLQH/HLFD85/
‰HOLSVRLGQDYLVLQDPQDUD]LQLVQLMHJD
‰JHRLGQDXQGXODFLMDPLVSRGUD]LQHUHIHUHQWQRJ
elipsoida)
‰QDGPRUVND YLVLQD 0W (YHUHVWD P YLVLQD
snijega)
‰GXELQDVQLMHJD±P
‰QDGPRUVNDYLVLQD0W(YHUHVWDP“P
(visina stijene).
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0LOOHQLXP 1999. godine
$PHULþNDHNVSHGLFLMD7LP(YHUHVW0LOOHQLXPNRMXMH
YRGLR%UDGIRUG:DVKEXUQSRVWDYLODMHMHGDQ*36SULMD
PQLN7ULPEOH66LQDQDMYLãRMWRþNLVWLMHQHQDYUKX
Mt. Everesta (URL 17) 5. svibnja 1999. Pritom je druga
*36PMHUQDWRþNDSRVWDYOMHQDQDMXåQRPVHGOX0W(YH
UHVWDQDYLVLQLP1DWLPGYMHPDWRþNDPD*36SUL
MDPQLFLUDGLOLVXVLPXOWDQRDSRNUHWQL*36SULMDPQLNQR
VLOLVXþODQRYLHNVSHGLFLMHX]GXåMXåQRJXVSRQDVO
6QMHåQDPDVDNRMDSRNULYDYUK0W(YHUHVWDELODMH
LVNOMXþHQDL]UDþXQDQMDMHUYLVLQDVQLMHJDYDULUDXVNODGX
VLQWHQ]LWHWRPPRQVXQD2VLPWRJDYUKVWLMHQHLYUKVQL
MHJDQLVXLGHQWLþQHWRþNHVO1DLPHQDYUKXSXãX
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resta ehosonder.
85
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The Himalayas and a Survey of Determining the Height of Mt. Everest
radio to a receiver in the valley every
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ment was being conducted towards the
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ent was provided by sounding balloons
launched from two positions. Temper
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corded every 15 seconds.
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86
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FDPSDLJQXVLQJ/HLFDLQVWUXPHQWV
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points were set up in Tibet and three in Nepal. Within
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HVZHUHPHDVXUHGWKXVIRUPLQJWZRLQGHSHQGHQWWULJR
nometric networks with one common target – the peak
of Mt. Everest. The mountain was 10–12 km away from
the points. No measurements were taken on Mt. Everest
LWVHOIEXWFOLPEHUVZHUHSRVLWLRQHGRQWKHVXPPLWDQG
WKH\DFWLYDWHGWKH*36UHFHLYHUVHWXSWKHSULVPWULSRG
with the GPS antenna near the GPS receiver and orient
HGRQHJURXSRISULVPVWRZDUGVWKHSRLQWVLQ1HSDODQG
the other groups towards the points in Tibet (Fig. 27).
(DFKJURXSFRQVLVWHGRIWKUHHSULVPV,QWKLVZD\HOHF
tronic distance meters were able to receive high quali
W\UHÀHFWHGOLJKWLPSXOVHVWKURXJKWKHSULVPV7KH\UH
mained at the summit of Mt. Everest for two hours. Mea
surements were taken using Leica electronic distance
meters and theodolites:
Astronomical coordinates (astro
nomical latitude and longitude) were
determined for four points between Luk
ODDQG(YHUHVW%DVH&DPSXVLQJD/HL
ca T1600 theodolite connected to a time
digitizing unit. Since the geodetic coor
dinates ij and Ȝ had been measured on
WKHUHIHUHQFHHOOLSVRLG:*6¶XVLQJD
*36UHFHLYHULWZDVSRVVLEOHWRGHWHU
mine the deviation of the vertical from
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H'HSWKRIVQRZ
Two climbers reached the summit of
Mt. Everest the day after the GPS measurements had
EHHQFRQGXFWHGLHRQ6HSWHPEHUZLWKWKHWDVNRI
determining the depth of the snow. They pierced the snow
cap in several places near the tripod and measured the
snow depth as 2.55 metres.
I3KRWRJUDPPHWU\
In order to compare the results obtained using GPS
PHDVXUHPHQWDQGPHDVXUHPHQWXVLQJHOHFWURRSWLFGLV
WDQFHPHWHUVDQGWKHRGROLWHVLWZDVLPSRUWDQWWRGHWHU
mine the relative positions between the prisms and the
GPS antenna to within one centimetre. This was done
XVLQJDWDSHPHDVXUHDQGFRPSDVVZKLOHSKRWRJUDP
metry was applied by reconstructing the summit of the
mountain in 3D from stereo photography.
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0(WKHQWKHPRVWSUHFLVHGLVWDQFHPHWHURQ
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and theodolite T2.
