Radioactivity
10th lecture: radioactivity in industry
Fedor Danevich
Institute for Nuclear Research, Kyiv, Ukraine
http://lpd.kinr.kiev.ua
[email protected]
[email protected]
F.A. Danevich
Univ. Tor Vergata
1
November 11, 2015
• brief summary of the 9th lecture
Syntheis of the elements
• The proton–proton fusion p-p cycle (the main
energy source of the Sun)
• Helium burning in very hot red giant stars (formation of
carbon 12) at 108 K
• The carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle (CNO cycle) become
dominant at 17×106 K, only 1.7% in the Sun
• s-process: slow neutron capture process
generates nuclei till lead and bismuth
mostly in asymptotic giant branch stars
• r-process (rapid neutron capture process) and rp-process (rapid
proton capture process) occur in core-collapse supernovae, and in
accretion disk of neutron stars at temperature 108 K, respectively
• Spallation of elements by cosmic rays
High energy proton Heavy nucleus
Lighter nuclei
F.A. Danevich
Univ. Tor Vergata
2
November 11, 2015
• brief summary of the 9th lecture
Spontaneous fission
Fission yields
Energy release in one 235U fission is  210 MeV
T1/2 = 900 μs (245Md ) - T1/2 ~ 1.31021 y (232Th)
Branch 1.110-9% (232Th) – 100% (238Cf, 256Cf, 259Fm, 267Db, ... )
286
114
237
98
Fl
fission can be describe
by the liquid-drop model
Cf
https://www-nds.iaea.org/
Z 2 A1/3 Z 2

2/3
A
A
Dependence of SF half-life on Z2/A
F.A. Danevich
Univ. Tor Vergata
3
November 11, 2015
• brief summary of the 9th lecture
Neutron induced fission
Z 2 A1/3 Z 2

2/3
A
A
Neutron brings to the nucleus the energy
Ea comparable to the Ea  fission
Chain reaction in nuclear reactors
Radioactivity of uranium increases
millions times after operation of
nuclear reactor
Environmental consequences of a nuclear
accident: 131I, 60Co, 90Sr, 137Cs, 241Am
F.A. Danevich
Univ. Tor Vergata
4
November 11, 2015
• brief summary of the 9th lecture
Cluster decay
Cluster radioactivity being predicted in 1980 [1], the first detection in 1984 [2]
223Ra
 209Pb + 14C
Q = 32 MeV
The process is not a fission (since the certain nucleus is emitted)
The branching ratio is very low 6.410-5%
The following cluster emission is observed:
14C, 20O, 23F, 22,24-26Ne, 28,30Mg, and 32,34Si
E counter
E-E counter
223Ra source
4000 /sec

14C
221Fr (14Si)
242Cm (34Si)
1.0 x 10-14%
Amplitude
8.14×10−13%
14C

Time
Discrimination of  and 14C in the E counter
F.A. Danevich
Univ. Tor Vergata
5
November 11, 2015
In this lecture
• Radioactivity in industry
• Concentration of natural radioactive materials
• Transmutation of radioactive elements
F.A. Danevich
Univ. Tor Vergata
6
November 11, 2015
Radioisotopes in industry
• Neutron Techniques for Analysis
• Gamma & X-ray Techniques in Analysis
• Gamma Radiography
• Gauging
• Gamma sterilisation
• Scientific Uses
• Wastes
• Radioisotopic energy sources
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Univ. Tor Vergata
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November 11, 2015
• Neutron Techniques for Analysis
Neutron Techniques for Analysis
Neutrons from a research reactor can interact with atoms in a sample causing the
emission of gamma rays which, when analysed for characteristic energies and intensity,
will identify the types and quantities of elements present. The two main techniques are
Thermal Neutron Capture (TNC) and Neutron Inelastic Scattering (NIS). TNC occurs
immediately after a low-energy neutron is absorbed by a nucleus, NIS takes place
instantly when a fast neutron collides with a nucleus.
Sources of neutrons
• A nuclear reactor
• 252Cf (T1/2 = 2.645 y) sources which emits neutrons through spontaneous fission
(Californium is produced in nuclear reactors and particle accelerators)
• An alpha source such as 226Ra or 241Am, mixed with beryllium (9Be); this generates
neutrons by a (α,12C+n) reaction
• A (d,t)n fusion reaction in a gas discharge tube
F.A. Danevich
Univ. Tor Vergata
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November 11, 2015
• Neutron Techniques for Analysis
Neutron Techniques for Analysis
water content probes
A probe containing a neutron source (241Am-Be) inserted into a bore hole where the
radiation is scattered by collisions with surrounding soil. Since hydrogen (the major
component of water) is by far the best scattering atom, the number of neutrons
returning to a detector in the probe is a function of the density of the water in the soil.
A more sophisticated application of this is in borehole logging.
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Univ. Tor Vergata
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November 11, 2015
Neutron Techniques for Analysis
Borehole probing
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Univ. Tor Vergata
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November 11, 2015
Neutron Techniques for Analysis
search for ice and water on Martian surface
A pulsed sealed-tube neutron source and
detector for measuring hydrogen or ice and
water at or near the Martian surface
F.A. Danevich
Univ. Tor Vergata
Curiosity rover, Mars
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November 11, 2015
• Neutron Techniques for Analysis
Neutron-activation analysis
Irradiation of the sample by neutrons
Detection of characteristics gamma quanta
Calibration and calculation of impurity concentration
Characteristics -lines
Sample
Neutrons
Sample

