Late Tertiary to Quaternary

La
t
e Ter
t
i
ar
y t
o Quat
er
nar
y
Tec
t
oni
cs
o
f
I
r
i
an
J
ay
a by D.
B.
Dow and R.
Sukar
nt
o
Bet
ween 1
978 and 1
982 a t
eam o占Au6
tal
f
i
an and
Du
t
ch t
e
am (
Do
zy
,
1
93
8)
dur
i
n
r an a
t
t
empt
t
o cl
i
mb t
he
I
n
d
o
n
e
s
t
a
n g
e
o
l
o
g
i
s
t
s
c
at
t
i
e
d o
ut。ma
了
o
-
t
ma
p
pt
n
g
hi
ghest mountai
n i
n I
ri
an Jaya, now named Puneak Jaya.
The
J
a
y
a t
n wnt
e
t
nmo6
t
I
n
d
o
n
e
s
i
a.
Th
i
s
a
t
t
i
c
l
e de
6
c
t
-
i
f
i
n
t
h
e人
i
e扭t
echni
ques us
e
d an
d s
ummat
i
zo t
he 6
成ent
i
-
maj
or l
odes i
n the wor
l
d,
though becaus
e of i
ts ext
raor
-
di
nari
l
-
y remote l
ocal
i
t
y at an el
evati
on of over 3,
000 m,
6
t
c
i
e
s
u
l
N i
n
c
l
u
d
i
n
g t
h
e
t
e
c
o
g
n
i
t
t
o
n
I
,
I
o
6
t
h
e
Me
l
a
n
e
s
i
a
n
i
s al
so one of t
he hi
ghes
t i
n t
he wor
l
d.
p
i
o
j
e
c
t
i
n h
i
t
h
e
i
t
o
g
e
o
l
o
g
t
c
a
l
l
y u
n
k
n
o
wn p
a
i
t
6
o
6
ti
f
a
n
0t
oqe
ny,田h之
ch be
gan t
n工
he机不
es Mt
o
cene ana
mi
ne devel
oped her
e has si
nce Dr
oved t
o be one of the ri
ches
t
di
r
e
ct
l
y bel
ow t
he i
c
ec
ap of Pu
ne
ak J
a
ya,
i
t
s c
os
t s
t
r
u
ct
ur
e
Introduction
Unf
ort
unatel
y our wor
k had to he suspended f
or securi
t
y
reas
ons i
n 1982,
by whi
ch ti
me onl
y the west
er
n hal
f of the
pr
ovi
nce had been mapped at 1
:
250,
000,
However,
we have
been abl
e t
o compi
l
e a reas
onabl
y rel
i
abl
e veol
oVi
cal map at
1:
1,
000,
000 s
cal
e of the whol
e r
egi
on i
ncl
udi
ng the east
er
n
hal
f of t
he Drovi
nce. Thi
s was pos
si
bl
e because t
he 1
:
100,
000
ai
r
photos, i
n combi
nati
on wi
t
h t
he LANDSAT i
mager
y, s
how
Unti
l recentl
y I
r
i
an Jaya,
t
he I
ndonesi
an pr
ovi
nce coveri
ng
r
esul
t
s of wi
del
y spaced tr
aver
se done duri
ng oi
l expl
orati
on
co
nt
i
nues to
day.
Thi
s t
nvo
l
ve6 cont
empot
aE
y undet
-
t
h
,
二,
t
i
n
g o
}
t
he Au
6
t
i
a
i
i
an c
o
n
t
i
ne
n
t b
y t
h
e l
p
a
c
i
}
i
c
Pl
at
e一a p-
z
ocea t
h
at i
s expz
n6
ed on t
he 6
uz
石
ace by
6
hal
e di
api
-
t
i
6m,
mud vo
l
c
anoes and act
t
ve占
aul
t
i
ng.
t
h
e we
s
t
er
n h
al
f
o
f t
he I
s
l
a
nd o
f New Gui
ne
a (
P i
.
g
.
1
)
,
was one
of t
he l
eas
t expl
ored revi
ons i
n t
he worl
d.
The mai
n r
eason
f
o
r t
hi
s i
s t
h
e v
er
v di
f
f
i
c
u
l
t ac
ce
s
s po
s
e
d b
y t
he wi
de f
r
i
nge
of j
un
g
l
e
-
c
ov
er
e
d s
wamp
s a
n
d D
l
ai
n
s
,
an
d f
a
r
t
h
er i
nl
an
d by
the rugged mount
ai
ns of t
he Centr
al Range,
where the bul
k
of t
he popul
ati
on l
i
ves.
t
he ma
j
o
r f
e
at
ur
es o
f t
he g
eo
l
og
y re
mar
ka
bl
y we
l
l
.
Th
e
(
Vi
s
s
e
r a
nd Her
me
s
,
1
96
2)
wer
e al
s
o h
e
l
pf
ul
.
Wo
r
ki
ng i
n I
r
i
an J
ay
a
Except for smal
l networks ar
ound the few coast
al towns,
t
he
r
e a
r
e no r
o
ad
s i
n I
r
i
a
n J
ay
a,
s
o gr
ou
nd t
r
a
ve
l i
s i
n
v
ar
i
ab
l
y
di
f
fi
cul
t
. Access to t
he j
ungl
e-covered swamps and pl
ai
ns i
s
By the ear
l
y 1960s,
most of the countr
y wi
t
h hydr
ocar
bon
pot
enti
al had been geol
oFi
cal
ly mapped by oi
l compani
es
ge
ner
al
l
v l
i
mi
t
ed t
o me
an
de
r
i
n
g r
i
v
er
s
,
an
d t
h
es
e a
r
e
(
Vi
s
s
e
r a
nd He
r
me
s,
1
96
2
)
,
bu
t t
he mo
unt
ai
no
us hi
nt
e
r
l
an
d
Th
us t
he on
l
y pr
ac
t
i
cab
l
e way t
o ga
i
n a
cce
s
s t
o t
he
mo
un
t
ai
ns i
s t
o f
l
y by l
i
gh
t ai
r
c
r
af
t t
o t
he man
y s
ma
l
l
was sti
l
l most
l
y unknown.
A contr
i
buti
ng factor has been a
l
ack of rel
i
abl
e maps
: over l
ar
ge areas the avai
l
abl
e
t
opographi
c sheet
s ar
e wi
l
dl
y i
naccurate.
A great advance
was made when ai
r
phot
os at 1
:
100,
000 scal
e were acqui
r
ed by
a defence cooper
ati
on pr
oj
ect between t
he I
ndones
i
an and
Aus
tr
al
i
an gover
nments
, and,
al
t
hough l
arge areas i
n the east
are us
ual
l
y cover
ed i
n cl
oud and were theref
or
e not
p
ho
t
o
gr
ap
hed
,
c
l
o
ud-
f
r
e
e LANDSAT i
mag
er
y i
s a
va
i
l
a
bl
e f
or
many of thes
e gaDs.
By 1978 arrangements wer
e f
i
nal
i
zed between t
he I
ndonesi
an
and Austr
al
i
an government
s to undert
ake a geol
ogi
cal survey
o
f I
r
i
a
n J
a
ya as D
ar
t o
f Aus
t
i
t
a
l
i
a'
s bi
l
a
t
er
al
ai
d pr
og
r
am
under the auspi
ces of the Aust
ral
i
an Devel
opment Assi
stance
Bu
r
e
au
.
Thi
s pr
oj
e
ct
wa
s a gr
e
at ch
al
l
e
n
ge t
o o
ur t
e
am of
ge
ol
ogi
s
t
s f
r
om t
he I
nd
on
es
i
an Ge
ol
ogi
ca
l Re
s
e
ar
c
h a
nd
De
ve
l
o
pmen
t Ce
nt
r
e (
GRDC)
an
d t
he Au
s
t
r
al
i
an Bu
r
e
au of
i
mpassabl
e as soon as the hi
nter
l
and mountai
ns are reached.
ai
r
str
i
ps servi
ng l
ocal admi
ni
s
tr
ati
ve cent
res and chur
ch
mi
ssi
ons.
Fr
om here one mus
t wal
k,
and i
n the popul
at
ed
hi
ghl
ands ther
e i
s a networ
k of tr
acks whi
ch al
l
ow r
eason-
abl
e,
i
f arduous
, tr
avel
. However
, where t
he mount
ai
nous
Figure 1: Locality map. The island of New Guinea
is traditionally likened to a bird with a head, body
and tail 。
1
1
达
嚎
‘ 二)
r
egi
on.
body
犷
乡
N EW
七
JAYA e
l
GUI
NEA
| |
V
1
over
l
yi
ng the Aust
rali
an conti
nental cr
us
t i
n I
ri
an Jaya was
by t
hen wel
l known,
especi
al
l
y i
n t
he west where commerci
al
oi
l deposi
ts had been found.