The Italians surveyed from the Nepali geodetic net
ZRUNDWWKHSRLQWVRIWKHEDVHWULDQJOH.1/ZKLOHRQ
WKH7LEHWDQVLGHWKH&KLQHVHVXUYH\HGIURPWKHEDVH
SRLQWV5,,,DQG:,)LJ
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In order to determine as accurately as possible the
effect of the atmosphere on the measurement of angles
DQGGLVWDQFHHYHQXVLQJ*36DVSHFLDOVHQVRUZDV
built to measure the temperature and air pressure at
the summit of Mt. Everest. This information was sent via
%HIRUH WKLV FDPSDLJQ LQ WKH &KLQHVH KDG
brought a levelling network from the Yellow Sea to points
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calculated with gravimetric observations performed up
to 7900 metres.
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All the surveying data was processed separately in
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of Mt. Everest obtained from GPS and terrestrial data col
lected during the Mt. Everest Measurement Campaign
RIZHUHSXEOLVKHGLQ/HLFD85/
‰ Ellipsoid height: 8823.51 m (at snow level)
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Dobivena visina Mt. Everesta bila je PDVQMHåQROHGHQDJODYDELODMH]DPYLãDRG
vrha stijene (URL 15).
,]GRNXPHQDWDVHQLãWDQHPRåHVD]QDWLR
RGUHÿLYDQMXJHRLGQHYLVLQHQLRWRPHQDNRMXUD
]LQXPRUDVHRGQRVLWDYLVLQD0W(YHUHVWDQD
%HQJDOVNL]DOMHYLOLQDäXWRPRUH1DLPHNDGVH
RGUHÿXMXYLVLQHVSRPRüX*36PMHUHQMDRGUH
ÿXMXVHHOLSVRLGQHYLVLQHWHVH]ERJWRJDPRUD
MXQDQHNLQDþLQRGUHGLWLLJHRLGQHYLVLQH]DLVWX
WXWRþNX7RMHUD]ORJ]ERJNRMHJDJHRGHWLQH
PRJXSULKYDWLWLWHQRYRRGUHÿHQHYLVLQHYUKD0W
(YHUHVWDXQDWRþWRPHãWRMH7KH1DWLRQDO*Hographic Society prihvatilo tu visinu od m
IHHWNDRQRYXVOXåEHQRSUL]QDWXYLVLQX
Takvu odluku trebalo bi preispitati i s tim u skla
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ne Mt. Everesta.
)LJ$SSURDFKWR0W(YHUHVWDWWKHWLPHRIWKH
(YHUHVW0LOOHQQLXP7HDP([SHGLWLRQ85/
6OLND3ULVWXS0W(YHUHVWX]DYULMHPHHNVSHGLFLMH
7LP(YHUHVW0LOOHQLXPJRGLQH85/
.LQHVNDHNVSHGLFLMDXJRGLQL
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22. svibnja 2005. Nakon nekoliko mjeseci mjerenja i kom
SOLFLUDQRJUDþXQDQMDOLVWRSDGD.LQHVNLGUåDYQL
XUHG]DJHRGH]LMXLNDUWRJUD¿MXREMDYLRMHGDMHvisina stiMHQH0W(YHUHVWD“ m (URL 12).
7RMHYLVLQDQDMYLãHWRþNHVWLMHQH$NRVHX]PHXRE]LU
GDMHSULWRPL]PMHUHQDYLVLQDVQLMHJDLOHGDPGRELMH
se da je YLVLQDVQLMHJD0W(YHUHVWD m.
'DNOHWRMHXVNODGXVUH]XOWDWRPPL]
JRGLQHNDGDMHPMHUHQDQDGPRUVNDYLVLQDYUKDVQLMHJD
8EXGXüQRVWLüHVHQDVWRMDWLãWRWRþQLMHRGUHGLWLYLVL
QDYUKD0W(YHUHVWDMHUMHWRYDåQRL]ERJ]QDQVWYHQRJ
RGUHÿLYDQMDJRGLãQMHJDSRPLFDQMD=HPOMLQLKSORþDXKR
UL]RQWDOQRPLYHUWLNDOQRPVPLVOX7RMHUD]XPOMLYRMHUMH
0W(YHUHVWQDMYLãDWRþNDQD=HPOMLL]QDGUD]LQHPRUDL
RFHDQDSDQHNLWXWRþNXQD]LYDMXWUHüLP=HPOMLQLPSRORP
SUHNLGQRVYDNLGDQRGGRVDWDWLMHNRPþLWDYHJRGL
QHWHLKREUDÿXMHLRGDãLOMHWRþDQSRORåDMLVWUDåLYDþLPD
DOSLQLVWLPDLWLPRYLPDKLWQHSRPRüLXUHJLMLVYDNLKVH
kundi.2VLPWRJDSRGDFLVHL]UDYQRRGDãLOMXXUDþXQD
ORNRMHMHVPMHãWHQRXSLUDPLGLL]DWLPX,WDOLMXXVYUKX
SUDüHQMDWHNWRQVNLKSURPMHQDQDSRGUXþMXXEOL]LQL0W
(YHUHVWD3ULWRPVRODUQHSORþHRSVNUEOMXMX*36VWDQLFX
LUDGLRRGDãLOMDþHOHNWULþQRPHQHUJLMRPWLMHNRPFLMHOHJR
dine (URL 34).
