TERMINOLOGY
Manuel Sevilla Muñoz
Unit III
Generation of terms
Lesson 8: Elements for generation of terms
8.1. Lexeme
8.2. Morpheme
8.3. Desinence
8.4. Affix
8.5. Combining form
8.6. Word
8.7. Lexie
Lesson 9: Processes for generation of terms
9.1. Generation of terms with resources of the same language
9.1.1. Derivation
9.1.2. Composition
9.1.3. Parasynthesis
9.1.4. Abbreviation or compression
9.1.5. Extension of meaning
9.1.6. Grammatical category change
9.2.- Generation of terms with resources of other language
9.2.1. Loan word
9.2.2. Loan translation or calque
9.2.2. Semantic loan translation or semantic calque
Lesson 10: Nomenclatures
10.1. Botanical nomenclature
10.2. Chemical nomenclature
10.3. Virus nomenclature
10.4. Nomenclature of refrigerants
Unit III: Generation of terms
Lesson 8: Elements for generation of terms
Terms, like any word, are made up of a more or less complex combination of
morphemes and lexemes.
8.1. Lexeme
A lexeme is “a meaningful linguistic unit that is an item in the vocabulary of a
language” (Merriam-Webster), without any grammatical morpheme (DRAE).
According to Dubois (1986), the term “lexema” avoids the ambiguity of the term
“word”; it is strange to say that singing is a form of the word sing. In this sense,
for Dubois there are three “kinds of word”: phonic or graphic word, grammatical
word, lexeme:
Phonic or graphic word:
Dances
Grammatical word:
third person singular of the verb dance
plural of the name dance
Lexeme:
danc-
The gramatical words are “inflected forms” if we define “infection” as the
morphological process to modify variable words (names, verbs) with the
presence of desinences to indicate the gender (male, female), number
(singular, plural), verbal person or verbal time.
Sometimes the lexema is also called the root of the word.
8.2. Morpheme
A morphema is the smallest meaningful unit of a linguistic system
(Lewandowski, 1982). The morpheme is not free, it has to be linked to a word. It
is possible to stablish two types of morphemes: inflection morphemes
(desinences), only with grammatical function, and derivation morphemes
(affixes), with a meaning –and in some cases with grammatical function.
8.3. Desinence
This is an inflection morpheme linked to the root of names (number desinence),
adjectives (comparative, superlative desinence), verbs (person, past, gerund,
participle desinence), and adverbs (comparative, superlative desinence).
8.4. Affix
An affix is a derivation morpheme that can be linked to the root of a word or to a
combining form with different functions:
•
•
•
Indication of the syntactic function of the root (case morpheme) in the
languages with cases.
Modification of the grammatical category of the root or combining form.
Modification of the meaning of the root or combining form.
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Unit III: Generation of terms
Affixes may precede (prefix) or follow (suffix) a root or combining form. They
can also be situated between two roots or combining forms or between a root
and an affix (interfix).
Preffix
This is an affix, a derivation morpheme, preceding a lexical unit to generate a
new word with a semantic relation to the first one. Prefixes modify or make the
meaning of the word they precede more precise (e.g. undo, preview,
supermarket). A root can be preceded by one or several preffixes:
One prefix
Agreeable
Dis-agreeable
Two prefixes
Cyanate
Iso-cyanate
Tio-isocyanate
Suffix
This is un affix, a derivation morpheme, following a lexical unit of a root to
generate a new word with a semantic relation with the first one. Many suffixes,
not all of them, modify the grammatical category of the word they follow; for
instance the suffix –ation generates names from verbs (the name exploration
derives from the verb explore). A root can be followed by one or several
suffixes:
One suffix
Child
Child-hood
Two suffixes
Associate
Associ-ation
Association-ism
Interfix
An interfix is an affix situated inside a word. They do not have a grammatical or
semantic function, they connect two lexical elements in accordance with the
usual morphology and phonetics of a language. They are not very common in
English.
An example is the interfix -o- in the words speedometer (speed-o-meter),
mileometer
(mile-o-meter),
chlorofluorcarbon
(chlor-o-fluor-o-carbon),
phraseology (phrase-o-logy).
8.5. Combining form
The term “combining form” has been used for several decades, though it is not
a name used in a general way in all lexicographic works. In addition, in the
dictionaries that already use it there is no unanimity about what elements are
under these denominations. The main question may lay in their nature, whether
they are affixes or not. They do not seem to be affixes because their semantic
content is similar to that of a word and not all of them have a fixed position in a
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Unit III: Generation of terms
word (preceding or following), in this way they act as roots. They are not free,
but they can generate words by combining with affixes, without a word or root.
The main characteristics of combining forms are as follows:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Their semantic content is the one of a name (bibli - / biblio-), an adjective
(Anglo-) or a verb (-philia).
Although their semantic content is equivalent to that of a word, they are not
free, they have to combine with a word, another combining form or an affix
to generate a word:
o kilometer: kilo- (comb. f.) metro (word).
o autotroph: auto- (comb. f.) -troph (comb. f.).
o electrocardiogram: electro- (comb. f.) cardio- (comb. f.) -gram (comb. f.).
o hydroxylic: hydro- (comb. f.) ox- (comb. f.) -yl (comb. f.) –ic (suffix).
o chloride: chlor- (comb. f.) -ide (suffix).
o diatermy: dia- (prefix) -thermy (comb. f.).
There are combining forms that always precede another lexical element,
others always follow them, and finally there are combining forms that can
precede or follow a word:
o therm- / thermo- (precedes): thermo-electric, thermo-dynamic, thermometer, thermo-nuclear.
o –plasty (follows): osteo-plasty, rhyno-plasty, auto-plasty, thoraco-plasty.
o phono- / phon- o –phone (precedes or follows): tele-phone, allo-phone,
phono-graph, phono-logy
The origin of most of them is Greek or Latin, though there are some
exceptions, as atto- and femto-, from Norwegian and Danish.
They are used to generate new words in current English.
In the past, combining forms were grouped with other categories of lexical
units (affixes, roots). After several revisions, they have been reclassified and
become more numerous within time. In addition, as the specialised fields
need to name new concepts, new combining forms have been and will be
incorporated into the English language.
8.6. Word
“Word” is a term whose definition is difficult to enunciate, since it represents
several concepts depending on the linguistic theories. We could define “word”
as a fragment of a discourse unified by the accent, the meaning and the inicial
and final potential pauses (DRAE).
8.7. Lexie
According to Dubois, a lexie is the minimum functional meaningful unit of the
speech. It is not a morpheme, that is an inferior linguistic sign, nor a word, that
is the minimum unit built. Dubois proposes several types of lexies:
• A simple lexie is a word.
• A compound lexie is made up of several integrated words (compound words)
or words becoming integrated (phrasal words).
• A complex lexie is a fixed series of words (acronym, idiom, proverb, etc.).
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Unit III: Generation of terms
Some authors propose considering the lexie as the lexical unit instead of the
word when a sentence is analysed. In any case, phrasal words, acronyms,
phraseological units are already studied from the point of view of the lexicology.
All of these forms have a meaning and a grammatical category, since they carry
out the same function in the sentence as the simple words.
References
CARSTAIRS-MCCARTHY, A. (2002): An Introduction to English Morphology:
Words and Their Structure, Edinburgh University Press.
DUBOIS, J. et al. (1986): Diccionario de lingüística, Fuenlabrada, Alianza
Editorial, S.A.
LAZARO CARRETER, F. (1984): Diccionario de términos filológicos, Madrid,
Gredos.
LEWANDOWSKI, T. (1982): Diccionario de lingüística, Madrid, Cátedra.
MERRIAM-WEBSTER (s.a.): Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary, www.merriamwebster.com [consulta: 2 de junio de 2010].
REAL ACADEMIA ESPAÑOLA (200122) Diccionario de la Lengua Española,
www.rae.es
TORRES MARTINEZ, M. (2006): “Tratamiento de los «elementos
compositivos» en la lexicografía española académica y extraacadémica del
siglo XX”, en Dolores Azorín Fernández (dir.), El diccionario como puente
entre las lenguas y las culturas del mundo. Actas del II Congreso
Internacional de Lexicografía Hispánica, Universidad de Alicante.