The natur
e of the deformed
nort
hern margi
n of t
he cr
ust was, however,
an al
most
BANDA
SEA
4}
PA PUA
、1
Th
e g
eo
l
og
y of
t
h
e Mes
oz
oi
c a
nd Te
r
t
i
a
r
y s
e
di
me
nt
a
r
y b
as
i
ns
叱立
IR I
AN
Mi
neral Res
ources (
BMR) when i
n 1978 we commenced work
i
n t
h
e we
s
t
er
n e
xt
r
emi
t
y of t
h
e i
s
l
a
nd,
t
h
e Bi
r
d'
s Hea
d
;
5
。
。
I
SLAND O F NEW GUINEA
弓;之 二卜
400 km
.
I
.
1
1
1
C
c
ompl
et
e my
s
t
e
r
y.
Th
e g
r
ea
t
po
t
e
nt
i
a
l of
t
hi
s r
eg
i
o
n f
or
mi
ner
al deposi
t
s was demons
trated as ear
l
y as 1936 by the
chance di
s
cover
y of t
he Er
ts
ber
g copper-gol
d deposi
ts by a
Epi
s
odes
, VoL 7,
No.
4,
December 1984
16/09门 62
3
extrapol
ati
ng the
per year (
AAPG
1981
) back i
n ti
me t
o the Mi
ddl
e Pl
ei
s
tocene.
of 125 ki
n c o nv erae nc e
obt
ai
ned by
oostulated pr
esent
-day rate of 12.
6 cm
M ai
n Crustal El
ement
s
The s
ou
t
he
r
n p
l
ai
n
s an
d s
wamps o
f I
r
i
an Ja
va a
nd mo
s
t
of t
he
Bi
r
d'
s Head are underl
ai
n by stable Aus
tral
i
an conti
nental
cr
us
t (
Fi
g.
4)
,
whe
r
ea
s t
he no
r
t
h co
as
t mar
ks t
he s
o
ut
he
r
r
l
i
mi
t
of s
i
mi
l
ar
l
y l
i
t
t
l
e
-
d
ef
o
r
me
d o
ce
an
i
c cr
us
t
o
f t
he
Paci
f
i
c Pl
at
e.
Th
e i
n
t
e
r
v
eni
n
g be
l
t o
f def
or
ma
t
i
on,
whi
ch
mak
es u
p mo
s
t of
t
h
e bo
dy of t
he bi
r
d,
i
s t
he wes
t
e
r
I
V
extensi
on of t
he New Gui
nea Mobi
l
e Bel
t of Dow (1977)
.
攫 嘿
5o}
Figure 2: A difficult landing site.
The helicopter
made a one-skid landing using t
he large boulder on
Though i
t i
s mos
tl
y covered by sea,
the composi
ti
on of the
Paci
fi
c Pl
at
e here i
s known f
rom outcrops on the nort
h coast
a
nd o
n t
he out
l
yi
ng i
s
l
an
ds
.
The
s
e r
oc
ks a
r
e al
l
r
e
mar
ka
b
l
y
si
mi
l
ar i
n mi
ner
al
ogy and repres
ent t
he wester
n conti
nuat
i
on
of the Oceani
c Cr
ust and I
sl
and Arcs pr
ovi
nce of Papua New
Gui
n
e
a (
Dow,
1
9
77
)
.
The
y c
on
si
s
t
o
f pe
r
v
as
i
ve
l
y al
t
er
e
d,
basi
c to i
ntermedi
ate i
s
l
and-ar
c vol
cani
cs and subor
di
nate
t力 户 left.
o
cea
ni
c ba
s
a
l
t
s of
Up
pe
r Cr
et
ac
eo
us an
d Pal
ae
og
ene a
ge
.
c
ou
nt
r
y i
s un
po
pul
at
ed o
r ha
s on
l
y a f
e
w s
e
mi
-
n
omad
i
c t
r
i
b
es
,
l
a
i
n b
y Mi
ddl
e Mi
oc
en
e r
ee
f l
i
me
s
t
one (
i
n pl
a
ce
s wi
t
h l
at
e
Lower Mi
o
ce
ne at
t
h
e b
as
e
)
an
d mar
l a
nd y
ou
nge
r e
l
as
t
i
c
wal
ki
nL
y tr
acks ar
e al
most non-exi
stent,
and t
ravel by f
oot i
s
Throughout t
he pr
ovi
nce,
t
he i
sl
and-ar
e vol
cani
cs ar
e over
-
sedi
ment
s. Ul
t
ramafi
c rocks are exposed al
ong maj
or zones
e
xt
r
eme
l
y di
f
f
i
cul
t a
nd t
i
me co
ns
umi
n
g.
of di
sl
ocati
on but are not extensi
ve.
To overcome t
hes
e obst
acl
es the proj
ect adopted traverse
The Austr
al
i
an conti
nent
al rocks consi
st of a bas
ement of
t
ec
hni
ou
es us
e
d s
uc
ce
s
s
f
ul
l
y by BMR dur
i
n
g t
he ma
ppi
ng of
a
dj
oi
ni
ng Pa
pu
a New Gu
i
ne
a i
n t
he pr
ec
edi
ng d
ec
ad
e,
us
i
n
g
mai
nl
y fi
ne-gr
ai
ned,
hi
ghl
y i
ndurated,
and i
n pl
aces hi
ghl
y
sheared, Pal
aeozoi
c sedi
ment
ar
y rocks. Thes
e are overl
ai
n
l
i
ghtl
y l
aden, mobi
l
e, par
ti
es posi
t
i
oned by hel
i
copters
b
y s
he
l
f
s
e
di
men
t
s f
r
om 6 t
o 8 ki
n t
hi
ck
,
r
an
gi
n
g i
n a
ge f
r
om
(
Fi
g.
2
)
.
Th
e gr
ou
ps
,
ea
ch co
ns
i
s
t
i
ng of on
e or t
wo ge
o
l
og
i
s
t
s
l
ate Pal
aeozoi
c t
o mi
d-Ter
ti
ar
y. The Mes
ozoi
c r
ocks are
and three t
o fi
ve por
ters,
then f
ol
l
owed predetermi
ned
mai
n
l
y el
a
s
t
i
c s
edi
me
n
t
s
,
wh
er
ea
s t
h
os
e of Ter
t
i
ar
y a
ge ar
e
r
ou
t
es
,
ge
ne
r
a
l
l
y f
o
l
l
o
wi
n
g r
i
v
er
s or s
t
r
eams
,
on t
r
a
ve
r
s
e
s
al
mos
t excl
usi
vel
y shel
f l
i
mest
one.
t
hat occupi
ed t
hree to seven days
. However
, i
n ar
eas devoi
d
of hel
i
copter l
andi
ng si
t
es, treks up to 10 days dur
ati
on wer
e
oft
en needed. I
n thes
e l
atter areas i
t was usual
l
y neces
sary
The boundar
y between t
he New Gui
nea Mobi
l
e Bel
t and the
a
t t
h
e en
d o
f a t
r
av
e
r
s
e t
o c
u
t he
l
i
c
op
t
e
r l
a
nd
i
n
g p
ad
s ou
t of
t
he j
u
ng
l
e,
a t
a
s
k t
ha
t ca
n t
ak
e u
p t
o a da
y an
d a h
al
f of v
e
r
y
h
ar
d wor
k.
At t
he e
n
d o
f one t
r
ave
r
s
e t
he pa
r
t
y r
et
ur
ne
d t
o
camp to record the obser
vati
ons and pr
epare for the next one.
The work was cert
ai
nl
y no pi
cni
c and t
he fi
el
d work woul
d
not have been pos
si
bl
e wi
thout the cooper
ati
on of the l
ocal
i
nh
abi
t
a
nt
s (
Fi
g
.
3)
who act
ed as gu
i
de
s an
d p
or
t
er
s an
d
s
ha
r
e
d al
l t
he d
i
f
f
i
c
u
l
t
i
e
s a
nd har
ds
hi
ps wi
t
h f
or
t
i
t
ude an
d
Paci
f
i
c P
l
at
e i
s a comp
l
e
x f
a
ul
t z
one o
f gr
ea
t ma
g
ni
t
ude
(
Fi
g.
4
)
.