 spectrometer
(scintillation or
HPGe detector)
• Neutron-activation method is very sensitive to analyze organic compound
• However, it is much less efficient to inorganic materials
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• Neutron Techniques for Analysis
Neutron activation analysis
example of use in science (analysis of radioactive elements in
liquid scintillator)

n  41K  42K 
42
12.36h
Ca,
 th  1.2 b (1.2 b)


22.3 m
27.0 d
n  232Th  233Th 233Pa  233U ,


23.5 m
2.36d
n  238U  239U  239 Np  239Pu ,
 th  6.1 b (7.8 b)
 th  2.3 b (7.9 b)
Sizable cross sections and long enough half lives for delayed counting
F.A. Danevich
Univ. Tor Vergata
13
November 11, 2015
• Neutron Techniques for Analysis
NAA for radiopurity screening
239Np
-
T1/2 = 193 ns
106 keV 
‘s + conv. electron
239Pu
 0.19 Bq/kg
 8x10-4 Bq/kg
 1x10-4 Bq/kg
F.A. Danevich
Univ. Tor Vergata
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November 11, 2015
• Gamma & X-ray Techniques in Analysis
Gamma & X-ray Techniques in Analysis
measurement of element concentrations in minerals, coul, etc
This technique is used to determine element concentrations in process streams of
mineral concentrators. Probes containing radioisotopes and a detector are immersed
directly into slurry streams. Signals from the probe are processed to give the
concentration of the elements being monitored, and can give a measure of the slurry
density. Elements detected this way include iron, nickel, copper, zinc, tin and lead.
X-ray fluorescence
Energy X-Ray spectrum accumulated by
Spectrometer with Si-PIN Detector
Other application: determination of the ash content of coal on line on a conveyor belt
il contenuto di ceneri di carbone in linea su un nastro trasportatore
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Univ. Tor Vergata
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November 11, 2015
Gamma Radiography
welding control
Control of weld quality in an oil or gas pipeline. A machine called a "pipe crawler" carries
a shielded radioactive source down the inside of the pipe to the position of the weld.
Digital X-ray inspection in shipyard
Radiography imagines of weld quality
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Univ. Tor Vergata
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November 11, 2015
Gamma Radiography
metal products control
Non-destructive testing is an extension of
gamma radiography, used on a variety of
products and materials.
X ray has too low energy for thick metal
products
For instance, ytterbium-169 (T1/2=22 d, EC,
gamma 100-300 keV, X ray: 10-80 keV) tests
steel up to 15 mm thick and light alloys to 45
mm, while iridium-192 (74 d, EC, gamma 200500 keV) is used on steel 12 to 60 mm thick
and light alloys to 190 mm.
X-ray sets can be used when electric power is available and the object to be x-rayed can
be taken to the x-ray source and radiographed. Radioisotopes have the supreme
advantage in that they can be taken to the site when an examination is required – and
no power is needed. However, they cannot be simply turned off, and so must be
properly shielded both when in use and at other times.
F.A. Danevich
Univ. Tor Vergata
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November 11, 2015
Gamma Radiography
Screening in airports, Cargo scanning
Gamma Radiography works in much
the same way as x-rays screen
luggage at airports. Gamma sources
are normally more portable than xray equipment so have a clear
advantage in certain applications,
such as in remote areas
F.A. Danevich
Univ. Tor Vergata
18
November 11, 2015
Gauging
Many process industries utilise fixed gauges to monitor and control the flow of
materials in pipes, distillation columns, etc, usually with gamma rays.
Paper thickness control
Liquid level control
Smoke alarms. Alpha particles ionise the air, so
that the air conducts electricity and a small
current flows. Smoke absorbs the a particles,
the current reduces, and the alarm
sounds. Typically uses Am-241 (T1/2 = 460
years)
F.A. Danevich
Univ. Tor Vergata
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November 11, 2015
Scientific Uses
meant not nuclear physics: medicine, agronomy
Radioisotopes are used as tracers in many research areas. Most physical, chemical and
biological systems treat radioactive and non-radioactive forms of an element in exactly
the same way, so a system can be investigated with the assurance that the method used
for investigation does not itself affect the system.
Radioisotopes have many uses, such as imaging, being used
as tracers to identify abnormal bodily processes, testing of
new drugs and conducting research into cures for disease.
By adding a small amount of radioactive phosphorus-32
to fertilizers and then measuring the rate at
which radioactivity appears in the leaves, it is possible to
calculate the rate of uptake of phosphorus from the soil.
F.A. Danevich
Univ. Tor Vergata
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November 11, 2015
Scientific Uses
impact of human activities into environment
Monitoring of radioactive
contamination in the atmosphere
7Be
and 137Cs concentration in the atmosphere
How radioactive substances reach people