TOURATIER, C. (2009): “Questions surrounding the basic notions of the word,
lexie, morpheme, and lexeme”, in Helmbrecht, J.; Nishina, Y.; Shin, Y.M.;
Skopeteas, S.; Verhoeven, E. (eds.), Form and Function in Language
Research, Berlin, New York, p. 157-166.
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Unit III: Generation of terms
Lesson 9: Processes for generation of terms
To coin new terms for specific domains of knowledge is a natural process in
specialised fields. It arises from the need to name, as precisely as possible, the
new concepts discovered when researching.
At first, there is no relation between term, concept and referent, but during the
process of generating a new term, such relation is established and becomes
accepted.
In the following pages the mechanisms for the generation of terms will be
analysed on the basis of the classification developed by Clavería and Torruella
(in Sager, 1993: 316-339). Both authors explained a series of mechanisms
grouped in two blocks in relation to the resources used to create new terms:
resources from the same language or from other languages.
9.1. Generation of terms with resources of the same language
Three kinds of mechanisms are included in this group: formal (generation of
terms based on the modification of the form through combinations of lexical
elements and through reduction), semantic (meaning extension of a pre-existing
word of the same language) and functional (change of the grammatical category
of a word to generate a new one).
Resource
used
Formal
Aspect
modified*
Form**
Process for generation of new
terms
Derivation
lexical bases *** + affixes
Compounding
lexical bases + lexical bases
Parasynthesis
lexical b. + lexical b. + affixes
prefix + lexical b. + suffix
Shortening or Abbreviation
shortening of lexical bases
Semantic
Meaning
Functional
Grammatical
category**
Resulting expression
Derived word
Compound
Parasynthetic word
Short or Clipping
Abbreviation
Initialism
Acronym
Symbol
Meaning extension
Word
Conversion
Grammatical category change
Word
* Aspect modified of a pre-existing term to generate a new one.
** The form and grammatical category changes may imply a meaning change, although the
meaning of the new term is related to the initial term in the change process.
*** The lexical bases can be words (full words or roots) or combining forms.
9.1.1. Derivation
In derivation, terms are generated by adding one or more affixes to a lexical
base. This mechanism is widely used in terminologies with a complex
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Unit III: Generation of terms
taxonomy, as in chemical and biological nomenclatures as well as in medical
terminology.
In prefixation, the grammatical category of the lexical base is not changed, but
the initial concept becomes restricted, as we can observe in the following
examples:
Lexical base
Chromatic, hydrous
Oxidant
Forestation
Affection, function,
Throne, power
Judicial, galactic
Balance, organic
Celular, stellar
Venous, muscular
Orbital, operative
Ignition
Pot
Species, soil
Atlantic, uranium, oceanic
Constitutional
Prefix
a(n)antidedis- / dysen- / emextrain- / iminterintrapostprere
subtransun-
New term
Achromatic anhydrous
antioxidant
deforestation
Disaffection, dysfunction
enthrone, empower
extrajudicial, extragalactic
imbalance, inorganic
intercellular, interstellar
intravenous, intramuscular
postorbital, postoperative
preignition
repot
subspecies, subsoil
transatlantic, transuranium, transoceanic
Unconstitutional
In suffixation, a meaning change of the lexical base is produced and, generally,
a modification of the grammatical category:
New Term
category
Lexical base
category
Verb
Noun
Adjective
Noun
Noun
Verb
Adjective
Adjective
Noun
Examples
lexical base
suffix
new term
haul
dispense
infiltrate
harvest
sail
manage
dependent
excellent
foreign
alkaline
bitter
warm
volt
king
man
animal
geology
book
friend
soldier
crystal
-age
-ary
-ation
-er
-ing
-ment
-ce
-cy
-er
-ity
-ness
-th
-age
-dom
-hood
-ism
-ist
-let
-ship
-y
-ise
haulage
dispensary
infiltration
harvester
sailing
management
dependence
excellency
foreigner
alkalinity
bitterness
warmth
voltage
kingdom
manhood
animalism
geologist
booklet
friendship
soldiery
crystallise
short
acid
difference
molecule
alcohol
authority
-en
-ify
-al
-ar
-ic
-ative
shorten
acidify
differential
molecular
alcoholic
authoritative
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Unit III: Generation of terms
Verb
break, collect
claim
talk
-able / -ible
-ant
-ative
breakable, collectible
claimant
talkative
9.1.2. Compounding
Compounds are the result of a compounding process in which several lexical
bases are bound to generate a new expression. Its meaning can follow several
patterns:
•
•
•
It can be the addition of the meanings of the lexical elements that have been
united.
It can acquire an idiomatic meaning related more or less closely to one or
several constituent elements.
It is possible that the new meaning has nothing in common with the
constituent elements.
Compound
Screen saver
Cockpit
Bittersweet
Adjustable spanner
Fighter-bomber
Butterfly valve
Spiderweb
Literal sense
X
Idiomatic sense
X
X
X
X
X
X
In the compounding process, the lexical elements can be united without any
graphical separation (screwdriver), with a dash (user-friendly) or can be
separated by a space (bullet train). Sometimes, different dictionaries show the
same elements linked in a different way –this variation is very often between the
use of a dash or a space.
The compounds with spaces between their constituents have a phrasal
structure resulting from the syntactic combination of lexical elements to describe
a referent. This phrasal structure is fixed in the language and lexicalised,
becoming a word or term (Maillot, 1997: 138-148).
A compound is the result of the union of two or more lexical elements –words,
roots or combining forms.
Landlord = land + lord
Hovercraft = hover + craft
Without = with + out
Waterproof = water + proof
Hydroplane = hydro- + plane
Biosphere = bio- + sphere
Microclimate = micro- + climate
Monorail = mono- + rail
Telescope = tele- + -scope
Microphone = micro- + -phone
Anglophone = Anglo- + -phone
Polymer = poly- + -mere
Brown-bag
Air-conditioning
On-site
Cable-laid
Union of several words
Union of a word and a combining form
Union of two combining forms
Union of several words with a dash
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Unit III: Generation of terms
Union of several words with a space in between
Carbon dating
Wind turbine
Bar code
Ball valve
Words from different grammatical categories can link to generate a compound:
Charcoal
headache
boyfriend
screwdriver
Xray
wind farm
gravel pit
conveyor belt
sound track
reduction valve
water hammer
hovercraft
shunpike
turnkey
cooling tower
heating jacket
reducing valve
Nosedive
Carbon dating
Vaccum packed
User-friendly
Make-believe
Freeze-dry
Go-go
Fast-food
Double-talk
Soft tissue
Renewable energy
Stainless steel
Hard disk
Atomic number
Natural gas
Remote control
Mitral valve
Open-ended
Ready-made
Noun + noun
Verb + noun
Noun + verb
Noun + adverb
Verb + verb
Adjective + noun
Adjective + adjective
There are also combinations of more than two lexical elements resulting in more
complex compounds:
Municipal solid waste
Pressure reducing valve
Dual-energy X-ray absortiometry
Combined heat and power
Closed cell polyethylene foam
Hot dipped galvanized and zinc plated anchor chain
In current English it is possible to use a Greek or Latin word and link it to an
English word or combining form (most of them belonging to Greek or Latin
languages) to generate a compound. For instance, graptolite is formed with the
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Unit III: Generation of terms
Greek word graptós (written) and the English combining form lito (rock), that is
Greek origin (lithos, stone).
Graptolite: any of an extinct class (Graptolithina) of hemichordate colonial
marine animals of the Paleozoic era with zooids contained in conical cups along
a chitinous support (Merriam-Webster).
In fact, we could say that these classical words used in modern English are
Greek and Latin roots that have not been recognised as combining forms yet.
Other examples of this type of compounding are:
Coprophagous = copro- (excrement, from Greek kópros) + –phagous
(comb. f.)