Taj referentni signal koji odašilje permanentna stani
FD*36DRPRJXüDYDNRULVQLFLPDRGJRYDUDMXüLK*36
SULMDPQLNDRGUHÿLYDQMHSRORåDMDVDVWDQGDUGQLPRGVWX
SDQMHPRGVDPRMHGDQFHQWLPHWDU1DWDMMHQDþLQRPR
JXüHQRLVWUDåLYDþLPDNUHWDQMDOHGHQMDNDDOLLDOSLQLVWL
PDLWLPRYLPDKLWQHSRPRüLGDRGUHGHVYRMHSRORåDMHV
1HSDOL.LQDGRJRYRULOLVXVHJRGLQHGDVHviVLQD0W(YHUHVWDm SULKYDWLNDRVOXåEHQDYLVLQD
za najviši vrh na Zemlji.
6. Permanentna stanica GPS-a
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The Himalayas and a Survey of Determining the Height of Mt. Everest
‰ Geoidal undulation: 25.14 m (below the level of the
reference ellipsoid)
‰ Height of Mt. Everest above sea level: m
(including snow and ice cap)
‰ Depth of snow: –2.55m
‰ Height of Mt. Everest above sea level: “
m (height of rock top)
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receiver at the highest point of the rock top on the sum
mit of Mt. Everest (URL 17) on 5 May 1999. At the same
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dle of Mt. Everest at a height of 7930 m. The GPS re
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a mobile GPS receiver was carried by the members of
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The snow mass capping Mt. Everest was excluded
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summit of the rock top and the summit of the snowcap
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winds blow snow into the lee of the mountain. In order
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er was taken to the summit of the mountain.
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termined as PZLWKWKHVQRZDQGLFHFDSRQHPH
tre higher than the rock top (URL 15).
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the Yellow Sea). This is because when GPS measure
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in some way determined. This is the reason why geo
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graphic Society accepted it (PRUIWDVWKH
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haps be reviewed and a new project to determine the
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The Chinese expedition scaled the summit of Mt.
Everest on 22 May 2005. After several months of taking
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Cartography announced that WKHKHLJKWRIWKHURFNWRSRI
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height of the peak of the snowcap was measured as 8848
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determine more precisely the height of the peak of Mt.
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as m.
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has been set up in a glass pyramid. It was constructed
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ca GPS System 530 was installed in 2003 (Fig. 34). It
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GPS station and radio transmitter with electricity through
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signale vrlo stabilne frekvencije. Te radiosignale primaju
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The Himalayas and a Survey of Determining the Height of Mt. Everest
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ent time by Prof. Giorgio Poretti of the University of Tri
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the substantial support and sponsorship of Leica Geo
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deduced from the project title.
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nals of a very stable frequency. These radio signals are
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viši vrh na Zemlji nazove Mont Everest. Poslije je to ime
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2002. godine ustvrdili da bi taj vrh trebalo nazvati Mount
The Himalayas and a Survey of Determining the Height of Mt. Everest
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and DORIS contributes to the fact that the accuracy of
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them to monitor movements in the northeast section of
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Because he knew and valued what Sir George Ever
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A. S. Waugh proposed to honour the memory of his il
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but this was later altered to Mount Everest.
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registriran na kineskoj karti prije 280 godina (URL 1).
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uspeti na vrh s one strane s koje još nitko prije njih nije
WRXVSLRRVWYDULWLWDNRGDGDQDVLPDYLãHSXWRYDXVSRQD
.ROLNRMHSR]QDWRNDSHWDQ)UDQFLV<RXQJKXVEDQG
prvi je došao na ideju o usponu na Mount Everest 1893.
JRGLQH0HÿXWLPWDVHLGHMDRVWYDULODWHNQDNRQYLãHRG
GHVHWJRGLQDMHUMHWUHEDORQDMSULMHLVWUDåLWLLWUDVLUDWLQDM
povoljniji put do vrha. Takvih je pokušaja bilo nekoliko.
1DM]QDþDMQLMLSODQLQDUWRJDGRED$0.HOODVOLMHþQLNL]
/RQGRQDVNXSOMDRMHSRGDWNHVIRWRJUD¿MDNRMHPXMH
snimio njegov suradnik s tibetanske strane. S tih snima
NDPRJOHVXVHSURFLMHQLWLPRJXüQRVWLXVSRQD.DSH
tan John Noel je 1913. godine došao na udaljenost 65
NPRGYUKDDOLMH]ERJ,VYMHWVNRJUDWDVYRMDLVWUDåLYD
QMDREMDYLRWHNJRGLQH2VQRYDQMHWDNRÿHULOdERU]D0RXQW(YHUHVWDJRGLQHNDUWLUDQLVXSULVWX
pi na vrh. Godine 1922. organizirana je prva ekspedici
ja koja se pokušala uspeti na vrh.