I
n t
he we
s
t t
hi
s i
s ca
l
l
e
d t
h
e Sor
on
g Fau
l
t Zo
ne
,
wi
t
h pr
oven l
ef
t l
at
er
al di
s
pl
acement of over 350 ki
n. To the
east t
hi
s f
aul
t i
s of
fset to t
he sout
h and s
ucceeded by the
Yapen Faul
t Zone, whi
ch because i
t i
-
s covered by the sea or
recent al
l
uvi
um i
s not wel
l known.
Farther eas
t agai
n the
faul
t zone i
s al
s
o off
set t
o the s
out
h and conti
nues i
nt
o Papua
New Gui
ne
a a
s t
he Bewan
i
-
To
r
r
i
c
e
l
l
i
Fau
l
t S
ys
t
em of
Hut
ch
i
s
o
n an
d Nor
v
i
ck (
1
98
2,
unp
ub
l
i
s
he
d)
.
Fo
ca
l pl
ane
s
ol
u
t
i
o
ns (
Ri
pp
er
,
1
9
75
)
i
nd
i
c
at
e t
h
at t
h
i
s s
ys
t
em i
s a
l
s
o
good humour
. I
t i
s al
so a tri
bute to the st
ami
na and
competence of the t
eam member
s一and the hel
i
copt
er pi
l
ots
predomi
nantl
y l
eft l
ateral
.
i
l
l
n
es
s or ac
ci
d
en
t
.
Al
t
ho
ug
h ou
r mai
n ai
m of ma
ppi
ng t
h
e
Ce
nt
r
al
Ra
nge a
nd f
i
ndi
n
g ne
w mi
ner
a
l de
po
s
i
t
s was no
t
a
ch
i
ev
e
d,
t
h
e geo
l
o
gi
ca
l r
e
s
ul
t
s of t
he ma
ppi
ng ha
ve t
h
r
own
mu
ch new l
i
g
ht
on one o
f t
he f
ew co
nve
r
gen
t p
l
at
e
Figure 3: Indonesian geologist questioning villa-
gers high on the northern slopes of t
he Central Range.
一 that f
our fi
el
d seasons were car
ri
ed out wi
t
hout s
eri
ous
boundari
es exposed on land.
The Maj
or Pl
at
e Movements
Th
e pr
es
en
t f
o
r
m of I
r
i
a
n J
a
ya h
as be
e
n s
ha
pe
d ve
r
y r
e
ce
nt
l
y
by profound ear
th movements t
hat star
ted i
n t
he l
at
est
Mi
ocene and conti
nue t
o the present day.
Thi
s Mel
anesi
an
Or
og
en
y (
Dow a
nd Su
ka
mt
o,
1
98
4
) i
s t
he r
e
s
u
l
t of
co
nve
r
gen
ce be
t
we
en t
h
e Paci
f
i
c and Aus
t
r
a
l
i
a
n p
l
at
es
.
The
crus
tal adj
us
tment i
nvol
ved has been extr
aor
di
nari
l
y compl
ex
and i
nvol
ved the i
nt
er
acti
on of many smal
l cr
us
tal
f
r
ag
me
nt
s
.
Howev
er
,
t
h
e geome
t
r
y o
f t
h
e maj
or s
t
r
uct
ur
es
,
al
l of whi
ch are compressi
onal
, i
ndi
cat
es t
hat the conver
-
g
enc
e i
s r
o
ug
hl
y t
o t
he s
o
ut
h
we
s
t
(
Do
w an
d Suk
amt
o,
i
b
i
d
)
.
Thi
s di
r
e
ct
i
on c
or
r
e
s
p
on
ds c
l
o
s
el
y wi
t
h t
h
at po
s
t
ul
at
e
d b
y
Mi
ns
t
e
r an
d J
or
da
n (
19
78
;
s
e
e a
l
s
o AAPG,
1
981
)
.
The
r
e i
s no
e
vi
d
enc
e t
ha
t t
h
e d
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n h
as c
ha
nge
d ma
r
k
ed
l
y s
i
nc
e t
he
b
egi
nni
n
g of t
he Mel
ane
s
i
an Or
og
en
y.
On t
he c
on
t
r
a
r
y,
t
he
major s
truct
ures are bes
t expl
ai
ned by a mor
e or l
ess con-
si
stent conver
gence i
n a S550W di
recti
on.
The ma
gn
i
t
ude of t
he co
nv
er
gen
ce
,
howe
ve
r
,
i
s n
ot
kn
own,
but t
he crust
al s
hor
teni
ng si
nce the Earl
y Pl
ei
st
ocene has
pr
obabl
y exceeded 100 km. Thi
s accords wel
l wi
t
h t
he f
i
gure
4
Epi
s
odes,
Vol
. 7, No. 4, December 1984
The mos
t s
tri
ki
nL
y feat
ur
e of the ge3
l
ogy of
1
ri
an Jaya i
s the Bi
r
d'
s Head, a great
sal
i
ent of undeformed conti
nent
al
crust
t
hat pr
otr
udes nor
thwards i
nt
o the Paci
f
i
c
5
0
I
}
,
N
率T
N
E
娜井称介一件瓜井挤争
厂-
anomal
ous sali
ent were pr
oduced duri
ng
the Mel
anesi
an Or
openy,
but t
he me-
chani
sm by whi
ch they f
ormed i
s not
朽
known. Mos
t author
s have as
cri
bed t
he
f
ormati
on to cl
ockwi
se rotati
on or nor
th-
峨
Aus
t
r
al
i
an con
t
i
nen
t
al
c
r
u
s
t
(
Hami
l
t
on,
I
Latl
e-def
-
ed ocean,
c crust
Lotl
e-def
-
ed co,t
inental crust
^ I I
STRALIA
PLATE
ZDD
i
n l
i
ght of t
he resul
t
s of the recent map-
pi
nv
-, we have pr
opos
ed t
hat t
he Bi
rd'
s
Head owes i
t
s protr
usi
on t
o a gr
eater
crust
al s
hort
eni
ng i
n the body r
egi
OD (
Dow
矛
困口 -
ki
l
ometr
es to i
t
s pr
esent DOSi
ti
on.
C
E
N
T
R
A
=
M
E
R
V
A
L
N
G
K
E
T
r
H
苛I
R
I
S
TS
F
A
Y
U
7
L
E
&
I
S
N
-
T
D
,
I
war
ds transl
at
i
on,
by as much as several
hundr
ed ki
l
omet
res
, of a f
r
agment of
lq79;
Hermes
, 1968;
Norvi
ck,
1979;
Robi
nson and Ratman,
1978;
Vi
s
ser and
Her
mes,
1962)
.
Recentl
y, however,
Pi
gr
am
et al
.
(1982) and Pi
gr
am and Panvi
a
yabean
(1
983)
pr
oDosed that t
he Bi
r
d'
s "ead r
e-
gi
on cons
ti
t
ut
es a separat
e mi
crocont
i
nent
that has been raft
ed many
.
hundreds of
尸八 少 尸
襄
F
A
U
L
TP
N
A
E
I
C
遥
pl
at
e.
Th
e ma
j
or s
t
r
u
ct
ur
es ou
t
l
i
ni
ng t
h
i
s
一象
The Bi
rd'
s Head
‘m
M ajor faul
t
ar
i
r
l
S
uk
amt
o
,
1
98
4)
.
Her
e t
h
e s
h
or
t
en
i
n
g,
whi
ch pr
ob
ab
l
y
exceeded 200 km si
nce t
he s
tar
t of t
he Mel
anesi
an Or
ogeny,
has been accommodated enti
rel
y wi
thi
n the New Gui
nea
Mob
i
l
e Bel
t by compr
e
s
s
i
o
na
l
d
ef
or
ma
t
i
on of t
he co
nt
i
ne
nt
al
cr
ustal rocks and by compl
ex over and under
-t
hrusti
ng of
oceani
c cr
ust and mantl
e of t
he Paci
fi
c Pl
ate.
几 gure 4: Main structural elements of Irian Jaya。
New Guinea Mobile B
elt unstippled.
b
y s
ou
t
hwa
r
ds ove
r
t
hr
us
t
i
n
r of
t
he r
o
ck
s of
t
h
e n
or
t
h
er
n
mar
gi
n of t
he Austr
al
i
an conti
nent
al bl
ock.