Brachycephalic: brachy- (short, from Greek brachýs) + –cephalus (head,
from Greek kephalé)
Egocentric: ego (I, from Latin ego) + centre + -ic (suffix)
9.1.3. Parasynthesis
For Clavería and Torruella, coinciding with the Merriam-Webster dictionary,
parasynthetic words are the result of simultaneous prefixation and suffixation of
a lexical base. According to this definition, parasynthesis is a process of
derivation. However, in the Collins English Dictionary parasynthesis is defined
as a simultaneous compounding and derivation, so it is a process halfway
between both mechanisms. In different studies, the concept of paransynthesis
varies between both definitions, although in some works the two ways to form a
parasynthetic word are proposed. Here, we have chosen the last point of view,
that is to say that we consider parasynthesis as the process of simultaneous
prefixation and suffixation, as well as simultaneous compounding and affixation.
In this way we have considered this mechanism as separate to derivation and
compounding although both of them coincide in parasynthesis.
The use of the word “simultaneous” to define both processes used to generate
parasynthetic words is essential, since a word that, for instance, is prefixed to
form a new word and then suffixed will not be parasynthetic, but a derived word.
Such is the case in the word “inorganic”, generated in two stages by the union
of a prefix (in-) and a suffix (-ic) to the base “organ”:
inorganic = in- + organic
organic = organ + -ic
We can observe that the incorporation of the two affixes is brought about in two
steps and not simultaneously. That is why it is not a parasynthetic word, but a
derived one after a double derivation. Something similar happens with
“counterclockwise”, which is a derived word from the compound “clockwise”.
In the case of “hypervitaminosis”, we can observe the prefix hyper-, the lexical
base vitamin and the suffix –osis. The two affixes link the base at the same
time.
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Unit III: Generation of terms
It is usally said that a word is parasynthetic if there is not an intermediate word
between the parasynthetic and the inicial word, but this is not always the case.
If we look at the word “malformation”, made up of the combining form “mal-“, the
word “form” and the suffix “-ation”. The word “formation” exists, although the
word “malformation” is not generated from “formation”, but results from the
simultaneous union of its three components, according to the definition of both
words (Merriam-Webster):
formation: an act of giving form or shape to something or of taking form.
malformation: irregular, anomalous, abnormal, or faulty formation or structure.
“Malformation” is not a “formation” that becomes wrong, but a wrong formation
from the beginning.
The following are more examples of parasynthetic words:
antidepressant = anti- + depress + -ant
denationalise = de- + national + -ise
Simultaneous prefixation and disclaimer = dis- + clame + -er
suffixation
transuranic = trans- + uranium + -ic
intravenous = intra- + vena + -ous
avitaminosis = a- + vitamina + -osis
downhearted = down + heart + -ed
light-headed = light + head+ -ed
Simultaneous compounding sesquicarbonate = sesqui- + carbon + -ate
and derivation
suprasegmental = supra- + segment+ -al
bilirubin = bilis (Latin) + ruber (Latin) + -in
poliomyelitis = poliós (Greek) + mielós (Greek) + -itis
9.1.4. Shortening or Abbreviation
According to the Collins English Dictionary, an abbreviation is a shortened or
contracted form of a word or phrase used in place of the whole. They are chiefly
used in writing.
Thus, in this process for generation of terms the size of the lexical base is
reduced, giving rise to formal variants that can be used at the same time as the
complete forms. There are several abbreviation mechanisms to generate
clippings abbreviations, acronyms and symbols. All the compressed forms
suffer a more or less intensive lexicalisation: to begin with the compressed
words are used together with the whole expressions, by the end of the
lexicalisation the abbreviated forms substitute them. For instance, the clipping
“kilo” is used instead “kilogram”, the acronym “led” substitutes “light emitting
diode”; however, “R&D” is used at the time as “research and development”.
For Maillot (1997: 318-328), abbreviations, initialisms and acronyms are the
substitution of one or several words using the beginnings. It is abbreviation if
the first letters of a word are used; if the same is done with several words and
all the beginnings are united it is an acronym; if just the first letter of each word
is taken an initialism is generated.
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Unit III: Generation of terms
9.1.4.1. Short or Clipping
Clipping refers to the process whereby a lexeme (simples or complex) is
shortened, while still retaining the same meaning and still being a member of
the same form class (Bauer, 1983: 233). Although the clippling and the original
word have the same meaning, the context, the register and other reasons may
determine the use of only one of both forms. Some examples are as follows:
cinema, from cinematograph
bus, from omnibus
phage, from bacteriophage
polio, from poliomyelitis
stereo, from stereophonic
pic, from picture
9.1.4.2. Abbreviation
The Merriam-Webster Dictionary proposes two examples of abbreviation: “amt.”
for amount and “USA” for “United Status of America”. Although this work and
others do not state any difference, there are two different processes in the
generation of “amt.” (abbreviation) and “USA” (initialism).
The abbreviation process generates new expressions with the first and other
letters of a single word. It may begin with a capital letter, but the rest are
lowercase letters. The expression usually ends with a full stop after the last
letter. An abbreviation like amt. is a representation of the word it derives from,
the word and abbreviation have the same meaning and both are used, so there
is no lexicalisation.
Mr., for mister
AR, for Arkansas
Ex. for Exodus
Ant., for Antarctica
Prof., for professor
PhD or Ph.D., for doctor of philosophy
p., for page
op., for opus
a.m., for ante meridian
BC, for before Christ
9.1.4.3. Initialism
An initialism is a new lexical unit made with the first and other letters of an
expression made up of several words. The resulting expression is written in
capital letters.
The following are some examples of initialisms:
GPS (global positioning satellite)
PVC (polyvinyl chloride)
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Unit III: Generation of terms
LED (light emitting diode)
PUR (polyurethane)
CFC (chlorofluorocarbon)
CHP (combined heat and power)
CIP (clean in place)
GDP (gross domestic product)
For these kinds of lexical units there is a clear process of lexicalisation. To
begin with a full stop is written after each letter (U.H.T., P.V.C, C.I.P.), then the
full stops disappear (UHT, PVC, CIP) and finally the capital letters are changed
into lowercase letters and the expression becomes a normal word (laser = light
amplification by simulated emission of radiation).
9.1.4.4. Acronyms
An acronym is an initialism that is pronounced as a word and not as a series of
letters. To be pronounced as a word, it may be necessary to use letters from
different parts of the original words and not only the initials.
Acronyms made with the initial letters of the whole expression:
UNESCO, from United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization
FAO, from Food and Agriculture Organization
NATO, from North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
OPEC, from Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
ISO, from International Standardisation Organisation
UFO, from Unidentified Flying Object
AIDS, from Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
Scuba, from Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus
Acronyms made with the initial letters of the whole expression and some extra:
Sonar, from sound navigation and ranging
Radar, from radio detection and ranging
Acronyms made with initial syllables from the whole expression:
Interpol, from International Criminal Police Organization
Acronyms made with the begining of some words and the end of others of from
whole expression:
Emoticon, from emotion icon
Amphetamine, from alpha-methyl-phenethylamine
9.1.4.5. Symbols
Symbols are an arbitrary or conventional sign used in writing or printing relating
to a particular field to represent operations, quantities, elements, relations, or
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Unit III: Generation of terms
qualities. According to the DRAE, symbols are another type of abbreviation with
a scientific and technical character, although they are also used less frequently
in other fields.
Maillot (1997: 329) and the DRAE classify the symbols into two types: literal
symbols (formed with letters) and graphic symbols (constituted with other
signs).
More than an abbreviated representation of a verbal expression, a symbol is
another representation of a concept that also has a verbal representation. The
symbol is, physically, much smaller than the equivalent verbal expression,
which is very useful in formulas or graphical texts (maps, diagrams, etc.).
Symbols made with letters are unchangeable, they do not follow the
grammatical rules; for instance there is no difference between singular and
plural:
1 m = one metre
2 m = two metres
They are not followed by a full stop, since they are not abbreviations.