2GERU]D0W(YHUHVW organizirao je od 1921. do
JRGLQHHNVSHGLFLMDNRMHVXSRNXãDOHµ¶RVYRMLWL¶¶
)LJ5HLQKROG0HVVQHUDFOLPEHUIURP6RXWK
7\URODWWKHVXPPLWRI0W(YHUHVWLQZLWKWKH
VXUYH\LQJWULSRGVHWXSE\WKH&KLQHVHLQYLVLEOH
LQWKHEDFNJURXQGE\SHUPLVVLRQRI50HVVQHU
6OLND5HLQKROG0HVVQHUDOSLQLVWL]-XåQRJ7LUROD
QDYUKX0W(YHUHVWDJRGLQHDXSR]DGLQLVHYLGL
JHRGHWVNLVWDWLYNRMLVXSRVWDYLOL.LQH]LJRGLQH
X]GR]YROX50HVVQHUD
93
The Himalayas and a Survey of Determining the Height of Mt. Everest
94
.L*
,QWKHHDUO\VWKH1HSDOLJRYHUQPHQWREMHFWHGWR
WKHIDFWWKDW(YHUHVWZDVQRWD1HSDOLQDPHEXWQHLWKHU
could they accept the Tibetan Sherpa name Chomolung
PD$FFRUGLQJWR%DEXUDP$FKDU\D±WKH\
FDPHXSZLWKWKHQDPH6DJDUPDWKDZKLFKPHDQVµ+HDG
RIWKH6N\¶LQ6DQVNULW,QWKH&KLQHVHDQQRXQFHG
that the highest peak in the world should be called Mount
4RPRODQJPDDVLWKDG¿UVWEHHQUHJLVWHUHGE\LWV7L
betan name on the map of China 280 years previously.
KHUHDFKHGWKHVXPPLWRQ0D\DW
using oxygen bottles (Fig. 37). These two men were the
¿UVWWRFRQTXHU(YHUHVWWKHµURRIRIWKHZRUOG¶
The acceptance of the name Mt. Everest for the high
est peak on the Earth is the highest recognition given to
a geodesist.
It is interesting to note that the 1975 Chinese expedi
tion to the summit of Mt. Everest set up a tripod for geo
GHWLFVXUYH\V85/+RZHYHUWKLVWULSRGZDVQRW
mentioned later.
9. Conquest of Mt. Everest
Various teams of climbers have forged 15 different
routes to the summit of Mt. Everest. Between 1953 and
FOLPEHUVUHDFKHGWKHVXPPLW,QWKHV
WKHUHZHUHPRUHWKDQDQGLQWKHVDOPRVW
,QWKHODVWGHFDGHRIWKHWKFHQWXU\DOPRVWSHR
ple have scaled the summit (URL 21).
Mt. Everest became an attraction for climbers from
DOORYHUWKHZRUOG,WVKHLJKWDQGWKHGLI¿FXOW\RIVFDOLQJLW
made it a challenge for extreme sportsmen. Everest can
be climbed from the north (Tibetan side) and south (Ne
pali side) (Fig. 36). Many climbers wanted to reach the
VXPPLWE\YLUJLQURXWHVVRWKDWWRGD\WKHUHDUHPDQ\
ascent routes.
$VIDUDVZHNQRZWKH¿UVWSHUVRQWRWKLQNRIFOLPELQJ
0W(YHUHVWZDV&DSW)UDQFLV<RXQJKXVEDQGLQ
+RZHYHUKHZDVRQO\DEOHWRPDNHWKHDWWHPSWWHQ\HDUV
ODWHUVLQFHLWZDV¿UVWQHFHVVDU\WRH[SORUHDQGPDUNRXW
the best way to reach Mt. Everest. Many such attempts
ZHUHPDGH7KHPRVWSURPLQHQWFOLPEHURIWKLVSHULRG
$0.HOODVDGRFWRUIURP/RQGRQFROOHFWHGGDWDIURP
photographs sent to him by an associate on the Tibet
an side. The photographs allowed him to judge the po
WHQWLDOIRUDQDVFHQW,Q&DSW-RKQ1RHOWUDYHOOHG
LQGLVJXLVHWRDSRLQWNPIURPWKHSHDNEXWWKH)LUVW
World War meant that he had to postpone publishing
his research until 1919. The Mount Everest Committee
ZDVIRUPHGDQGLQDFFHVVURXWHVWRWKHPRXQWDLQ
ZHUHPDSSHG,QWKH¿UVWH[SHGLWLRQVXFFHHGHGLQ
reaching the upper slopes.
%HWZHHQDQGWKH0RXQW(YHUHVW&RP
mittee organised seven expeditions with the aim of con
TXHULQJ0W(YHUHVW7KH\DOOVWDUWHGIURPWKHQRUWK7L
EHWDQVLGH85/$WWKHWLPHIRUHLJQHUVZHUHSUR
hibited from entering Nepal.
,QDQDWWHPSWWRUHDFKWKHVXPPLWPDGHLQ
*HRUJH/HLJK0DOORU\DQG$QGUHZ,UYLQHGLVDSSHDUHG
and it was not until 1999 that American climbers found
0DOORU\¶VERG\SHUIHFWO\SUHVHUYHGLQWKHLFHDWDKHLJKW
of 8250 m (URL 13).
