Sanders, c.J. 1964. The biology of carpenter
ants in New Brunswick Can. Entomol. 96:
894-909.
Silver, G. T. 1960. Notes on a spruce bUd·
wonn infestation in British Columbia. For.
Chron. 36: 362-374.
Skinner, G.J. 1980. Thefeeding habits of the
wood ant Formica rufa (Hymenoptera.· For·
micidae) in limestone woodland in north·
west England]. Anim. Ecol. 49: 417-433.
Skinner, G.J., andJ. B. Whittaker. 1981.An
experimental investigation of interrela·
tionships between the wood ant (Formica
rufa) and some tree·canopy herbivores. J.
Anim. Ecol. 50: 313- 326.
Way, M.J. 1963. Mutualism between ants and
honeydew producing Homoptera. Annu.
Rev. Entomol. 8: 307-344.
Wellenstein, G. 1980. Auswirkung hiigel·
bauender Waldameisen der Formica rufaGruppe auf forstschiidliche Raupen und das
Wachstum der Waldbiiume. Z. fur Ange. En·
tarnal. 89: 144-157.
Wilkinson, R. c., A. P. Bhatkar, W. H. Whit·
comb, and W.J. 100ft. 1980. Formica in·
tegra (Hymenoptera.· Fomlicidae). 3. Trial
Value of Bee Pollination to
introduction into Florida. Fla. Entomol. 63:
142-146.
Note: Received for publication
1 April
1983; accepted 15 August 1983.
Address: Dept. of Entomology, Oregon
State University, Corvallis, OR 97331.
u.s. Agriculture
M. D. Levin
Abstract Honey bee pollinating activities are worth 143 times more than the value of honey and beeswax they produce ($18.9
billion vs. $140 million). Fruits and nuts, seeds and fiber, commodities from seeds requiring bee pollination and a portion of com·
modities indirectly dependent on bee pollination are listed with their values, obtained from the USDA(1981).
T
he role of bee pollinators in the
production of many economically important crops in the
United States has been the primary justification for much of the support provided
by government agencies to the bee·
keeping industry. The concept has been
accepted that an adequate population of
honey bee pollinators can only be maintained in the framework of a thriving beekeeping industry which obtains most of
its income from the production and sale
of honey and beeswax. In this context, the
honey price support program, the bee indemnification program, and the bee research program of the Agricultural Research Service have been carried out by
the U.S. Department of Agriculture
(USDA)with the support and encouragement of Congress.
From time to time, attempts are made
to quantify the importance of bees in the
pollination of agricultural crops. In 1957,
crops dependent upon or requiring bee
pollination for seed or fruit were valued
at $4.5 billion (Metcalf et al. 1962). By
1971, this value had increased to $7.6 billion (Ware 1973). With increasing prices
for most crops, and some new crops rep·
resenting an increasing proportion of the
total acreage, this value has since in·
creased dramatically, and a current reevaluation appears appropriate.
An update is presented in Table 1 of the
dollar values of crops and commodities
that were included among some 129
crops listed by McGregor (1980) as dependent upon or benefiting from insect
pollination and that, moreover, were also
50
included in the USDA'sAgriculture Statistics (1981). No attempt was made to
separate the crops according to dependency on insect pollination. In many cases
the precise dependency is unknown, so
no exact calculation can be made (McGregor 1976). In addition, the value of
crops and commodities derived from seed
produced by pollination is credited to
pollinators on the principle that, without
seed, the crop could not be grown, or
that, without alfalfa hay, beef or milk
could not be produced as efficiently as
they are now.
Although the total value of crops and
commodities affected by the pollinating
activities of bees has reached an impressive figure on a national basis, the beekeepers who supply most of this service
receive very little monetary compensa·
tion for it. A study made by the U.S. In·
ternational Trade Commission (1976) revealed that, of the total beekeeping incomes earned by 118 commercial
beekeepers in various states during
1971-1975, the proportion derived from
pollination fees averaged only 9.7%. In
Washington, Oregon, and California,
where use of pollination service is
greatest, some large commercial beekeepers earned about one· third of their income from pollination. In a few other
areas (New England, the Mid·Atlantic
States, Texas, and Florida), pollination
fees contributed less to the income of
beekeepers; elsewhere, income from pollination fees was insignificant for most
beekeepers.
The total value of crops listed in Table
1 would have been greater if the farm
value of squash, pumpkin, safilower, buckwheat, persimmon, mustard, rutabaga,
turnips, and many other minor crops had
been included. Some crops included in
other lists were not included in Table 1
because the evidence for pollinator con·
tribution was obtained on cultivars and
under conditions not available in the
United States.