Symbols can be grouped as follows:
Symbols of magnitudes
Symbols of units
Literal symbols
Symbols of chemical elements
Symbols of cardinal points
Mathematical symbols
Graphic symbols
Symbols of currencies
Symbols of electric diagrams
Symbols used in technical
drawing
Literal and graphic
symbols combined
14
F, for force
a, for acceleration
h, for height
kg, for kilogram
oz, for ounce
N, for Newton
He, for helium
Au, for gold
Hg, for mercury
N, for north
SO, for southwest,
SSE, for south southeast
1, 2, 3...
%, for percentage
x ó ·, for multiplication
Ø, for diameter
€, for euro
£, for pound sterling
¥, for yen
$, for dollar
–, for direct current
~, for alternating current
, for earth or ground
Width and type of line
Etc.
R&D&i, for research, develop and
innovation
A-4, A-3... (there is no equivalent
verbal expression)
CO2, for carbon dioxide
Unit III: Generation of terms
9.1.5. Extension of meaning
The modification of the semantic value of a term is another mechanism to form
new terms in specialised lexicons. The extension of meaning process consists
of the addition of new meanings to a previously existing word that already had
one or several meanings. Formally, no new word is generated.
The extension of meaning can commence from the meaning of a word from the
Standard language or there can be a transfer from one domain to another.
In computing we can find several terms that were words used in the standard
register, like “mouse” (definitions taken from Merriam-Webster Dictionary):
1. Any of numerous small long-tailed rodents of the families Muridae and
Cricetidae that are similar to but smaller than rats.
2. Any of various related rodents, such as the jumping mouse.
3. A quiet, timid, or cowardly person.
4. A hand-held device used to control the cursor movement and select
computing functions without keying.
“Rail” is an example of a term with several meanings in different fields. These
meanings have been added to a word in different steps following a process of
extension of meaning (definitions taken from Collins English Dictionary):
1. (Miscellaneous Technologies / Building) a horizontal bar of wood, metal, etc.,
supported by vertical posts, functioning as a fence, barrier, handrail, etc.
2. (Miscellaneous Technologies / Building) a horizontal bar fixed to a wall on
which to hang things.
3. (Miscellaneous Technologies / Building) a horizontal framing member in a
door or piece of panelling.
4. (Miscellaneous Technologies / Building) short for railing.
5. (Engineering / Mechanical Engineering) one of a pair of parallel bars laid on a
prepared track, roadway, etc., that serve as a guide and running surface for the
wheels of a railway train, tramcar, etc.
6. (Transport / Railways) short for railway.
7. (Transport / Nautical Terms) a trim for finishing the top of a bulwark.
The extension of meaning may be completely arbitrary, but usually there are
similarities (function, shape, etc.) between the referent that was already
represented by a word and the new referent. In these cases, the extension of
meaning follows a metaphorical criterion to assign a new meaning to an existing
word. We can observe metaphors in the following examples:
• Leg: originally a limb or an appendage of an animal, used for locomotion or
support, and then any similar or analogous structure in animals that is used
for locomotion or support.
• Chain: originally a flexible length of metal links, used for confining,
connecting, pulling, etc., or in jewellery, and then two or more atoms or
groups bonded together so that the configuration of the resulting molecule,
ion, or radical resembles a chain, in Chemistry.
• Ring: originally a circular band usually of a precious metal, especially gold,
often set with gems and worn upon the finger as an adornment or as a token
of engagement or marriage, and then the area of space lying between two
15
Unit III: Generation of terms
concentric circles (Geometry), as well as a closed loop of atoms in a
molecule (Chemistry).
9.1.6. Change of grammatical category
In this procedure, as in the one above, there is no change in the form of the
word whose grammatical category changes. In addition, the change of
grammatical category implies an extension of meaning. There are several
possible conversions between word classes.
A.- From adjective to noun.
adjective
differential
vertebrate
→
noun
differential
vertebrate
B.- From adjective to noun.
adjective
dry
calm
→
verb
dry
calm
C.- From noun to verb.
noun
snare
nose
→
verb
snare
nose
D.- From verb to noun.
verb
talk
run
caress
disdain
→
noun
talk
run
caress
disdain
E.- From verb to adjective.
verb
run
→
adjective
run
9.2.- Generation of terms with resources of another language
(borrowing)
Throughout history, countries of cultural and socio-economic power have
exported words from their language to other countries. Nowadays, English is an
exporting language, although, in the past and even now it is importing words
and phrases from other languages
16
Unit III: Generation of terms
There are three possible ways to generate terms with resources from another
language: directly importing a foreign word (loan word) or importing the
meaning and assigning it to an expression in the receiving language, that can
be a literal translation of the foreign form (loan translation or calque) or a lexical
unit already existing in the receiving language (semantic loan or translation or
semantic calque).
Aspect imported
from a foreign
language
Generation process of the new
terms
Resulting expression in
the receiving language
Form and Meanign
The foreign expression is
imported. There can be a graphic
or phonologic adaptation
Loan word
Meaning
The foreign form is translated
literally
A foreign meaning is incorporated
to an existing word in the
receiving language
Loan translation or
Calque
Semantic loan translation
or semantic calque
9.2.1. Loan word
The loan word takes place when the form and meaning of a lexical unit of
another language is imported. There may be a process of graphic and phonetic
adaptation.
Some examples of loan words are the following:
• alligator, from Spanish el lagarto
• canoe, from Spanish canoa, through French
• Vaseline, from German wasser (water) and from Latin olěum (oil), it is a
trademark in English
• gneiss, from German gneis
• feldspar, from German, feldspat
• iceberg, from Dutch ijsberg
• rorqual, from Norweguian, røyrkval (whale), through French
• bayonet, from French baïonnette
• bomb, from French bombe
Loan words that keep the form of the original language:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
adobe, guerrilla, alameda (from Spanish)
aspirin, blende (from German)
agar-agar (from Malay)
zebra (from Portuguese)
aviation, fuselage, milliard, coup d’état (from French)
tungsten (from Swedish)
narwhal (from Danish)
17
Unit III: Generation of terms
9.2.2. Loan translation or calque
Loan translation consists of importing the meaning of a foreign compound and
assigning this meaning to a literal translation of its linguistic elements using
lexical units in the receiving language. For instance:
• superman, from German übermensch
• loan word, from German lehnwort
• loan translation, from German lehnübersetzung
9.2.2. Semantic loan translation or semantic calque
Semantic loan translation is the borrowing of a semantic meaning from another
language to assign it to a word or expression that already exists in the receiving
language. The form of this word does not change, but its meaning is extended.
References
BAUER, L. (1983): English Word-Formation, Cambridge University Press.
CARPINTERO SANTAMARÍA, N. and Vila de la Cruz, M.P. (1990): Diccionario
de ingeniería industrial, Madrid, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Escuela
Técnica Superior de Ingenieros Industriales.
CABRÉ, M.T. (1993): La terminología. Teoría, metodología, aplicaciones.
Barcelona: Ed. Antártida.
Collins English Dictionary (2003): Harper Collins Publishers.
GÓMEZ CAPUZ, J. (1997): “Towards a typological classification of linguistic
borrowing”, Revista alicantina de estudios ingleses, 10, 81-94.
HERNANDO CUADRADO, L.A. (1999): “La parasíntesis en español”, Didáctica.
Lengua y Literatura, 11, 77-94.
MAILLOT, J. (1997): La Traducción Científica y Técnica, Madrid, Gredos.
MARTÍN CAMACHO, J.C. (2004): El vocabulario del discurso tecnocientífico,
Madrid, Asco Libros, S.L.
MERRIAM-WEBSTER (s.a.): Merriam-Webster’s Dictionary, www.merriamwebster.com [consulta: 2 de junio de 2010].
REAL ACADEMIA ESPAÑOLA (200122) Diccionario de la Lengua Española,
www.rae.es
SAGER, J.C. (1993): Curso práctico sobre el procesamiento de la terminología,
Humanes, Fundación Germán Sánchez Ruipérez.
18
Unit III: Generation of terms
Lesson 10: Nomenclatures
According to the DRAE, a nomenclature is the collection of technical words of a
certain science or art, it gives chemical nomenclature as an example. This
definition is very similar to the one for “terminology” in the same dictionary:
collection of terms or words of a certain profession, science or matter.