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Univ. Tor Vergata
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November 11, 2015
Scientific Uses
Bordeaux wine dating
Trace levels of radioactive fallout from nuclear weapons testing in the 1950s and 60s is
now being used to measure soil movement and degradation. This is assuming greater
importance in environmental studies of the impact of agriculture.
The concentration of 137Cs
provides a simple method to
estimate the wine age.
Apart from 40K, with low background gamma spectrometry also weak traces of 137Cs were observed
with an activity depending on the vintage. This technique has therefore led to the possibility to date
the wine bottles having vintage between 1950 and 1980 or at least to control the year written on the
label or on the cork. Furthermore, it has been shown that it is not necessary to open the bottle [1].
[1] Ph. Hubert, From the mass of the neutrino to the dating of wine, NIMA A 580 (2007) 751
F.A. Danevich
Univ. Tor Vergata
November 11, 2015
Gamma sterilisation
Food sterilization
Medical instruments sterilization
Gamma irradiation is widely used for sterilising
medical products, for other products such as wool,
and for food. It kills bacteria and does not damage
packaging. 60Co and 137Cs are the main isotope used.
Food preservation is an increasingly important application, and has been used since the
1960s. In 1997 the irradiation of red meat was approved in USA. Some 41 countries have
approved irradiation of more than 220 different foods, to extend shelf life and to reduce
the risk of food-borne diseases.
http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Non-Power-Nuclear-Applications/Radioisotopes/Radioisotopes-in-Industry/
F.A. Danevich
Univ. Tor Vergata
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November 11, 2015
Insect Control
Crop losses caused by insects may amount to more than 10%
of the total harvest worldwide, - in developing countries the
estimate is 25-35%. Stock losses due to tsetse in Africa and
screwworm in Mexico have also been sizeable. Chemical
insecticides have for many years been the main weapon in
trying to reduce these losses, but they have not always been
effective. Some insects have become resistant to the chemicals
used, and some insecticides leave poisonous residues on the
crops. One solution has been the use of sterile insects.
The Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) involves rearing large
numbers of insects then irradiating their eggs with gamma
radiation before hatching, to sterilise them. The sterile males
are then released in large numbers in the infested areas. When
they mate with females, no offspring are produced. With
repeated releases of sterilised males, the population of the
insect pest in the project area is drastically reduced.
A. Bakri, K. Mehta, D. R. Lance, Sterilizing Insects with Ionizing Radiation, Sterile Insect Technique, (2005) 233 24
F.A. Danevich
Univ. Tor Vergata
November 11, 2015
Radioisotopic energy sources
Use radioactive decay
to produce electricity
Cassini mission to Saturn
Element of thermonuclear
battery of the Cassini orbiter
There is a lot of different thermonuclear
systems using different isotopes, beta (60Co, 90Sr,
137Cs, 106Ru) and alpha active (238Pu, 210Po,
244Cm, 232U, …)
Funny using of 90Sr for heating
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Univ. Tor Vergata
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November 11, 2015
Radioactive wastes
Industries and scientific establishments utilise radioactive sources for a wide range of
applications. When the radioactive sources used by industry no longer emit enough
penetrating radiation for them to be of use, they are treated as radioactive waste.
Sources used in industry are generally short-lived and any waste generated can be
disposed of in near-surface and underground facilities.
F.A. Danevich
Univ. Tor Vergata
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November 11, 2015
Concentration of natural radioactive materials
Some industrial activities involve the handling of raw materials such as rocks, soils and
minerals that contain naturally occurring radioactive materials. These materials are
known by the acronym "NORM". Industrial activity can sometimes concentrate these
materials and therefore enhance their natural radioactivity (hence the further acronym:
TENORM - technically-enhanced NORM). This may result in:
A risk of radiation exposure to workers or the public, unacceptable radioactive
contamination of the environment.
The need to comply with regulatory waste disposal requirements
The main industries that result in NORM contamination are:
Oil and gas operations
Coal burning
Phosphate Fertilisers
Process and Waste Water Treatment
Scrap metal industry
Metal smelting sludges (Fanghi di fusione del metallo)
F.A. Danevich
Univ. Tor Vergata
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November 11, 2015
Concentration of natural radioactive materials
Oil and gas operations
Radioactive deposits, often referred to as naturally occurring radioactive material
scale, can, because of incompatibility of formation and injection waters, be formed