7KH1HZ=HDODQGFOLPEHUDQGUHVHDUFKHU(GPXQG
Percival Hillary (20 July 1919 – 1 January 2008) joined
WKH%ULWLVKH[SHGLWLRQLQZKHQKHPDGHDQDWWHPSW
on the south ascent with Eric Shipton. He rejoined the
%ULWLVKH[SHGLWLRQLQXQGHUWKHOHDGHUVKLSRI-RKQ
+XQW:LWKKLV6KHUSDEHDUHU7HQ]LQJ1RUJD\±
(GPXQG+LOODU\ZDVNQLJKWHGIRUKLVDFKLHYHPHQW
while Tenzing Norgay was awarded the highest British
FLYLOLDQPHGDOWKH.LQJ*HRUJH0HGDO+LOODU\DOZD\V
HPSKDVLVHGWKDWWKLVZDVQRWDSHUVRQDOYLFWRU\EXWDQ
achievement made by the whole expedition.
$FFRUGLQJWR85/E\WKHHQGRIWKHFOLPELQJVHD
VRQLQWKHWRWDOQXPEHURIWKRVHUHDFKLQJWKHVXP
PLWZDVRIZKRPGLHGLQWKHDWWHPSW
7KH¿UVWZRPDQWRFRQTXHU0W(YHUHVWZDV-XQNR
7DEHLRI-DSDQIURPWKH7LEHWDQVLGHRQ0D\
85/:DQGD5XWNLHZLF]RI3RODQGZDVWKH¿UVW
(XURSHDQZRPDQDQGWKHWKLUGZRPDQLQWKHZRUOGWR
UHDFKWKHVXPPLWRQ2FWREHU5HLQKROG0HVV
QHUDFOLPEHUIURP6RXWK7\UROLQ,WDO\ZDVWKH¿UVWSHU
VRQWRUHDFKWKHVXPPLWZLWKRXWXVLQJR[\JHQLQ
+HFOLPEHG0W(YHUHVWLQVRORDVLVGRFXPHQW
HGE\VKRWVWDNHQXVLQJDQ$XWRNQLSV)LJLQZKLFK
the surveying tripod set up by the Chinese in 1975 can
clearly be seen.
When the Olympic Games were held in Beijing in
WKH2O\PSLFÀDPHZDVFDUULHGRYHU0W(YHUHVW
XVLQJWKHQRUWKURXWHRQLWVZD\WRWKHVWDGLXP
7KH&URDWLDQFOLPEHU6WLSH%RåLüIURP6SOLWVFDOHG
0W(YHUHVWRQ0D\DORQJZLWKWKH6ORYHQLDQ
6WDQ%HODNDQG6KHUSD$QJ)X7KH\ZHUHWKH¿UVWWR
reach the summit via the newly conquered western rock
IDFHWZRGD\VDIWHUWKH6ORYHQLDQV-HUQHM=DSORWQLNDQG
$QGUHMâWUHPIHOM6WLSH%RåLþPDGHDVHFRQGVXFFHVV
IXODVFHQWLQ'DULMDDQG,ULV%RVWMDQþLüEHFDPHWKH
¿UVWVLVWHUVLQKLVWRU\WRUHDFKWKHVXPPLWWRJHWKHURQ
0D\DQGWZRGD\VODWHUWZRPRUH&URDWLDQZRP
HQFOLPEHUV(QD9HUEHNDQG0LOHQDâLMDQDOVRUHDFKHG
the summit.
Conclusion
Determining the height of the peak of Mt. Everest
was a great professional challenge for A. S. Waugh and
KLVWHDPSDUWLFXODUO\DVWKH\KDGWRGRVRIURPDJUHDW
.L*
JRGLQHQDãOLWLMHOR*/0DOORU\DVDYUãHQRXãþX
vano u ledu na visini od 8250 m (URL 13).
1RYR]HODQGVNLDOSLQLVWLLVWUDåLYDþ(GPXQG3HUFLYDO
+LOODU\±SULNOMXþLRVHEULWDQVNRM
HNVSHGLFLMLJRGLQHNDGMH]DMHGQRV(ULFRP6KLS
WRQRPLVWUDåLYDRMXåQLSULVWXSYUKX2QVHSRQRYQRSUL
NOMXþXMHEULWDQVNRMHNVSHGLFLMLJRGLQHNRMXMHYRGLR
-RKQ+XQW=DMHGQRVDâHUSRPQRVDþHP7HQ]LQJ1RU
gayem (1914–1986) uspeo se na vrh 29. svibnja 1953.
u 11:30 sati uz uporabu boca s kisikom (sl. 37). Njih su
GYRMLFDSUYLOMXGLNRMLVXVHXVSHOLQD0W(YHUHVWRGQR
sno NURYVYLMHWD kako ga neki nazivaju.
(3+LOODU\MH]DQDJUDGXSURJODãHQYLWH]RPD71RU
JD\MHGRELRQDMYLãHEULWDQVNRFLYLOQRRGOLNRYDQMHPHGD
lju kralja Georga. Hillary je naglašavao da to nije samo
njegov osobni uspjeh nego uspjeh cijele ekspedicije.