Having read these definitions, we could think that “terminology” and
“nomenclature” are two words representing similar concepts, but, as Dubois
(1978, 446) explains, this is not true, though he does not use the best example
to illustrate it. For him, a nomenclature is a collection of names given
systematically to objects related to a specific activity, like the nomenclature of
car components. Dubois continues by explaining that a nomenclature implies
the biunivocity between the term and its meaning; it means a sole name for
each thing and a sole thing for each name. He finally states that “nomenclature”
is different to “terminology”, “lexicon” and “vocabulary”.
The main ideas of these words are listed below:
1. A nomenclature is a collection of names.
2. The collection of names is related to a collection of objects.
3. The objects are involved in the field of a scientific or professional activity.
4. The relation between both collections (names and objects) is biunivocal:
there are pairs of name-object. An object does not have more than one
name nor are several objects designated by the same name.
5. The generation of names and the establishing of the relation name-object
are systematic, this means that there is a system, some rules, to
generate the names of the objects.
6. So, we can deduce that someone (a recognised and respected
organization) has to develop the rules and all the people related to the
activity have to observe them.
The example given by Dubois is not the most appropriate, as there is no
systematisation to generate the names of car components. These names form a
terminology, not a nomenclature. The chemical nomenclature, given as an
example by the DRAE, is a good example.
Gutiérrez Rodilla (1998, 209) explains the difference between nomenclature
and terminology: a terminology is the complete collection of technical words
belonging to a specific branch of knowledge; a nomenclature, that has to be
normalised, is only made up of the terms of this branch of knowledge that have
been approved by a community of scientists, in accordance with pre-established
rules that determine the relation that must exist between the words and their
meanings. Consequently, a terminology is much wider than a normalised
nomenclature, since this is only a part of a terminology.
19
Unit III: Generation of terms
A nomenclature comes up in an activity aimed at the observation and
description of a great number of natural processes, as well as the
manufacturing of a wide variety of objects, all of them hierarchically and
systematically classified. It becomes necessary to assign a name to each
phenomenon or object, not arbitrarily but in a way that allows the denominations
to show the criteria used to classify the objects to be named. This is why the
systematisation to sort the processes and objects needs a parallel
systematisation for the formation of the names. So, the system to generate
names is different to the systems of other nomenclatures, because the criteria
used to sort them are different between activities. To summarise, the objects
are first classified and then the nomenclature derived from this classification is
established.
Sager (1993, 140) explains that the taxonomic sciences generate names
creating an artificial language with the mechanisms of a language to generate
words. The restricted use of the language in a specialised field allows
developing rules to generate names in accordance with the ones utilised to
classify the objects to be named. These names have to be understandable and
easy to apply by the potential users of that system. In any case, according to
Gutiérrez Rodilla (1998, 209), nomenclatures are not always artificial
languages; it is possible that the rules establish the way to choose the
resources of the language. What really characterises a nomenclature is its aim
for the language of the science to be scientific, it means that it is as precise and
neutral and free from the scrap of standard language as possible
Nomenclatures do not try to be unalterable; in fact the advance of a science in
relation to the objects studied and to be named, occasionally, shows erroneous
concepts in relation with the classification of the objects, which leads to the
modification of the rules established in a nomenclature. The objective of
periodical revisions of a nomenclature is to expand and perfect it, as well as
grant its stability (Gutiérrez Rodilla, 1998, 210).
When some modifications are implemented in a nomenclature, it is not due to
an erroneous enunciation of its rules, it is because the criteria to classify all the
objects to be named have changed or been corrected. Consequently, the
parallel system to generate and assign names has to be changed or corrected
in the same way.
In short, when a nomenclature is used or analysed, it is necessary to know the
following aspects:
•
•
•
the activity into which the nomenclature is to be constituted,
the nature of the objects observed or studied in this activity,
the criteria applied to classify those objects.
Several rules or conventionalisms, parallel to the criteria used to classify the
objects will be established. As the knowledge of an activity is developed,
information may arise forcing modifications of the criteria to classify the objects
and, consequently, the rules used to generate the terms of the nomenclature.
20
Unit III: Generation of terms
These terms are more than names, because the rules of the nomenclature
allow for the summarisation of a complex description of the characteristics of
the object, that the community of specialists of a certain activity consider to be
determinants for its classification, in a noun.
The explanation of several nomenclatures is included below.
10.1. Botanical nomenclature
In 1753, the Swedish botanist Linneo published his word Species plantarum, in
which he laid the foundations of the current botanical nomenclature. Linneo
perceives the plant kingdom as a big family in which all the plants are relatives.
The grade of kinship between two certain plants is observed in the
morphological similarity or difference of their organs (flowers, leaves, buds…).
In this way, in the classification of plants, a hierarchy or taxonomy is established
in relation to the grade of kinship. The fundamental element of this taxonomy,
the group of plants with the same characteristics, is called “species”.
Each species is named with a pair of words (binomial nomenclature), the first of
them is the name of the “genus” to which the species belongs. Genus is the
level (taxon) immediately above species in the hierarchy. The second word is
used to specify the content of the word used to designate the genus, it is the
information related to the species. The binomial made up of a generic element
(related to the genus) and a specific one (species) is the scientific name of the
plant. This expression is completed with the name of its author (whole or
abbreviated). The names of the taxa that are hierarchically above a genus are
generated on the basis of the name of the genus, adding several suffixes to the
root (a certain suffix points out that a name is the one of a specific taxon).
Names of taxa below species are indicated with abbreviations of the type of
taxon.
The generation of names of genera and species is a creative process that
depends on the botanist who is the author of the name, although the
International Code of Botanical Nomenclature establishes several
recommendations.
For instance, Rosa canina L. is the scientific name of a wild rose, whose
common name is dog rose (the “L.” is the abbreviation for Linneo, who is the
author of this name). Rosa foetida Herrm, Rosa multiflora Thunb., Rosa rugosa
Thunb. ex Murray… are other species of the same genus (all of them begin with
Rosa, indicating the genus they belong to, and each one has the name of the
author).
Linneo wrote his research in Latin. This was the language used throughout the
Middle Ages as the vehicle for culture. In Linneo’s time it was still used to
communicate scientific knowledge. In this way, botanical nomenclature uses
expressions generated according to Latin grammar, which is one of its
characteristics. The use of words belonging to modern languages in order to
generate scientific names of plants is possible, but they have to be Latinised.
21
Unit III: Generation of terms
The nomenclature proposed by Linneo in his Species plantarum has evolved as
botanical research has advanced. The International Association for Plant
Taxonomy (IATP) is the international organisation in charge of looking after the
updating and correct use of botanical nomenclature. This association
periodically calls congresses to revise the nomenclature. The last congress, in
which the current International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (McNeill, 2006)
was approved, took place in Vienna in 2005.
According to this international code, the name of the taxa of the
nomenclature and their suffixes are as follows:
TAXON
ENGLISH
EQUIVALENT
Regnum
Divisio or Phylum
Subdivisio or
Subphylum
Classis
Subclassis
Ordo
Subordo
Familia
Subfamilia
Tribus
Subtribus
Kingdom
Division
Subdivision
-phyta
-phytina
Class
Subclass
Order
Suborder
Family
Subfamily
Tribe
Subtribe
-opsida
-idae
-ales
-ineae
-aceae
-oideae
-eae
-inae
TAXON
SUFFIX
Genus
Subgenus
Species
Subspecies
Varietas
Subvarietas
Forma
Subforma
ENGLISH
EQUIVALENT
Genus
Subgenus
Species
Subspecies
Variety
Subvariety
Form
Subform
ABBREVIATION
subgen.
subsp.
var.
subvar.
f.
subf.
Thus, most of the expressions generated in this nomenclature are derived
words (for taxa that are hierarchically above genus) and compounds (for taxa
that are hierarchically below genus).
This nomenclature, that was originally designed for the plant kingdom (Plantae),
was adapted for other kingdoms with slight variations related to taxa and
suffixes: single celled eukaryotes (Protista), single celled prokaryotes (bacteria
and blue-green algae) (Monera), fungi (Fungi) and animals (Animalia).