The Meer
vl
akte
on the other hand i
s one of the sDectacul
ar mani
festati
ons of
Accordi
ng t
o our hypothes
i
s,
the Bi
rd'
s Head has react
ed as a
s
tabl
e but
tress
, and as the Paci
fi
c Pl
at
e has encr
oached
s
outhwards i
n the body r
egi
on the cont
i
nent
al crust of the
Bi
r
d'
s Head has prot
ruded nor
thwards i
nto the westerl
y
movi
ng Paci
f
i
c Pl
ate. The di
ff
erent
i
al di
s
pl
acement has been
t
aken up al
ong t
he Wandamen Faul
t Zone by a combi
nat
i
on of
overt
hr
us
ti
nR and ri
ght l
at
er
al str
i
ke-
sl
i
p di
s
pl
acement.
u
n
der
t
hr
us
t
i
n
g of Pa
ci
f
i
c P
l
at
e c
r
u
s
t t
hat
s
t
ar
t
ed i
n t
h
e e
ar
l
y
There are, however
, pr
obl
ems wi
t
h both hypothes
es
. The
r
ot
ati
on hypothesi
s does not expl
ai
n why t
he conti
nental
f
rap
,
ement has moved agai
nst t
he r
el
ati
ve southwest
er
l
y dr
i
ft
of the Paci
fi
c Pl
ate. On t
he other hand, our hypothesi
s
r
ecui
res the crus
t underl
yi
ng the Banda Sea to have provi
ded
a butt
ress t
hat has pr
evented t
he appar
ent
l
y vul
nerabl
e Bi
rd'
s
n
or
t
h
er
n t
wo
-
t
hi
r
ds a
pp
ea
r t
o be al
mo
s
t e
nt
i
r
e
l
y of o
ce
an
i
c
He
a
d r
egi
on f
r
om be
i
n
g car
r
i
e
d s
out
hwe
s
t
war
ds
.
Mos
t
author
s consi
der t
he Banda Sea cr
ust to be oceani
c and,
therefore, not abl
e to wi
thst
and the southward moti
on, but
r
ecent reDort
s that rocks of conti
nental or
i
gi
n have been
dr
edged from wi
des
pread l
ocal
i
ti
es i
n the nort
h Banda Sea
(
Pr
a
s
et
yo
,
1
98
3
,
u
np
ub
l
i
s
he
d
)
s
u
gg
es
t
t
h
at t
h
e s
e
a ma
y b
e
l
argel
y under
l
ai
n by conti
nental crust whi
ch coul
d possi
bl
y
have acted as a buttress.
Wha
t
ev
e
r i
t
s o
r
i
gi
n
,
t
h
e pr
ot
r
us
i
on of t
he Bi
r
d'
s Hea
d i
nt
o t
h
e
wes
tw
ar
ds
- movi
ng Paci
fi
c Pl
at
e has exposed the nor
ther
n
extr
emi
t
y t
o huge stess
, and the conti
nental cr
ust has
r
e
a
ct
ed b
y t
he t
e
ar
i
ng
-
o
f
f of
l
ar
ge cr
us
t
a
l f
r
a
gmen
t
s
,
whi
ch
have been carr
i
ed westwar
ds by t
he Paci
f
i
c Pl
ate. Mi
ddl
e
Mi
ocene aci
d vol
cani
c r
ocks on the nor
thwestern extr
emi
ty
of t
he Bi
r
d'
s Head have been of
set by thi
s means at l
eas
t 370
ki
n al
on
g t
he So
r
o
n
g Faul
t Zo
ne (
Dow a
n
d S
ukamt
o,
1
98
4
)
.
N ew Guinea M obi
le Bel
t
Th
e ea
s
t
e
r
n h
al
f
o
f I
r
i
a
n J
ay
a i
s domi
n
at
ed b
y t
wo
co
nt
r
a
s
t
i
ng maj
or ph
ys
i
o
gr
a
phi
c f
e
at
ur
e
s
:
Th
e Cen
t
r
a
l
Ran
ge
Pl
ei
st
ocene and cont
i
nues t
o t
he present day.
These, and al
l t
he other st
ructures resul
ti
ng from the pl
ate
conver
gence duri
ng the Mel
anesi
an Or
og
r
eny, are t
he wes
tern
conti
nuati
on of t
he New Gui
nea Mobi
l
e Bel
t i
n Papua New
Gui
nea.
Not sur
pri
si
ngl
y, the r
ocks exposed al
ong t
he
s
outher
n thi
r
d of t
he Bel
t are of conti
nent
al ori
gi
n, whi
l
e t
he
or i
sl
and-are affi
ni
ti
es
.
De
f
or
me
d Nor
t
he
r
n Mar
gi
n o
f t
h
e Au
s
t
r
al
i
a
n P
l
at
e
Th
e s
t
r
o
ngl
y def
or
me
d,
c
on
t
i
n
en
t
a
l
cr
us
t
al
l
i
t
h
o
l
og
i
e
s of t
h
e
Cen
t
r
a
l
Ra
ng
e Thr
us
t Be
l
t f
or
m a zo
ne 1
0
0 km wi
d
e (
Fi
g.
5)
.
Thes
e r
ocks,
whi
ch i
nvol
ved t
he Pal
aeozoi
c bas
ement and the
over
l
yi
ng l
ate Pal
aeozoi
c to mi
d-Terti
arv shel
f sedi
ment
s,
ar
e overt
hr
us
t to the south and i
n many pl
aces are ti
ght
l
y
f
ol
ded.
The uppermost uni
t of the s
hel
f s
ucces
si
on over much
of t
he Centr
al Range i
s the New Gui
nea Li
mest
one,
whi
ch
aver
aves about 2,
000 m i
n thi
cknes
s and provi
des an
i
nv
a
l
ua
bl
e s
t
r
a
t
i
gr
a
ph
i
c h
or
i
zo
n f
o
r u
nr
a
ve
l
l
i
ng t
h
e s
t
r
u
ct
ur
e.
The nor
thernmost f
ri
nge of the def
ormed conti
nental cr
ust i
s
mad
e up of Me
s
ozo
i
c a
nd ea
r
l
y Ter
t
i
ar
y f
i
ne-
g
r
ai
ne
d cl
as
t
i
e
s
an
d i
n
t
e
r
c
al
at
e
d mar
i
n
e v
ol
c
ani
c
s
,
wi
t
h a t
ot
a
l
t
hi
ck
ne
s
s o
f
over 10,
000 m.
These were l
ai
d down on t
he nor
ther
n
c
ont
i
ne
nt
al
s
l
op
e a
n
d r
i
s
e,
an
d h
ave b
een t
i
ght
l
y f
ol
de
d b
y
s
e
ve
r
a
l
de
f
o
r
mat
i
on
s an
d r
e
gi
o
na
l
l
y me
t
amor
ph
os
ed t
o t
h
e
gr
ee
ns
chi
s
t f
aci
es
.
Si
mi
l
ar r
oc
ks i
n t
he e
as
t
er
l
y ex
t
e
ns
i
on o
f
thi
s met
amor
phi
c zone i
n Papua New Gui
nea were
me
t
amor
ph
os
ed d
ur
i
ng an i
s
l
an
d a
r
c/
con
t
i
nen
t c
ol
l
i
s
i
on i
n t
h
e
Ol
i
g
oc
en
e (
Dow,
1
97
7
;
J
ac
qu
es
an
d Robi
ns
on
,
1
97
7
)
,
s
o i
t i
s
pr
obabl
e that the I
r
i
an Jaya r
ocks were metamor
phosed at
the same t
i
me.
Never
thel
es
s, on the evi
dence avai
l
abl
e to
da
t
e
,
t
he met
amo
r
ph
i
c
s co
ul
d con
c
ei
v
ab
l
y h
av
e b
ee
n f
or
me
d
t
hat f
orms the mount
ai
n backbone, and the remarkabl
e l
ake
pl
ai
n (
Meervl
akte) t
o t
he nor
th that channel
s most of the
duri
ng the Mel
anes
i
an Or
ogeny.
dr
ai
na
ge f
r
om t
he n
or
t
he
r
n ha
l
f of t
he b
o
dy.
The Ce
nt
r
a
l
Ol
i
gocene i
n age, the col
l
i
si
on di
d not af
fect the s
hel
f
Range,
whi
ch exceeds 4,
000 i
n el
evat
i
on over most of i
t
s
l
ength and whi
ch cul
mi
nat
es i
n the i
ce-capped Puncak Jaya
at over 5,
000 m, was formed earl
y i
n t
he Mel
anesi
an Or
ogeny
corr
el
ati
ves i
n Papua New Gui
nea,
wer
e l
ai
d down,
essent
i
al
l
y wi
thout i
nterr
upti
on,
unti
l the Mi
ddl
e Mi
ocene.
Epi
sodes
, Vol
. 7, No.