As can be seen, the total value of crops
resulting from pollinator activity in 1980
approaches $20 billion, which compares
with ca. $140 million worth of honey and
beeswax produced. These figures indicate
that the activity of bee pollinators is
worth 143 times as much to the American
economy as is the value of honey and
beeswax, on which most beekeepers must
make their living.
Much could also be said of the undocumented contributions made by the pol·
linating activities of native species of bees
and honey bees, both feral and domesticated, to crop plants and to thousands of
wild plants (as forage, seed and fruit
sources, shelter, erosion control, etc.) for
many forms of wild life that are integral
parts of natural ecosystems.
Honey bees, of course, are not the only
insect pollinators contributing to the production referred to. A multimillion·dollar
industry has been developed in the Pacific
Northwest, where two other species of
bees (Megacbile rotundata and Nomia
melanderi) are managed successfully for
the pollination of alfalfa.With the advent
of monoculture, large-scale farming, and
other modern agricultural practices, many
BULLETIN OF THE ESA
species
of non-honey
a diminishing
upon
role,
honey
increased.
bees managed
Also,
face problems
pool
the
needs.
worth
by humans
the required
pollinators
It is because
on
of agricultural
to supply
of the
nearly
impact
520
of
billion
crops
and commod-
not for the
value
of honey
beeswax
that
assistance
provided
to help
ities
and
pesticide,
federal
the
marketing,
other
problems
ability
to supply
that
Book Co., New York.
McGregor,
S. E. 1976. Insect pollination of
cultivated crop plants. U.S. Dep. Agric.
Handb. 496. 411 pp.
1980. Pollination of crops, pp. 107-117.
In Beekecping in the United States. U.S. Dep.
Agric. Handb. 135.
U.S. Department
of Agriculture.
1981. Ag·
ricultural statistics 1981. U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.
U.S. International
Trade
Commission.
1976. Publication 781. U.S. International
Trade Commission, Washington, D.C.
Note; Received for publication 22 April
1983; accepted 26 July 1983.
Address: Agricultural Research Service,
U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Carl
Hayden Bee Research Center, 2000 East
Allen Road, Tucson, AZ 85719.
industry
and
has been
cope
management,
could
MetcaH, C. L., W. P. Flint and R. L. MetcaH.
has
in maintaining
pollinators
1962. Destntctive and useful insects, their
habits and control, 4th ed. McGraw-Hili
G. W. 1973. Bees in agriculture: their
and importance, pp. 28- 38.
In Report of conference on "The Indispensable Honey Bee." Feb. 12-13, 1973. Beltsville, Md.
impede
with
and
its
pollinators.
Table
Commodities:
Requiring or directly
benefiting from
bee pollination
Resulting from seed
requiring bee
pollination
Indirectly dependent
on bee pollination
Total sum
Ware,
problems
increasingly
bee
References Cited
play
dependence
beekeepers
of honey
bee
bee pollinators
whereas
Fruits
1. Value of crops
and nuts
pollinated
by bees, 1980"
value
Apples
Apricots
Avocados
Bush berries
Cherries (Tart)
Cherries (Sweet)
Citrus
Lemons
Tangerines
Tangelos
Temples
Cranberries
Eggplant
Nectarines
Peaches
Pears
Pomegranates
Prunes and Plums
Strawberries
Cantelopes
Cucumbers-fresh
Cucumbers-processed
Honeydew
Watermelons
Almonds
Macadamia
Total
3,516
13,777
288,776
161,133
116,260
100,933
42,864
149,757
473,340
24,174
3,321,425
Artichokes
Asparagus
Broccoli
Brussel sprouts
Cabbage
Carrots
Cauliflower
Garlic
Onions
Alfalfa hay
Total
27,473
82,118
55,286
15,706
175,211
161,432
95,762
33,816
346,539
4,981,394
5,974,737
Cattle and calves (1/10)'
Liquid milk production (1I10)'
5,435,974
1,688,340
7,124,314
757,027"
33,705
121,293
62,263
43,648
91,812
61,319
37,559
26,816
25,020
88,674
10,411
44,468
368,004
Seeds and fiber
Alfalfa
Red clover
!..adino clover
Crimson clover
Lespedeza
Soybeans ( 1/10 )b
Sunflower
Cotton seed (1/10)b
Cotton lint (1/IO)b
Lima beans
Flax
Vegetable Seeds
Total
Value
114,652
16,176
3,941
1,433
2,628
1,382,494
410,377
57,693
407,831
25,137
59,054
60,000
2,541,416
174,876
18,961,892,000
a Values represent
thousands of dollars.
Not all varieties benefit. Ten percent is a conservative estimate of pollination value.
C Sixty percent
of all hay fed to cattle and dairy herds is alfalfa. A conservative 10% of total value is credited
following chain of production: pollination ~ alfalfa seed ~ hay - cattle, meat, and dairy.
h
WINTER 1983
to pollinating
activities that initiate the
51