.LQHVNDMHHNVSHGLFLMDJRGLQHQDYUK0W(YH
UHVWSRVWDYLODVWDWLYNRMLMHVOXåLR]DJHRGHWVNDPMHUH
QMD85/0HÿXWLPSRVOLMHWDMVWDWLYQLMHVSRPLQMDQ
5D]QLWLPRYLSHQMDþDDOSLQLVWDSURQDãOLVXUD]OL
þLWLKWUDVDGR0W(YHUHVWD2GGRJRGLQHQD
WDMYUKSRSHRVHDOSLQLVW8LPJRGLQDPDSRSHOR
LKVHYLãHRGXLPJRWRYRDXSRVOMHGQMRM
GHNDGLVWROMHüDJRWRYR85/
Prema (URL 1) do kraja sezone penjanja 2004. go
GLQHXVSHORVHSODQLQDUDDOSLQLVWDDLKMHSR
ginulo u pokušaju uspona.
-DSDQND-XQNR7DEHLSUYDMHåHQDQDVYLMHWXNRMDMH
osvojila vrh Mount Everest ostvarivši taj pothvat s tibet
ske strane 16. 5. 1975. (URL 21). Poljakinja Wanda Rut
NLHZLF]SUYDMH(XURSOMDQNDLWUHüDåHQDQDVYLMHWXNRMD
MHRVYRMLOD0W(YHUHVW5HLQKROG0HVVQHU
DOSLQLVWL]-XåQRJ7LUROD,WDOLMDSUYLVHSRSHREH]NLVL
NDQD0W(YHUHVWJRGLQH2VLPWRJD50HVVQHU
VHJRGLQHVDPSRSHRQDYUK0W(YHUHVWãWRMH
dokumentirao snimkom snimljenom autoknipsom (sl. 38)
QDNRMRMVHYLGHRQLJHRGHWVNLVWDWLYNRMLVXSRVWDYLOL.L
nezi 1975. godine.
.LQH]LVXSULMHRGUåDYDQMD2OLPSLMVNLKLJDUDX3HNLQ
gu 2008. godine sjevernom rutom prenijeli olimpijsku ba
klju preko Mt. Everesta.
,]+UYDWVNHVSOLWVNLDOSLQLVW6WLSH%RåLüXVSHRVH
zajedno sa Slovencem Stanom Belakom i Šerpom Ang
Fuom na vrh Mt. Everest 15. 5. 1979. Oni su se uspeli na
YUKSUYLSXWRVYRMHQLP]DSDGQLPJUHEHQRPLWRGYDGDQD
nakon Slovenaca Jerneja Zaplotnika i Andreja Štremfe
OMD6WLSH%RåLüMHSRGUXJLSXWRVYRMLR0W(YHUHVW
JRGLQH+UYDWLFH'DULMDL,ULV%RVWMDQþLüSUYHVXVHVWUHX
povijesti koje su istodobno došle na vrh Mount Everest
VYLEQMDDGYDGDQDSRVOLMHSRSHOHVXVHWDNR
ÿHU+UYDWLFH(QD9UEHNL0LOHQDâLMDQ
+LPDODMDLSUHJOHGRGUHÿLYDQMDYLVLQD0W(YHUHVWD
=DNOMXþDN
2GUHÿLYDQMHYLVLQHYUKD0W(YHUHVWDELRMHYHOLNLVWUXþ
QLL]D]RY]D$6:DXJKDLQMHJRYWLPSRVHEQR]DWRãWR
VXMXPRUDOLRGUHGLWLVYHOLNHXGDOMHQRVWLþDNGR
NP7RJHRGHWLVPDQMLPLVNXVWYRPXPMHUHQMXNXWRYD
DRVRELWRRQLVYHüLPLVNXVWYRPQHPRJXQL]DPLVOLWL
jer je utjecaj refrakcije i treperenja atmosfere kod malih
elevacijskih kutova vrlo velik. Waugh je sa svojim timom
SRVWLJDR]DYLGQXWRþQRVWRGUHÿLYDQMDYLVLQH0W(YHUH
VWDSRVHEQRDNRVHWRXVSRUHGLVUH]XOWDWRPRGUHÿLYD
QMDYLVLQHL]JRGLQH1DLPHUD]OLNDXRGUHÿLYDQML
ma visine u 1856. i 1954. godini bila je samo 8 m. Uzrok
te razlike nije samo nesigurnost mjerenja vertikalnih kuto
YDYHüLSRJUHãNDXRGUHÿLYDQMXXGDOMHQRVWLGR0W(YH
UHVWDSRJUHãNDXSURFMHQLXWMHFDMDUHIUDNFLMHXWMHFDMRW
klona vertikala i pogreška u Zemljinu radijusu.