4,
December 1984
I
t i
s i
mp
or
t
an
t t
o n
ot
e t
ha
t i
f t
he me
t
amo
r
phi
sm was
s
edi
me
nt
s mak
i
n
g up t
he Cen
t
r
al
Ra
nge
,
f
o
r t
he
s
e,
l
i
ke t
he
i
r
5
t
he ba
s
e o
f t
he l
i
t
ho
s
ph
er
e of
hot l
ow-
d
ens
i
t
y mant
l
e mat
e-
r
i
al
,
by i
s
os
t
a
t
i
c compe
ns
at
i
on a
nd by ot
h
er f
ac
t
or
s.
Thes
e
ver
t
i
cal
move
ment
s ar
e r
e
s
p
ons
i
bl
e f
o
r t
h
e bl
o
ck s
t
r
u
ct
u
r
al
pa
t
t
e
r
n of
t
h
e c
ont
i
n
en
t
al
a
nd o
c
eani
c c
r
us
t
s (
Ar
t
yu
s
hk
ov旦
丝・
,1
97
9
)
.
Man
y da
t
a on t
hes
e and ho
r
i
z
ont
al
mov
eme
nt
s
co
me f
r
om g
eo
det
i
c an
al
y
s
es on t
he g
r
ou
nd and f
r
om s
a
t
el
-
l
i
t
e
s (
Bu
l
an
z
he,
1
981
)
.
Ad
va
nce
s i
n s
e
i
s
mol
ogy h
av
e h
ad a ma
r
k
ed bea
r
i
ng on t
h
e
f
i
e
l
d of t
e
ct
on
i
cs (
Fi
g.
4
)
.
Ex
t
ens
i
ve da
t
a on s
e
i
s
mi
c ev
ent
s
wi
t
hi
n the U.
S.
S.
R. and el
sewhere have demonst
rat
ed a li
nk
be
t
we
en ea
r
t
h
qu
ake s
ou
r
c
es and z
ones of
act
i
ve de
ep f
a
ul
t
s
.
The ex
p
ans
i
on of s
ei
s
mi
c net
wo
r
k
s an
d geo
ph
ys
i
cal
pol
y
gons
s
et up i
n a
ct
i
ve s
ei
s
mi
c ar
e
as o
f t
h
e c
oun
t
r
y h
as p
er
mi
t
t
e
d
s
ei
s
mol
ogi
s
t
s t
o wor
k out a r
at
her s
uc
ces
s
f
u
l
t
e
chn
i
qu
e f
o
r
l
on
g-
t
er
m ea
r
t
h
qu
ake pr
edi
ct
i
on,
wh
i
ch has a
l
r
e
ady b
ee
n
ver
i
f
i
ed i
n a nu
mber
of cas
es (
Anon.
1
9
82
)
.
A med
i
um t
o
s
h
or
t
-
t
er
m ear
t
hq
ua
ke p
r
ed
i
ct
i
on t
ec
hni
q
ue i
s n
ow b
ei
n
g
de
ve
l
op
ed,
ba
s
e
d on t
yp
es of mo
vemen
t
s al
on
g t
he dee
p
faul
ts
.
Met
a
l
l
o
ge
ny
One of t
h
e i
mp
or
t
an
t ac
hi
ev
ement
s of
So
vi
et
ge
os
c
i
en
ce i
s
t
he r
ec
ogn
i
t
i
on of cer
t
ai
n r
egul
ar p
at
t
er
ns
i
n t
he f
or
mat
i
o
n
and di
s
t
r
i
b
ut
i
on of mi
ner
al
s (
Sh
ch
egl
o
v,
1
9
80;
s
ee al
s
o
S
mi
r
nov,
a
nd Ru
ndq
ui
s
t
,
t
h
i
s i
s
s
ue o
f Epi
s
o
des一Ed.
)
.
For
ma-
t
i
on
al
ana
l
y
s
i
s app
l
i
e
d t
o met
a
l
l
o
geny ma
kes i
t po
s
s
i
bl
e t
o
i
de
nt
i
f
y met
a
l
l
i
f
er
ous as
s
oc
i
at
i
o
ns (
f
or
mat
i
ons
)
,
and t
odet
er
-
mi
n
e t
h
e l
oc
at
i
on of mi
ne
r
al
dep
os
i
t
s wi
t
h
i
n t
he
s
e as
s
o
ci
a-
t
i
o
ns
.
Thi
s po
pul
ar new appr
o
ach t
o g
eol
ogi
cal
ex
pl
o
r
at
i
o
n
per
mi
t
s us t
o s
i
ngl
e ou
t an
d ra
nk pr
o
mi
s
i
n
g ar
eas
,
and t
o
pr
o
vi
de a pr
e
l
i
mi
n
ar
y q
ua
nt
i
t
at
i
ve es
t
i
mat
e of mi
n
er
al
r
e-
s
er
ves o
f b
ot
h l
ar
g
e and s
mal
l
ar
eas
.
Hy
dr
og
e
,
ol
o
gy a
nd Eng
i
nee
r
i
ng Geo
l
ogy
Fund
a
ment
al
r
es
e
ar
ch i
n hy
dr
o
geo
l
o
gy i
s ai
me
d at r
ev
eal
i
ng
t
he l
a
ws gov
er
ni
n
g t
h
e mi
gr
at
i
on of gr
o
un
d wat
er i
n t
he f
r
e
e-
wat
er exc
ha
nge zo
ne of
t
h
e hyd
r
os
ph
er
e.
Thi
s wo
r
k c
ont
r
i
b-
ut
e
s l
ar
g
el
y t
o t
h
e expl
or
at
i
on f
o
r and e
s
t
i
mat
i
o
n of t
he
gr
ou
ndwat
er r
e
s
er
ves
,
t
he p
r
ed
i
ct
i
on of wat
er i
nf
l
ows i
n
t
o
un
der
gr
ou
nd wor
ki
ngs du
r
i
ng mi
ni
ng,
and t
h
e con
t
r
o
l
of
wa
t
er
-
s
al
t r
eg
i
mes on r
e
cl
a
i
med l
a
nds Mat
s an
d S
he
s
t
ak
ov,
1
981
)
.
Wor
k on t
he s
pat
i
a
l
va
r
i
at
i
o
n i
n engi
ne
er
i
ng pr
o
pe
r
t
i
es
of r
ock
s a
s
s
i
s
t
s h
yd
r
o
geol
og
i
s
t
s t
o def
i
n
e r
egi
on
al
ch
ar
ac
t
er
-
i
s
t
i
c
s,
t
o d
ev
el
op t
h
e t
h
eor
et
i
cal
ba
s
i
s f
or pr
edi
ct
i
ng ex
oge
n-
et
i
c p
r
oce
s
s
e
s
,
an
d t
o con
s
t
r
uct maps s
howi
n
g t
h
e pr
edi
ct
ed
de
vel
op
men
t of ge
ody
na
mi
c p
r
oc
es
s
es t
o t
he ye
ar 200
0
Fi
gur
e 5
:
Dr
i
l
l
i
ng加r gr
ou
ndwat
er i
n Cent
r
al
As
i
a.
U.
S.
S.
R.
Si
z
eab
l
e co
al
de
pos
i
t
s
ha
ve al
s
o bee
n ex
pl
or
e
d i
n
t
h
e P
ech
or
a,
Kar
a
ga
nda,
Eki
b
a
s
t
uz and S
ou
t
h Yak
ut
i
a b
as
i
n
s
,
amon
g ot
h
er
s
,
and t
her
e ar
e i
mme
ns
e r
e
s
ou
r
ce
s i
n t
h
e as y
et
poorl
y studi
ed Tungus
ka and Lena basi
ns of Si
beri
a.
黑s
u
r
u
c
p
e
p
s
l
y
(
S
o
m
f
1
i
r
f
-
n
e
`
o
r
v
r
_
o
,
_
u
_
s
I
9
_
m
7
_
4
e
T
.
t
_
a
l
s
I
r
o
i
s
n
裂d
p
e
r
纂
寰o
f
f
r
o
t
m
h
e
m
K
i
n
r
e
i
v
r
a
o
l
i
Rog b
as
i
n i
n t
he Ukr
ai
ne and of
t
h
e Kur
s
k Mag
net
i
c An
omal
y
ar
ea o
ccu
py l
e
adi
n
g p
os
i
t
i
ons b
ot
h i
n i
d
ent
i
f
i
e
d r
es
er
v
es and
pr
odu
ct
i
on.
La
r
ge i
r
on de
pos
i
t
s ar
e al
s
o mi
ne
d i
n t
h
e Ur
a
l
s
and t
he Kol
a Peni
ns
ul
a, i
n Karel
i
a, Kazakhstan,
and West and
Eas
t Si
ber
i
a,
an
d new di
s
t
r
i
ct
s ar
e bei
n
g exp
l
or
e
d i
n So
ut
h
Yak
ut
i
a.