Some examples of names of taxa that are hierarchically above genus are as
follows:
•
•
•
Magnolia is the name of a genus in which the species Magnolia grandiflora
L. (magnolia) is classified.
The name of a family is generated adding the suffix –aceae to a root formed
on the basis of the genus name. For instance, the name of the family
Magnoliaceae is formed from the name of the genus Magnolia.
The name of the taxon immediately above is generated from this root or one
from another genus and so on until the name of a division is generated. The
root of the name Magnolia is one example of a root used to generate names
in all levels of the hierarchy of plants: genus Magnolia, family Magnoliaceae,
suborder Magnoliineae, order Magnoliales, subclass Magnoliidae, class
Magnoliopsidae, subdivision Magnoliophytina, division Magnoliophyta.
22
Unit III: Generation of terms
Some examples of names of taxa that are below genus are as follows:
•
•
•
•
•
Two subspecies of the same species:
Coronilla valentina L. subsp. valentina
Coronilla valentina L. subsp. glauca (L.) Battand.
Linneo first named the species Coronilla valentina, which is why he appears
as the author of the name, but then several subspecies of the species were
discovered. The name of the originally named species is repeated, but the
name of the author is not repeated. In the case of the second species, the
authors of both names (species and subspecies) are indicated.
Variety is a natural variation of a species. For instance, Cupressus
sempervirens L. var. horizontalis (Mill.) Loudon is a cyprus with less vertical
branches than Cupressus sempervirens L.
In the case of the forms (f.) there is no indication of the author, as there are
several pre-established forms, for instance:
Cereus jamacaru DC. f. monstruosus
Cereus jamacaru DC. f. variegatus
If two plants belonging to different taxa are naturally hybridised, this is
indicated with an “x”: x Cupressocyparis leylandii (Dallim. & A. B. Jackson)
Dallimla is a hybrid resulting from the hybridation of two plants belonging to
diferente genera: Cupressus macrocarpa Hartw. ex Gordon and
Chamaecyparis nootkatensis (D. Don) Spach.
The botanical code does not consider forced hybrids, also called varieties,
that are bred in nurseries. The names of these hybrids are indicated with
quotation marks: Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A. Webb 'Ferranduel' and Prunus
dulcis (Mill.) D.A. Webb 'Guara', both of them are vareities of Prunus dulcis.
For these varieties there is no author´s name, but there is a breeder of the
variety. The name of the breeder is not indicated in the name of the variety
although it is known; actually there are authors’ rights.
10.2. Chemical nomenclature
In 1787, Lavoisier, with a group of French chemists, published his Méthode de
Nomenclature Chimique, in which he systematically classified and renamed the
chemical elements and compounds that were known in that time. With this, he
established the foundations of modern chemistry and its nomenclature.
Unlike Linneo’s botanical nomenclature, the chemical nomenclature is written in
French and then exported to other languages. So the same denomination has
little variation depending on the phonetic characteristics of each language.
However, symbolic denominations are coined at the same time as the verbal
expressions. These symbolic denominations are called chemical formulas, and
are made up of a combination of symbols of chemical elements (literal symbols)
and numbers (graphic symbols) in addition to other graphic symbols for the
more complex forms. These symbolic denominations are actually universal,
since they are extralinguistic expressions and do not present any variation
between languages. Another aspect that contributes to the universality of the
formulas is that they are not expressed orally.
23
Unit III: Generation of terms
Currently, the chemical nomenclature is supervised by the IUPAC (International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, www.iupac.org), organisation founded in
1911, whose decisions are accepted by the international community of
chemists. IUPAC is in charge of looking after the correct use of the chemical
nomenclature and the introduction of necessary modifications as knowledge
about the nature of the chemical compounds evolves and advances.
Due to the differences between both inorganic and organic compounds, it is
possible to speak about a nomenclature in inorganic chemistry and another in
organic chemistry. Both of them have much in common, but certain specific
aspects establish differences between them.
10.2.1. Nomenclature in inorganic chemistry
In order to classify the inorganic compounds, it is necessary to know what
chemical elements are combined to form a molecule and the number of atoms
of each element, as well as the kind of compounds (binary, acids, salts, etc.), in
accordance with a pre-established typology.
Below there are some examples of binary compounds, that are compounds with
atoms of only two chemical elements. To classify and name them, we must first
know if they are metallic or non metallic (which one is more electronegative)
and then the number of atoms of each element.
Formula
PCl3
PCl5
CCl4
FeH2
FeH3
CuH
CuH2
CO
CO2
Spanish
tricloruro de fósforo
pentacloruro de fósforo
tetracloruro de carbono
dihidruro de hierro
trihidruro de hierro
monohidruro de cobre
dihidruro de cobre
monóxido de carbono
dióxido de carbono
Verbal expression
French
trichorure de phosphore
pentachlorure de phosphore
tétrachlorure de carbone
dihydrure ferrique
trihydrure ferrique
monohydrure de cuivre
dihydrure de cuivre
monoxyde de carbone
dioxyde de carbone
English
phosphorus trichloride
phosphorus pentachloride
carbon tetrachloride
ferric dihydride
ferric trihydride
copper monohydride
copper dihydride
carbon monoxide
carbon dioxide
In the English verbal expression, the metallic or less electronegative element is
named first and then the non metallic or more electronegative element, followed
by the suffix –ide. The amount of atoms is indicated with a combining form
before the name of the non metallic element. So, the verbal denominations of
binary compounds are compounds (a noun phrase made up of a noun
determined by another noun), in which the words used are simple, derived
and/or compound names.
suffix indicating the non metallic
or more electronegative element
Spanish
French
English
-uro
-ure
-ide
combining form indicating the number of atoms of the
non metallic or more electronegative element
Spanish
French
English
mono-, di, tri-…
Therefore, in the case of the phosphorous trichloride (PCl3), we have a
chemical compound made up of three atoms of chlorine (indicated with the
combining form tri-) and one atom of phosphorous. In addition, the suffix –ide
establishes that chlorine is the non metallic or more electronegative element.
24
Unit III: Generation of terms
10.2.2. Nomenclature in organic chemistry
It is accepted that the synthesis of urea by Wöhler, in 1828, is the starting point
of organic chemistry as a branch of chemistry, but the rules for its nomenclature
were not established until the Geneva Congress in 1892. In this nomenclature,
as in the nomenclatural of inorganic chemistry, the denominations are formed in
the current language; consequently, there are little variations between
languages.
The classification of molecules is based on the principles of inorganic chemistry
(occurring chemical elements, number of atoms, types of molecules...), but
organic molecules are much more complex than inorganic ones. That is why
certain simplifications are applied, taking into account common aspects of all
the organic compounds.
Organic molecules are structured around chains made with atoms of carbon.
So, the first step in the organic nomenclature is to express the number of atoms
of carbon in a molecule, which is achieved with combining forms. In addition,
the links between atoms of carbon may be simple, double or triple, a
characteristic indicated with suffixes:
combining form indicating the number
of atoms of carbon
n
Spanish
French
English
1
metméthmeth2
etétheth3
proppropprop4
butbutbut5
pentpentpent-
suffix indicating the type of link between
atoms of carbon
type
Spanish
French
English
simple
-ano
-ane
-ane
double
-eno
-ène
-ene
triple
-ino
-yne
-yne
A combining form (number of atoms of carbon) followed by a suffix (type of link
between atoms of carbon) is already a denomination of an organic compound.
The following are some examples of these denominations:
Formula
CH4
CH3-CH3
CH2=CH2
CH≡CH
CH3-CH2-CH3
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3
CH2=CH-C≡CH
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
CH2=C=CH-CH2-CH3
Spanish
metano
etano
eteno
etino
propano
butano
1,3 butenino
pentano
1,2 pentadieno
Verbal expression
French
méthane
éthane
éthène
éthyne
propane
butane
1,3 butényne
pentane
1,2 pentadiène
English
methane
ethane
ethene
ethyne
propane
butane
1,3 butenyne
pentane
1,2 pentadiene
Ethane, for instance, is a compound made up with two atoms of carbon
(combining form eth-) united with a simple link (suffix -ane). If the link is double,
it is called ethene (suffix -ene), and if it is triple, ethyne (suffix -yne). If no more
information is given about the molecule, the rest of the possible links of the
atoms of carbon are established with atoms of hydrogen.