0HÿXWLPQLGDQDVQLMHODNRRGUHGLWLWRþQXYLVLQX0W
(YHUHVWD1DLPHXQHSRYROMQLPNOLPDWVNLPXYMHWLPDQLMH
ODNRL]YHVWLVYDSRWUHEQDPMHUHQMDVQDMYHüRPSUHFL]QR
VWL2VLPWRJDLSULPMHQDVXYUHPHQLK*36PMHUHQMDQLMH
VYHPRJXüDMHUVHVSRPRüXQMLKPRJXL]PMHULWLVDPR
HOLSVRLGQHYLVLQHDWUHEDMXVHRGUHGLWLLJHRLGQHYLVLQH
Treba naglasiti da prenošenje visine geometrijskim nivel
PDQRPRGYUORXGDOMHQRJDäXWRJPRUDRNRNPLOL
RG%HQJDOVNRJD]DOMHYDRNRNPGRSRGQRåMD0W
(YHUHVWDQLMHODJDQ]DGDWDNDWXMHLSRWUHEDXVNODÿLYD
nja tih dviju nadmorskih visina.
7RþQRRGUHÿLYDQMHYLVLQHYUKD0W(YHUHVWDVLJXUQRMH
YUORYDåDQ]DGDWDN]DJHRGHWHMHUVHQDWDMQDþLQPRåH
L]SRQRYOMHQLKPMHUHQMDXQHNRPGXåHPYUHPHQVNRPUD]
GREOMXVWRþQLPQXPHULþNLPYULMHGQRVWLPDRGUHGLWLSRGL
zanje i pomicanje u horizontalnom smislu toga najvišeg
YUKDQD=HPOML7RMH]QDþDMQRNDNR]D]QDQVWYHQDLVWUD
åLYDQMDWDNRL]DSUDNWLþQHSULPMHQH1DLPHUH]XOWDWLWLK
PMHUHQMDRPRJXüXMXSUHGYLÿDQMDRWRPHãWRüHVHGR
JDÿDWLVWLPGLMHORP=HPOMLQHNXJOHLXGDOMRMEXGXüQRVWL
Zahvala
Najljepše zahvaljujemo recenzentima na korisnim
SULPMHGEDPDNRMLPDVXSULGRQLMHOLEROMRMNYDOLWHWLRYRJ
LVWUDåLYDQMDSRYLMHVWLRGUHÿLYDQMDYLVLQD0RXQW(YHUHVWD
=DKYDOMXMHPRSUHGVWDYQLNXãYLFDUVNHWYUWNH/HLFD
Geosystem i njihovu predstavniku u Hrvatskoj gospo
GLQXäHOMNX*XOLML]DNYDOLWHWQHVOLNHEUL
Zahvaljujemo Royal Geographical Society (with IBG)
i Reinholdu Messneru na suglasnosti da se reproducira
ju slike koje su u njihovu vlasništvu.
7DNRÿHU]DKYDOMXMHPR0LQLVWDUVWYX]QDQRVWLSURVYMH
WHLãSRUWD5+ãWRMHGMHORPLþQR¿QDQFLUDORRYDMUDGNRML
MHL]UDÿHQXRNYLUXSURMHNWD5D]YRM]QDQVWYHQRJPMHUL
WHOMVNRJODERUDWRULMD]DJHRGHWVNHLQVWUXPHQWHEU
95
The Himalayas and a Survey of Determining the Height of Mt. Everest
disWDQFHEHWZHHQNPDQGNPIURPWKHPRXQ
WDLQ7KLVLVVRPHWKLQJPRVWVXUYH\RUVFDQQRWLPDJLQH
particularly those with less experience in measuring an
JOHVDQGHYHQWKRVHZLWKJUHDWH[SHULHQFHNQRZWKDWWKH
effects of refraction and air vibrations are enormous when
small elevation angles are under consideration. Waugh
and his team achieved an enviable degree of accura
F\LQGHWHUPLQLQJWKHKHLJKWRI0W(YHUHVWSDUWLFXODUO\
in comparison to the result obtained in 1954. The differ
ence between the heights measured in 1856 and 1954
was only eight metres. This difference can be account
ed for not only by the uncertainty of measuring vertical
DQJOHVEXWDOVRWKHGLVWDQFHIURP0W(YHUHVWDWZKLFK
PHDVXUHPHQWVZHUHPDGHWKHGHJUHHRIHUURULQHVWL
PDWLQJWKHHIIHFWRIUHIUDFWLRQDQGWKHHIIHFWRIGHYLDWLRQ
IURPWKHYHUWLFDODQGHUURULQWKH(DUWK¶VUDGLXV
96
+RZHYHUHYHQWRGD\LWLVQRHDV\WDVNWRGHWHUPLQH
the exact height of Mt. Everest. Even in the most unfa
YRXUDEOHFOLPDWHFRQGLWLRQVLWLVGLI¿FXOWWRFDUU\RXWDOO
WKHQHFHVVDU\PHDVXUHPHQWVSUHFLVHO\%HVLGHVWKHDS
SOLFDWLRQRIPRGHUQ*36WHFKQRORJ\LVQRWDOPLJKW\EH
FDXVHZLWK*36HTXLSPHQWLWLVSRVVLEOHWRGHWHUPLQH
HOOLSVRLGDOKHLJWKRQO\DQGLWLVQHFHVVDU\WRGHWHUPLQH
JHRLGDOKHLJKWV+RZHYHULWVKRXOGDOVREHHPSKDVLVHG
that transferring heights by geometric levelling from the
distant Yellow Sea (about 3500 km away) or the Bay of
Bengal (about 700 km away) to the foot of Mt. Everest
LVQRHDV\WDVNZKLFKLQYROYHVWKHQHHGWRDOLJQWKHVH
two sea levels.