Th
e S
ov
i
et Uni
on p
os
s
es
s
es c
ons
i
d
er
ab
l
e r
es
our
ces
of mang
ane
s
e or
es i
n t
h
e Uk
r
ai
ne,
Geo
r
gi
a and ce
nt
r
al
(
Ar
t
y
s
hk
ov,
1
982;
S
er
ge
ye
v,
1
9
76
-1
978
)
.
Kazakhst
an, and chromi
um or
es i
n nort
hwest Kazakhstan.
Mi
ner
al Resour
ces
L
l
i
a
s
h
r
e
g
e
d
.
r
e
s
C
e
o
r
v
p
e
p
e
s
r
o
f
d
e
n
5
o
o
n
s
-
-
j
f
t
e
s
r
r
a
o
r
u
e
s
m
b
e
e
i
n
t
a
g
l
s
w
h
o
a
r
v
k
e
d
a
l
s
i
o
n
b
K
e
a
e
z
n
a
k
e
h
s
s
t
a
t
a
b
n
-
T
h
e U.
S
.
S
.
R.
p
o
s
s
e
s
s
e
s
l
a
r
g
e r
e
s
e
r
v
e
s
o
f
o
i
l
an
d
g
a
兰 (
s
e
e
Mey
er
hof
f,
1
981
,
1
9
83一 Ed.
)
,
i
n
cl
udi
ng one of t
he wor
l
d'
s
l
ar
g
es
t oi
l
an
d gas pr
o
vi
n
ces
,
t
h
at of Wes
t Si
b
er
i
a.
Thi
s
l
at
t
er r
eg
i
on has
b
een r
ap
i
dl
y d
evel
op
ed,
f
r
om an out
put of
200 t
ons of oi
l
i
n 1
96
4 t
o t
h
e p
r
es
ent f
i
gu
r
es
,
whi
ch r
ep
r
es
e
nt
ove
r 60% of t
he t
ot
al
vol
ume of o
i
l
a
nd 5
0% of
t
he gas
p
r
od
uc
ed i
n t
h
e U.
S.
S.
R.
The l
ar
ge
s
t oi
l
and g
as p
r
ov
i
.
n
c
es
wi
t
h
i
n t
h
e Ru
s
s
i
an p
l
at
f
or
m ar
e r
e
pr
e
s
e
nt
ed by t
h
e Vol
g
a-
Ur
al
,
Ti
man-
Pe
cho
r
a and Cas
pi
an pr
ovi
nce
s
.
Lar
g
e g
as f
i
e
l
ds
have b
een ex
pl
or
ed i
n t
h
e Amu-
Dar
y
a r
eg
i
on of Cen
t
r
al
Asi
a,
a
nd con
s
i
d
er
a
bl
e oi
l
and ga
s p
ot
e
nt
i
al
i
s as
s
o
ci
at
e
d wi
t
h t
h
e
Lena
-
Tun
gus
ka,
Ye
ni
s
ei
-
Lap
t
e
v and Lena-
Vi
l
yul
pr
o
vi
nces of
East Si
ber
i
a.
The Sovi
et Uni
on i
s ri
ch i
n res
erves of bi
t
umi
nous and brown
c
o
a
l
(
An
o
n,
1
9
6
2
-
1
9
7
8
)
.
T
h
e ma
j
o
r
Do
n
b
as
b
a
s
i
n p
r
o
v
i
d
e
s
o
ne-
t
hi
r
d of t
he S
ov
i
et pr
o
du
ct
i
on of co
al
,
al
mos
t ha
l
f of
whi
ch i
s of cok
i
ng q
ual
i
t
y.
The Ku
zn
et
s
k b
as
i
n of Wes
t
S
i
ber
i
a ha
s bec
ome t
h
e l
ar
g
es
t s
ou
r
ce of hi
gh-
q
ual
i
t
y p
owe
r
-
g
en
er
a
t
i
n
g a
nd co
ki
ng c
oal
s
;
c
oal
s f
r
om t
hi
s bas
i
n ar
e d
i
s
t
i
n-
g
ui
s
hed by t
he
i
r hi
g
h q
ua
l
i
t
y and gr
e
at v
ar
i
e
t
y i
n r
an
k.
The
Kans
k-
Ac
hi
n
s
k ba
s
i
n i
s un
i
qu
e i
n i
t
s l
ar
ge b
r
o
wn c
oal
r
es
er
v
es
a
nd f
av
ou
r
a
bl
e mi
ni
ng cond
i
t
i
on
s;
t
h
e de
ve
l
op
ment of t
h
i
s
踩i
k
f
i
e
s
r
t
o
a
u
n
s
(
C
s
a
u
n
d
p
o
s
t
r
o
p
n
h
e
y
s
r
,
y
足
h
s
e
u
l
U
p
r
h
a
i
d
l
s
e
(
a
C
n
u
d
5
s
C
u
l
u
p
h
p
i
o
d
e
r
p
s
h
)
,
y
r
t
y
h
e
o
a
r
e
r
s
e
)
a
,
o
f t
he Bai
k
al
-
Amur
Rai
l
wa
y (
cu
pr
i
f
er
ou
s s
a
nds
t
on
es
)
and
t
o
get
her
wi
t
h Ni
i
n t
he Nor
i
l
s
k di
s
t
r
i
ct and t
he Kol
a Peri
n-
s
ul
a.
Pb and Zn ar
e mi
ne
d i
n Ru
dny
i
Al
t
a
i
an
d cent
r
a
l
Kazakhst
an, Uzbeki
stan, Tadzhi
ki
stan,
Transbai
kal
i
a, Azer
-
b
al
i
an and i
n t
he Kr
as
n
oy
ar
s
k r
e
gi
o
n.
Al
comes f
r
om
b
aux
i
t
es of t
he Ur
a
l
s,
Ti
ma
n,
Kaz
ak
hs
t
an,
t
he Kur
s
k Mag
-
ne
t
i
c Anomal
y ar
ea an
d t
he Ar
k
hang
el
s
k r
eg
i
on as wel
l
a
s
f
r
om ne
phe
l
i
n
e-
b
ea
r
i
ng r
o
cks o
f t
he Ko
l
a Peni
ns
ul
a and Wes
t
Si
ber
i
a.
There ar
e al
so the al
uni
te or
es of Trans
caucas
i
a,W
i
n the North Caucasus, Kazakhst
an, Tr
ansbai
kal
i
a and Far
Eas
t
,
Sn i
n t
he Fa
r Ea
st
an
d Ki
r
gi
zi
a,
an
d Mo i
n Eas
t S
i
ber
i
a,
Kaz
ak
hs
t
an and Ar
meni
a.
The dev
el
op
ment of t
h
e di
amon
d
de
p
os
i
t
s of Yaku
t
i
a re
p
r
es
e
nt a re
mar
k
abl
e ach
i
eve
ment
(
An
on,1
96
7)
.
Lar
ge r
es
er
ves of r
aw f
er
t
i
l
i
z
er mat
e
r
i
a
l
s hav
e be
en di
s
-
c
ov
er
ed i
n t
he wcr
l
d-
f
amo
us ap
at
i
t
e de
po
s
i
t
s of t
he Khi
bi
n
g
r
oup on t
he Kol
a Peni
ns
u
l
a,
i
n p
hos
ph
or
i
t
e dep
os
i
t
s o
f
Kaz
ak
hs
t
an,
cen
t
r
al
ar
eas of t
he Eur
o
pe
an p
ar
t of t
h
e
U.
S.
S
.
R.
and Es
t
o
ni
a,
and i
n p
ot
a
s
h s
al
t
s o
f t
he Per
m ar
ea
Bye
l
or
u
s
s
i
a,
We
s
t
e
r
n Ukr
a
i
ne,
Tur
kme
ni
s
t
an,
and Ea
s
t
basi
n i
s one of t
he most i
mport
ant energy goal
s of t
he
Epi
sodes,
Vol
.
7, No.
1.
sediments wer
e l
ai
d down under shal
l
ow-water to l
acustr
i
ne
condi
ti
ons.
Thi
s change i
n sedi
ment
ati
on probabl
y refl
ects
t
he s
t
ar
t o
f t
he un
de
r
t
hr
us
t
i
n
g des
cr
i
be
d l
at
e
r
.