inside production equipment of the oil and gas industry. These scales contain mainly
226Ra and its daughter products, which can cause an exposure risk [1].
Oil and gas operations are the main sources of radioactive releases to waters north of
Europe for instance.
[1] M.S. Hamlat et al., Assessment of radiation exposures from naturally occurring radioactive materials in the oil
and gas industry, Appl. Rad. Isotopes 55 (2001) 141
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Univ. Tor Vergata
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November 11, 2015
Concentration of natural radioactive materials
Coal burning
Most coal contains uranium and thorium, as well as other radionuclides. The total
radiation levels are generally about the same as in other rocks of the Earth's crust. Most
emerge from a power station in the light fly ash. Many hundred million tones of coal ash
is produced globally each year.
F.A. Danevich
Univ. Tor Vergata
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November 11, 2015
Concentration of natural radioactive materials
Phosphate Fertilisers (fosfato Fertilizzanti)
The processing of phosphate rock to produce phosphate fertilizers (one end product
of the phosphate industry) results in enhanced levels of uranium, thorium and
potassium.
For instance, we have observed very high 226Ra activity in Phosphate Fertilisers
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Univ. Tor Vergata
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November 11, 2015
Transmutation of radioactive elements
Radiotoxicity of the isotopes determining
total radiotoxicity of Light water reactor
wastes for different time
Idea is to transform long-living radionuclides (tens – thousands - millions years)
into short living enough (days) or to stable isotopes
WacIaw Gudowski, Transmutation of Nuclear Waste, Nucl. Phys. A A663&664 (2000) 169c
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Univ. Tor Vergata
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November 11, 2015
Transmutation of radioactive elements
Fission reactors under neutrons irradiation
Nuclear reactors have been first considered for transmuting minor actinides, Np237, Am-241, Am-243, and eventually Cm-244. To be a good transmutation device,
a reactor has to have a high neutron flux, large absorption cross-sections and a
capture to fission ratio as low as possible.
Neutron induced transmutation of 237Np. In
fast neutron spectrum 237Np fissions directly as
in the lower part of this figure. In the thermal
neutron spectrum fission competes with 
decay of 238Np
Intensive neutron source is required
WacIaw Gudowski, Transmutation of Nuclear Waste, Nucl. Phys. A A663&664 (2000) 169c
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Univ. Tor Vergata
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November 11, 2015
Transmutation of radioactive elements
Spallation reactions are nuclear
reactions playing an important role
in transmutation of nuclear waste
Intensive high energy protons
are required
J.P. Schapira, Transmutation of nuclear waste, IAEA, 1994
33
F.A. Danevich
Univ. Tor Vergata
November 11, 2015
Laser transmutation of radionuclides
the first successful laser-induced transmutation of 129I, one of the key radionuclides
in the nuclear fuel cycle, with a half-life of 15.7 million years into 128I with a half-life
of 25 min through a (γ, n) reaction using laser-generated Bremsstrahlung. These
experiments offer a new approach to studying transmutation reactions with neutral
and charged particles without resource to nuclear reactors or particle accelerators.
Experimental scenario: the high-intensity laser
pulse produces a hot plasma on the surface of
a tantalum foil. Relativistic electrons are
stopped in the tantalum, efficiently generating
high-energy Bremsstrahlung. The 129I in the
radioactive target is transformed into 128I due
to a (γ , n) reaction
Within a few years, compact and efficient laser
systems will emerge, capable of producing
intensities exceeding 1022 W/cm2 with repetition
rates of 1 shot per minute and higher.
J. Magill et al., Laser transmutation of iodine-129, Appl. Phys. B 77 (2003) 387–390
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Univ. Tor Vergata
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November 11, 2015
Laser transmutation of radionuclides
2010: Laser transmutation of 93Zr (γ, n) 92Zr a long-lived nuclear waste into a
stable isotope
2010: Transmutation of hazardous nuclear waste of 90Sr, into valuable nuclear
medicine of 89Sr by ultra-intense lasers
2012: Laser-induced photo transmutation of 126Sn – a hazardous nuclear waste
product-into short-lived nuclear medicine of 125Sn
F.A. Danevich
Univ. Tor Vergata
35
November 11, 2015
The next lessons
• November 12 (Thursday) visit the Gran Sasso underground laboratory
• November 13 (Friday) no lecture
• November 18 (Wednesday) 14:30-16:30 (presentation: “CNO cycle”)
• November 20 (Friday) 11:10-13:00
• November 25 (Wednesday) 14:30-16:30, last lection by F.Danevich
• November 27 (Friday ) 11:00-13:00, Prof. Rita Bernabei
• …
F.A. Danevich
Univ. Tor Vergata
36
November 11, 2015