.L*
Determining the exact height of Mt. Everest is surely
DQLPSRUWDQWWDVNIRUJHRGHWLVWVVLQFHE\XVLQJUHSHDWHG
PHDVXUHPHQWVRYHUDORQJHUSHULRGRIWLPHZLWKSUH
FLVHQXPHULFDOYDOXHVLWLVSRVVLEOHWRGHWHUPLQHKRZ
much the highest peak in the world is rising and shifting
KRUL]RQWDOO\7KLVLVQRWRQO\RIVFLHQWL¿FVLJQL¿FDQFHEXW
has a practical application. The results of such measure
ments may indicate the possibility of predicting events in
this part of the world in the future.
$FNQRZOHGJHPHQWV
We would like to express our thanks to our review
HUVIRUWKHLUXVHIXOFRPPHQWVZKLFKFRQWULEXWHGWRWKH
quality of this research into the history of determining the
height of Mt. Everest.
We would like to thank the representatives of the
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WLYHLQ&URDWLD0UäHOMNR*XOLMDIRUKLJKTXDOLW\¿JXUHV
QRVDQG
We are grateful to the Royal Geographical Society
(with IBG) and Mr Reinhold Messner who gave the per
mission to reprint their images and photographs.
:HDUHDOVRJUDWHIXOWRWKH0LQLVWU\RI6FLHQFH(GX
FDWLRQDQG6SRUWRIWKH5HSXEOLFRI&URDWLDZKLFKVXEVL
GLVHGWKLVZRUNXQGHUWDNHQZLWKLQWKHIUDPHZRUNRIWKH
project 'HYHORSPHQWRID6FLHQWL¿F0HDVXULQJ/DERUDWRU\
IRU*HRGHWLF,QVWUXPHQWVQR.
References / Literatura
$EURPHLW/3REMHGDSUHFL]QRVWL*(2LQWHUQDWLRQDO±þDVRSLVXSR]QDWLLUD]XPMHWLVYLMHWEU
$WODVVYLMHWD$WODVVYLMHWDNDUWDL]GDQMHLQDNODGD-XJRVODYHQVNRJOHNVLNRJUDIVNRJ]DYRGD=DJUHE
$WODVRIWKH:RUOG7KH7LPHV$WODVRIWKH:RUOG7LPHV%RRNV/RQGRQ
ýXEUDQLü19LãDJHRGH]LMD,GLRâNROVNDNQMLJD=DJUHE
*XVLü,0DWHPDWLþNLUMHþQLN(OHPHQW=DJUHE
+DDVEURHN1'*HPPD)ULVLXV7\FKR%UDKHDQG6QHOOLXVDQGWKHLU7ULDQJXODWLRQ1HGHUODQGVH&RPPLVVLHYRRU
*HRGHVLH'HOIW1L]R]HPVND
-X]EDãLü7+LPDODMDSUHGYRUMHQHED0HULGLMDQLEUOLVWRSDG
/HLFD0W(YHUHVWPYLGHRNDVHWD/HLFD$*6W*DOOHQâYLFDUVND
0DFDURO63UDNWLþQDJHRGH]LMD7HKQLþNDNQMLJD=DJUHE
6PLWK-5(YHUHVW±7KHPDQDQGWKH0RXQWDLQ&DLWKQHVV:KLWWOHV3XEOLVKLQJ,6%1±
6RODULü03UYL]DþHFLVDWHOLWVNLKQDYLJDFLMD.DUWRJUD¿MDLJHRLIRUPDFLMHEU±=DJUHE
6RODULü06RODULü13UYL]DþHFLNODVLþQLKWULJRQRPHWULMVNLKPUHåD.DUWRJUD¿MDLJHRLQIRUPDFLMDEU±
âHQWLMD-XU+LPDODMD2SüDHQFLNORSHGLMD-XJRVODYHQVNLOHNVLNRJUDIVNL]DYRGVY=DJUHE
âHQWLMD-XU*HPPD)ULVLXV2SüDHQFLNORSHGLMD-XJRVODYHQVNLOHNVLNRJUDIVNL]DYRGVY=DJUHE
âHQWLMD-XU5HJLRPRQWDQXV2SüDHQFLNORSHGLMD-XJRVODYHQVNLOHNVLNRJUDIVNL]DYRGVY=DJUHE
âHQWLMD-XU6QHOOLXV2SüDHQFLNORSHGLMD-XJRVODYHQVNLOHNVLNRJUDIVNL]DYRGVY=DJUHE
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URL 2: Dritter Pol der Erde
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URL 3:William Roy
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URL 4: Principal Triangulation of Great Britain
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URL 5: Jesse Ramsden
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URL 6: Ramsden theodolite
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URL 7: William Lambton
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URL 8: George Everest
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URL 9: Survey of India
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URL 10: Ellipsoid Data
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URL 11: Andrew Scott Waugh
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