The Nor
th Coast Basi
n i
s f
l
oored mai
nl
y by Paci
f
i
c Pl
ate
c
r
u
s
t
a
s s
ho
wn b
y upf
au
l
t
ed s
l
i
ve
r
s of Ea
r
l
y Ter
t
i
a
r
y i
s
l
a
nd
arc and oceani
c vol
cani
cs,
whi
ch are found s
poradi
cal
l
y
t
hr
oughout. The for
edeep t
hus appear
s to have resul
ted from
d
own
buc
k
l
i
ng
,
of t
h
e oc
ea
ni
c cr
us
t dur
i
n
g t
he c
ompr
es
s
i
o
n
t
ha
t f
or
me
d t
h
e Cen
t
r
a
l Ran
ge
.
The Mel
anes
i
an Orogeny: Pl
ei
st
ocene t
o Recent
At
s
ome t
i
me af
t
e
r t
he e
l
ev
at
i
on of t
he Ce
nt
r
al
Ra
ng
e,
t
he
mechani
sm of cr
us
tal adj
ustment under
went a maj
or change
a
s t
h
e s
ou
t
hwa
r
ds o
v
er
t
hr
us
t
i
n
g o
f t
he c
on
t
i
n
en
t
a
l
r
oc
k
s
c
e
a
s
ed an
d t
h
e Pa
ci
f
i
c Pl
at
e be
gan t
o un
de
r
t
h
r
u
s
t t
h
e No
r
t
h
Coa
s
t Ba
s
i
n
.
Evi
de
n
ce f
o
r t
he t
i
mi
n
g o
f t
h
e ch
an
ge i
s s
c
a
nt
y,
but i
t probabl
y r
oughl
y coi
nci
des wi
t
h the change of
sedi
mentati
on i
n Ear
l
y Pl
ei
s
tocene ti
mes menti
oned above.
The maj
o
r ma
ni
f
e
s
t
a
t
i
on o
f t
h
i
s und
er
t
h
r
us
t
i
n
g i
s t
h
e
Mamber
amo Thr
us
t Bel
t, a bewi
l
deri
ngl
y compl
ex s
ys
tem
n
ea
r
l
y 40
0 kn
i
l
on
g by 1
00 km wi
d
e,
o
f cu
r
ve
d,
an
as
t
amo
s
i
n
g
f
au
l
t
s t
h
a
t c
ut
s obl
i
q
uel
y s
o
ut
he
as
t
war
d
s f
r
om t
he co
as
t i
n
t
he nor
thwest nearl
y t
o the Papua New Gui
nea border at the
e
as
t
e
r
n end of t
he I
r
i
an J
a
ya Ophi
ol
i
t
e Bel
t.
The
Mamb
e
r
amo Th
r
us
t Be
l
t i
s n
ow t
h
e si
t
e o
f ve
r
y i
nt
e
n
s
e
s
e
i
s
mi
c act
i
vi
t
y (
Fi
g.
7
)
,
an
d f
o
ca
l
p
l
an
e s
o
l
ut
i
o
ns on s
ome of
t
he earthquakes i
ndi
cate thr
ust
i
ng. The Paci
fi
c Pl
ate i
s
a
pp
a
r
ent
l
y a
ct
i
ve
l
y un
der
t
hr
us
t
i
n
g t
he r
e
gi
o
n t
o
da
y.
Figure 7: Seismicity of Irian Jaya. Epicenters for
earthquakes to 34 km depth and with magnitude
>4.99.
Data to Dece
mber 8, 1983, from the BMR
earthquake file.
upwar
d
s
.
Man
y o
f t
h
e di
a
pi
r
s a
r
e s
t
i
l
l
a
ct
i
ve an
d s
c
a
l
y cl
a
y
ca
n be s
e
en d
omi
n
g r
ec
en
t r
i
v
er t
er
r
a
ce
s an
d s
qu
eez
i
n
g i
nt
o
st
ream beds l
i
ke toot
hpast
e.
Away fr
om the str
eams the
di
api
r
s a
re cha
r
a
ct
e
r
i
ze
d b
y ubi
qui
t
ous mu
ddy l
a
nd
s
l
i
de
s
i
n
vo
l
vi
ng t
he j
u
ngl
e co
ve
r
,
ev
en i
n a
r
e
as o
f l
ow r
e
l
i
ef
.
Th
e
who
l
e ef
f
ec
t i
s one o
f di
s
c
on
ce
r
t
i
n
g i
n
s
t
abi
l
i
t
y.
The ot
he
r ma
j
or ma
ni
f
es
t
i
o
n i
s mud v
ol
can
oe
s of whi
ch t
h
er
e
a
r
e man
y hun
dr
ed
s i
n t
he di
ap
i
r b
el
t
,
r
an
gi
ng f
r
om s
ma
l
l
mounds a f
ew met
res wi
de to subst
anti
al domes a ki
l
ometr
e
A s
pect
acul
ar feat
ur
e of t
he Thr
ust Bel
t i
s the per
vasi
ve
i
nt
rusi
on of shal
e di
api
r
s whi
ch make up most of the s
ur
face
outcr
oD of the 50 km-wi
de medi
al zone (
Wi
l
l
i
ams et al
.
,
or more acros
s and up to 100 m hi
gh.
The l
at
ter can be s
een
even on the LANDSAT i
mager
y.
The most i
mpr
es
si
ve
1
98
4)
.
The s
ur
f
ace man
i
f
e
s
t
at
i
o
ns of t
hes
e di
ap
i
r
s ca
n be
p
uz
z
l
i
n
g f
or
t
he f
i
e
l
d L
y
e
ol
o
gi
s
t
,
f
or t
he onl
y co
he
r
e
nt
s
t
r
at
i
g
r
ap
hy i
s f
ou
nd i
n t
he l
a
r
ge
r r
af
t
e
d f
r
agme
nt
s
,
whi
ch
coal
es
ci
ng mud vol
canoes f
orm a mass over 50 km acr
os
s.
Many of t
he mud vol
canoes are l
ocat
ed near maj
or fault
s
may be di
spl
aced many hundreds of met
res verti
cal
l
y r
el
ati
ve
t
o nei
gh
bo
ur
i
ng f
r
agme
nt
s
.
I
mpo
s
e t
h
e ef
f
e
ct
s of
r
egi
on
a
l
u
n
de
r
t
h
r
u
s
t
i
ng
,
a
nd t
he e
l
u
ci
d
at
i
on of t
he ge
ol
og
y be
c
omes
i
mpossi
bl
e. As an i
l
l
us
tr
ati
on,
one l
ar
ge,
al
most hor
i
zontal
s
l
ab of sedi
ments over 800m t
hi
ck and fr
om 4 to 5km
across,
was mapped duri
ng earl
i
er petrol
eum expl
or
ati
on as a
n
o
r
ma
l s
uc
ce
s
s
i
on,
b
ut
a
bu
nd
an
t s
e
di
men
t
a
r
y f
ea
t
u
r
e
s s
h
ow
concl
usi
vel
y that the whol
e sl
ab i
s COMDl
etel
v overt
ur
ned
k
see ai
so,
1
!
1
g.
8)
. AS i
t aDuts a gent
l
e syncl
i
ne ot normal
ap
pe
ar
an
ce one ca
n un
de
r
s
t
an
d t
he d
i
f
f
i
cu
l
t
i
es po
s
e
d i
n
wor
ki
ng out t
he str
at
i
gr
aphy and st
ruct
ure.
occur
rence i
s near t
he cent
re of the Thrust Bel
t wher
e
whi
ch ha
ve D
r
o
ba
bl
v pr
ov
i
de
d c
h
ann
el
wa
ys f
or t
he dewa
t
e
r
i
w
o
f pr
e
s
s
u
r
e
d s
ha
l
e
s a
t dep
t
h
.
Mechani
sm of Undert
hr
ust
i
ng
As s
ee
n i
n F坡u
r
e 4
,
t
he Ma
mbe
r
amo Thr
u
s
t Be
l
t f
or
ms t
he
l
i
nk between the Yapen Faul
t Zone t
o t
he west and the
Be
wani
-
Tor
r
i
c
el
l
i
Fau
l
t S
y
s
t
em t
o t
he e
as
t
,
bo
t
h of whi
c
h ar
e
pr
edomi
nantl
y l
eft
-
l
at
er
al str
i
ke-
sl
i
p. I
t i
s appar
ent
,
ther
efore, that t
he Mamber
amo str
uct
ur
e must have a
pr
edomi
nant thr
us
t component,
and that i
t must be al
most
e
nt
i
r
e
l
y c
on
ve
r
ge
nt i
n na
t
u
r
e.