In the case of 1,3 butenyne (molecule with four atoms of carbon, according to
the combining form but-), two suffixes are used simultaneously (-ene and –ine),
25
Unit III: Generation of terms
which indicates that an atom of carbon has a double link (the carbon number
one, indicated with the number 1 at the begining of the denomination) and a
triple link (carbon number three).
1,2 pentadiene is a compound with five carbons (combining form penta-), two
(combining form di-) double links (suffix -ene), one in carbon number one (1)
and another in the carbon number two (2).
In the last two examples, as in ethane, if there is no more information, it is
supposed that the rest of links of the atoms of carbon are established with
atoms of hydrogen.
In organic chemistry, there are atoms or groups of atoms that, when linked to a
carbon chain, make it have special characteristics or the possibility to link to
other molecules. The union of these atoms or combination of atoms with the
basic chains, formed solely with atoms of carbon and hydrogen, gives rise to a
limited series of types of molecules (alcohols, etheres, etc.). A suffix or a
combining form is situated after the basic name (ethane, methane, etc.) to
generate the names of these types of molecules. Below, we have reproduced
all the types of organic compounds with the respective suffixes and combining
forms and examples of each case.
Type of
compound
General
formula
Alcohols
R-OH
Ethers
R-O-R’
Aldehydes
R-C=O
Ketones
R-C-R’
Acids
R-COOH
Esteres
Amines
O
R-C-O-R’
R–NH2
R–NHR’
R–NHR’R’’
Nitriles
R-C≡N
Amides
R–CONHR’
R–CONR’R’’
suffix or combining form
French
English
-ol
-ol
-ol
metanol
méthanol
methanol
-oxi
-oxy
-oxy
metoxietano
méthoxyéthane
methoxyethane
-al
-al
-al
etanal
éthanal
ethanal
-ona
-one
-one
propanona
propanone
propanone
-oico
-oïque
-oic
ácido metanóico
acid methanoïque
methanoic acid
-ato
-ate
-ate
etanoato de metilo
méthyl éthanoate
methyl ethanoate
Spanish
-amina
metilamina
-amine
méthylamine
-amine
methylamine
-nitrilo
metanonitrilo
-amida
metanamida
-nitrile
méthylnitrile
-amide
méthylamide
-nitrile
methylnitrile
-amide
methylamide
The molecules can be more complex, but there are always rules to generate the
denominations in accordance with their chemical characteristics. Finally, we will
have a series of names formed with compounds or derived words.
10.3. Nomenclature of viruses
In the case of viruses, we face a field in which the nomenclature is being
developed in this moment. The current nomenclature was approved in 2002 by
the
ICTV
(International
Committee
on
Taxonomy
of
Viruses,
http://www.ictvonline.org/), that is the organisation in charge of elaborating a
26
Unit III: Generation of terms
universal classification of viruses and, at the same time, establishing a
systematic nomenclature. This organisation takes the nomenclatures of living
beings (plants, animals, fungi, algae and bacteria) as a model, although the
classification of viruses has no evolution or phylogenetic implications. Viruses
are not ordered depending on their kinship, which is the criterion applied to the
nomenclatures of living beings.
The nomenclature of viruses takes the name of several taxa (order, family,
subfamily, genus and species) from the nomenclatures of living beings. In
addition, there are some specific taxa in this taxonomy (serotype, genotype,
strain and variant). The names of the taxa are written in italics, as in the
botanical nomenclature, and the following suffixes are used:
Order
Family
Subfamily
Genus
Species
-virales
-viridae
-virinae
-virus
-virus
In the case of the taxon species, the denominations are generated in modern
languages, by adding the word “virus” to a root or name (enterovirus) or writing
the word “virus” after the name of the illness it causes, for instance, human
immunodeficiency virus (in the name of the illness there can be references to
the living being suffering it and/or the organ affected).
The complete text of the nomenclature as well as the list with all the names of
viruses generated so far can be consulted on the ICTV website.
The taxa “order” has been established more recently, the names of orders for
every family do not exist yet. Until the year 2009 only six orders had been
coined, so 65 out of the 87 current families have not been assigned to an order
yet. In the same year, the ICTV’s list included 2.290 species of viruses.
Some examples of names of several taxa are as follows:
Family
Subfamily
Genus
Henipavirus
Species
Hendra virus
Nipah virus
Cetacean morbillivirus
Canine distemper virus
Paramyxovirinae
Morbillivirus
Paramyxoviridae
Peste-des-petits-ruminants virus
Porcine distemper virus
Measles virus
Respirovirus
Pneumovirinae
Human parainfluenza virus 1
Human parainfluenza virus 3
Pneumovirus
Human respiratory syncytial virus
Metapneumovirus
Human metapneumovirus
27
Unit III: Generation of terms
10.4. Nomenclature of refrigerants
The French company Du Pont has been producing refrigerant gases (used in
refrigerators, cold-storage plants, air conditioning machines, etc.) since the
beginning of the 20th century. In order to name all the products manufactured,
they developed a nomenclature that became standardised and was accepted
internationally.
A fundamental difference between the objects named by the nomenclature of
refrigerants in relation to the examples explained above, all of them belonging
to fields of sciences, is that refrigerants are manufactured products, this means
that they result in the application of a technology. Like all the transformation
activities, manufacturing of refrigerants is regulated by several legal norms.
The denominations of refrigerants, as names of commercial products, and,
consequently, the nomenclature, are also regulated and included in a legal text.
In Spain, the Real Decreto 3099/1977 includes the approval of the Reglamento
de Seguridad para las Plantas e Instalaciones Frigoríficas. The Real Decreto
also authorises the Minister of Industry and Energy to issue the norms needed
to develop what is established in the Real Decreto. In this way, in the Orden de
24 de Enero de 1978 the complementary instructions, denominated MI-IF, are
approved. There are 17 instructions about aspects related to any refrigerating
plant or machine.
The instruction MI IF 002, titled Clasificación de los refrigerantes (fluidos
frigoríficos), includes the section Nomenclatura simbólica numérica, which
represents a clear example of the close relation between the classification of a
group of objects and the nomenclature to name them, since the criteria to
classify and name are the same.
From the title we can deduce the following aspects about this nomenclature:
•
•
It is symbolic, since the denominations are formed by symbols and not
words. So, they are universal.
It is numerical (actually, as we explain below, it is alphanumerical, since
each denomination is a combination of numbers and letters).
There are not many rules in this nomenclature because the number of
refrigerants is quite limited (at the end of this section we include the whole list of
refrigerants). The chemical composition of the refrigerants (according to the
chemical classification and nomenclature) is taken into account to classify and
name them. This is why the denomination of each refrigerant has a symbolic
and verbal equivalent (chemical formula) in the chemical nomenclature.
Many of the gases used as refrigerants have common characteristics, so, as in
the nomenclature in organic chemistry, any characteristic that is common is left
out and the attention is focussed on what differentiates the refrigerants.
Included below is the entire nomenclature of refrigerants as published in the
above mentioned instruction MI-IF 002:
28
Unit III: Generation of terms
NOMENCLATURA SIMBÓLICA NUMÉRICA
A efectos de lo dispuesto en el número anterior, se establece la siguiente nomenclatura
simbólica numérica:
Los refrigerantes podrán expresarse, en lugar de hacerlo por su fórmula o por su denominación
química, mediante la denominación simbólica numérica adoptada internacionalmente y que se
detalla seguidamente.
La denominación simbólica numérica de un refrigerante se establecerá a partir de su fórmula
química, consistiendo en una expresión numérica en la que:
•
La primera cifra de la derecha, en los compuestos que carezcan de bromo, indicará el
número de átomos de flúor de su molécula.
• A la izquierda de la anterior se indicará con otra cifra el número de átomos de
hidrógeno de su molécula más uno.
• A la izquierda de la anterior se indicará con otra cifra el número de átomos de carbono
de su molécula menos uno. Si resultara cero no se indicará.
• El resto de los enlaces se completará con átomos de cloro.
• Si la molécula contiene átomos de bromo se procederá de la manera indicada hasta
aquí, añadiendo luego a la derecha una B mayúscula, seguida del número de dichos
átomos.
• En los compuestos isómeros, el más simétrico (en pesos atómicos) se indicará sin letra
alguna a continuación de los números. Al aumentar la asimetría, se colocarán las letras
a, b, c, etc.
• Los compuestos no saturados seguirán las reglas anteriores, anteponiendo el número 1
como cuarta cifra, contada desde la derecha.
• Los azeótropos o mezclas determinadas de refrigerantes se expresarán mediante las
denominaciones de sus componentes, intercalando, entre paréntesis, el porcentaje en
peso correspondiente a cada uno. Los azeótropos también pueden designarse por un
número de la serie 500 completamente arbitrario.
Los números de identificación de los refrigerantes de los compuestos inorgánicos se obtienen
añadiendo a 700 los pesos moleculares de los compuestos.
Cuando dos o más refrigerantes inorgánicos tienen los mismos pesos moleculares se utilizan
las letras A, B, C, etc. , para distinguirlos entre ellos .
These rules do not explain that all the symbolic names of refrigerants begin with
the letter “R”, as observed in the list of refrigerants at the end of this section.
Most of the refrigerant gases are halogenated molecules of ethane and
methane (halogenated means that there are atoms of chlorine, fluorine and/or
bromine), which can be seen in the rules of the nomenclature.
•
•
•
•
•
•
The first five rules explain how to represent the chemical composition
(chemical elements and number of atoms of each element) of these
halogenated organic compounds.
The two following rules specify aspects of these compounds (posible
presence of isomers and type of links between carbons –saturated or
unsaturated).
The following rule deals with mixes of those compounds.
There is only one rule for inorganic compounds, which is evidence of a
minor use of these compounds as refrigerants.
The last rule can be applied to all the compounds.
The fifth rule deals with the presence of bromine in the chemical compound
as an exception. This shows that these halogenated compounds usually
have chlorine and/or fluorine; the compounds with bromine are rare.
29
Unit III: Generation of terms
With this, we can realise that the criteria considered to name refrigerant gases
are parallel to the ones used to describe and classify them.
Included below is the list of all the refrigerants, as it appears in the instruction
MI-IF 002, though the column for boiling temperature has been erased.
Nº de
identificación
del
refrigerante
Nombre químico
Fórmula
química
Peso
molecular
en gramos
Grupo primero: Refrigerantes de alta seguridad
R-11
R-12
R-13
R-13B1
R-14
R-21
R-22
R-113
R-114
R-115
R-C318
R-500
R-502
R-744
Triclorofluormetano
Diclorodifluormetano
Clorotrifluormetano
Bromotrifluormetano.
Tetrafluoruro de carbono
Diclorofluormetano
Clorodifluormetano
1,1,2-Triclorotrifluoretano
1,2-Diclorotetrafruoretano
Cloropentafluoretano
Octofluorciclobutano
R-12 (73,8%) + R-152a (26,2%)
R-22 (48,8%) + R-115 (51,2%)
Anhídrido carbónico
CCl3F
CCl2F2
CClF3
CBrF3
CF4
CHCl2F
CHClF2
CCl2FCClF2
CClF2CClF2
CClF2CF2
C4F8
CCl2F2/CH3CHF2
CHClF2/CClF2CF3
CO2
137,4
120,9
104,5
148,9
88
102,9
86,5
187,4
170,9
154,5
200
99,29
112
44
R-23
R-123
R-124
R-125
R-134a
Trifluormetano
2,2-dicloro-1,1,1-trifluoretano
2 Cloro-1,1,1,2-tetrafluoretano
Pentafluoretano
1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoretano
CHF3
CHCl2-CF3
CHClF-CF3
CHF2-CF3
CH2F-CF3
70,01
153,0
136,5
120,02
102,0
R-401A
(53/13/34)
Clorodifluormetano (R-22)
1,1-Difluoretano (R-152a)
2 Cloro-1,1,1,2-tetrafluoretano(R-124)
CHClF2 (53%)
CH3-CHF2 (13%)
CHClF-CF3(34%)
94,44
R-401B
(61/11/28)
Clorodifluormetano (R-22)
1,1-Difluoretano (R-152a)
2 Cloro-1,1,1,2-tetrafluoretano(R-124)
CHClF2 (61%)
CH3-CHF2 (11%)
CHClF-CF3 (28%)
92,84
R-401C
(33/15/52)
Clorodifluormetano (R-22)
1,1-Difluoretano (R-152a)
2 Cloro-1,1,1,2-tetrafluoretano(R-124)
CHClF2 (33%)
CH3-CHF2 (15%)
CHClF-CF3 (52%)
101,04
R-402A
(60/2/38)
Pentafluoretano (R-125)
Propano (R-290)
Clorodifluormetano (R-22)
CHF2-CF3 (60%)
C3H8 (2%)
CHClF2 (38%)
101,55
R-402B
(38/2/60)
Pentafluoretano (R-125)
Propano (R-290)
Clorodifluormetano (R-22)
CHF2-CF3 (38%)
C3H8 (2%)
CHClF2 (60%)
94,71
R-404A
(44/4/52)
Pentafluoretano (R-125)
1,1,1,2-tetrafluoretano (R-134a)
1,1,1-Trifluoroetano (R-143a)
CHF2-CF3 (44%)
CH2F-CF3 (4%)
H3-CF3 (52%)
97,6
R-407C
(23/25/52)
Difluormetano (R-32)
Pentafluormetano (R-125)
1,1,1,2-tetrafluoretano (R-134a)
CH2F2 (23%)
CHF2-CF3 (25%)
CH2F-CF3 (52%)
86,2
30
Unit III: Generation of terms
Grupo segundo: Refrigerantes de media seguridad
R-30
R-40
R-160
R-611
R-717
R-764
R-1130
CH2Cl2
CH2Cl
CH3CH2Cl
HCOOCH2
NH3
SO2
CHCl=CHCl
Cloruro de metileno
Cloruro de metilo
Cloruro de etilo
Formiato de metilo
Amoníaco
Anhídrido sulfuroso
1,2-Dicloroetileno
84,9
50,5
64,5
60
17
64
96,9
Grupo tercero: Refrigerantes de baja seguridad
R-170
R-290
R-600
R-600a
R-1150
CH3CH3
CH3CH2CH3
CH3CH2CH2CH3
CH(CH3)3
CH2=CH2
Etano
Propano
Butano
Isobutano
Etileno
30
44
58,1
58,1
28
References
BOE (1978): Orden de 24 de Enero de 1978, por la que se aprueban las
Instrucciones Complementarias denominadas Instrucciones MI-IF con
arreglo a lo dispuesto en el Reglamento de seguridad para plantas e
instalaciones frigoríficas, BOE de 3 de febrero de 1978,
www.coitiab.es/reglamentos/inst_frigo/reglamentos/ORD_240178.htm
(consultation: June 3, 2010).
DUBOIS, J. et al. (1986): Diccionario de lingüística, Fuenlabrada, Alianza
Editorial, S.A.
GUTIÉRREZ RODILLA, B.M. (1998): La ciencia empieza en la palabra,
Capellades, Ediciones Península, S.A.
ICTV (2002) : The international code of virus classification and nomenclature,
http://www.ictvonline.org/codeOfVirusClassification_2002.asp (consultation:
June 3, 2010).
MCNEILL, J. et al. (eds.) (2006): International Code of Botanical Nomenclature
(Vienna Code), http://ibot.sav.sk/icbn/main.htm (consultation: June 3, 2010).
REAL ACADEMIA ESPAÑOLA (200122): Diccionario de la Lengua Española,
www.rae.es (consultation: June 3, 2010).
SAGER, J.C. (1993): Curso práctico sobre el procesamiento de la terminología,
Humanes, Fundación Germán Sánchez Ruipérez.
31