Thi
s a
cc
or
ds we拜 wi
t
h t
h
e
f
i
e
l
d obs
er
va
t
i
o
ns
,
t
ho
ug
h t
he
r
e i
s s
ome r
oo
m f
or di
v
er
ge
n
ce
The mos
t common s
ur
face expressi
on of the di
api
r
s i
s a mass
,
ge
ne
r
al
l
y k
i
l
ome
t
r
es a
cr
o
s
s
,
of s
ca
l
y cl
a
y (
Fi
g
.
9
)
co
nt
ai
n
i
n
g
c
ha
ot
i
c a
nd u
n
s
or
t
e
d f
r
agme
nt
s of
a
l
l
s
i
z
es
,
f
r
om s
an
d gr
ai
n
s
Figure 8: Competent greywacke beds right "flapped"
u
p
wa
rd
s (
ce
ntr
e)
by s
hal
e di
a
pir (s
lu
m
pi
ng
,
m
ate
ri
al)
Figure 9: Diapiric shale showing randomly contorted
slickensides forming a Iscaley clay。. Small polymict
rafted rock fragments are shown. Some (bottom left少
have been highly polished duri
ng transport.
making up the lef
t third of the photo.’ Textural
details of this diapir are seen in Figure 9.
纂
}
夔摹羹
鬓摹
摹摹
Epi
s
o
des
,
Vol
.
7
,
No.
4
,
Decembe
r 1
98
4
黔)
攀彝耀纂巍下
7
A
勺
6闷U TII
t,
,
Ogene ophool
ite
Sh.
l
e dap-
三 二了-
/ 旧 胭,
6
.
I
l
i
-
毛
PACI
F
I
C
只打班
口亡EAN
S.d,
. .nta
203口诊
J.Y.P..
.
}
'
St
nk. r
i
dge
<」N工二巴
| |十
J卜一 ~于 一
、、 、、、 Al
luvi
um of the M e- lal
,te
20 k.
一
16-
门
Figure 10: The Gauttier Offset showing progressive
left-lateral displace
ment of Pleistocene sediments.
、
For location see Figure 5.
f
r
om t
hi
s s
i
mpl
e pi
ct
u
r
e b
e
ca
us
e t
he s
e
i
s
mi
c
i
t
y of t
h
e r
e
gi
o
n
s
h
ows t
h
at a s
ma
l
l
p
r
o
po
r
t
i
on of
t
he c
onv
er
ge
nce i
s be
i
n
g
t
aken up by ot
her parts of t
he New Gui
nea Mobi
l
e Bel
t.
Gautti
er Of
fs
et
.
】叨 }0口
The Ga
ut
t
i
e
r Of
f
s
et (
Fi
g.
1
0
)
t
r
en
ds abo
ut 3
50
s
ou
t
hwe
s
t
,
a
nd
di
s
p
l
a
ce
s t
he Mamb
er
amo Th
r
u
s
t Be
l
t l
e
f
t l
a
t
er
al
l
y b
y ab
o
ut
40 km.
The di
s
pl
acement has been pur
el
y s
tr
i
ke sl
i
p, s
o t
he
s
tr
uct
ur
e i
s anal
ogous to a tr
ans
-
f
o
rm f
au
l
t an
d p
r
o
bab
l
y pr
ovi
de
s a
n
A
accur
ate measure of the di
r
ecti
on
of ma
xi
mum c
onv
er
ge
nc
e.
。卜
\
、 \、
.
,
、
/
{
豪
‘
}
4
"
3
'
0
1
4V 30
一
Major fauf
t
一 ‘占,~
Nor- 1 fault
T,
,k ri
d- te, d
o- t
h-
}ide
Fig'
ure 11: Tensional faults exhibited by two la
sheets of Middle
rge
Miocene Hollandia limestone.
location see Figure
The Gautti
er Of
fset
七、
、
50 七,
Nev
er
t
he
l
e
s
s t
he
r
e i
s o
ne mo
r
e pi
e
ce of e
vi
de
nce i
n
di
ca
t
i
n
g
that the conver
gence acr
oss the Mamberamo Thr
us
t bel
t i
s
cl
os
e t
o t
he post
ul
ated di
r
ecti
on of S551W. Thi
s i
s the
Dr
esence of another f
undament
al s
truct
ure, cal
l
ed her
e the
/
、-
慧
67
5.
r o r
Figure 12: Diagrammatic
c ro ss
section shown on Figure
5 to
section along line of
劝 ow 亡为e Post一
付iocene
evolution of the New Guinea Mobile Belt。
PL旧 CENE
CEN TRAL RANGE
Ophi
ol
i
l
e
be件
t
S
Fo
N
de
The di
spl
acement i
s al
so s
hown by
Pl
ei
st
ocene sedi
ment
s t
hat wer
e
l
ai
d down over the Of
fset whi
l
e i
t
20
was movi
ng.
Thus the ol
der sedi
-
ment
s have been di
spl
aced by pro-
gr
es
si
vel
y gr
eater amount
s up to a
maxi
mum of 20 km,
whi
ch i
s t
he
di
spl
acement of the ol
dest beds
40
60 k.
p
r
es
er
ve
d (
Fi
g.
1
0
)
.
si
mi
l
ar amount but not t
he cont
i
-
PRESENT DAY
CEN TRAL
RANGE
Ophi
ol
i
t
e
bel
t
I
m br
i
cate zone
l
at
er
al di
spl
acement on the Off
set
加
ha
s b
een a
cco
mmod
at
ed b
y t
h
r
u
s
t
-
i
n
g of t
h
e Pa
ci
f
i
c P
l
at
e r
o
ck
s ov
er
,0
the conti
nent
al mar
gi
n by about
ma
s
s o
f coa
l
e
s
ci
ng mu
d v
ol
c
an
oe
s
described earlier i
s centred on the
nor
theastern extens
i
on of the
Gaut
ti
er Of
fs
et,
whi
ch must have
pr
ovi
ded a maj
or condui
t for t
he
dewa
t
e
r
i
n
g of t
h
e s
ha
l
e
s
.
8
尸l
i
o-Pl
ei
st
ocene cl
ast
i
cs
60
I
t i
s wor
th noti
ng t
hat the great
皿团四
40 km .
Tensi
onal
f
r
actur
es
D
nental r
ocks of the Centr
al Range.
I
t appears
, ther
efore, that the l
eft
-
卜Sn匡工1
0之哎〕山0∥0」
The Gaut
ti
er Of
fs
et al
so di
spl
aces
the I
ri
an Jaya Ophi
ol
i
te Bel
t by a
80 k.
-
Major f
aul
t
16/09门 69
Cont
i
nent
al crust
Oceani
c cr
ust and m antl
e
B
Epi
s
odes
, Vol
. 7,
No. 4, December 1984
The amount of cr
us
tal shor
teni
ng that has taken pl
ace i
n
e
as
t
er
n I
r
i
an Ja
ya s
i
n
ce un
de
r
t
hr
u
s
t
i
n
g s
t
ar
t
e
d i
n t
he Mi
d
d
l
e
Pl
ei
st
ocene i
s not known, but we have made rough esti
mates
of the conver
gence accommodat
ed by t
he maj
or struct
ur
es of
the New Gui
nea Mobi
le Bel
t.
These are as fol
l
ows:
ov
er
t
h
r
u
s
t
i
ng of t
h
e Op
hi
o
l
i
t
e Be
l
t
(
40km)
,
i
mbr
i
ca
t
i
o
n
ac
r
os
s t
h
e Mambe
r
amo Th
r
us
t Be
l
t (
30 km)
,
a
n
d t
hr
u
s
t
i
n
g e
o
n
t
h
e Fo
r
el
an
d Thr
us
t
(
1
0 k
m)
.
The co
mbi
ned f
i
g
ur
e o
f 8
0
km
shorteni
ng pr
obabl
y does not r
epr
esent t
he total i
nvol
ved
because the ear
thquake hypocentres ass
oci
at
ed wi
t
h t
he
Mamber
amo Thr
ust Bel
t occupy a zone that pl
unges s
teepl
y
s
ou
t
h
wa
r
d
s t
o a d
ep
t
h of ab
ou
t 10 0 km.
Thi
s h
as l
e
a
d H.
Le
t
z
(
p
e
r
s
o
na
l
commun
i
c
at
i
on
)
t
o s
p
e
cul
at
e t
hat
t
h
e Pa
ci
f
i
c Pl
a
t
e
ma
y be s
u
b
duc
t
i
n
g a
l
o
ng t
he n
or
t
h
er
n mar
gi
n of t
h
e Thr
u
s
t
Belt.
i
f thi
s i
s i
ndeed the case i
t woul
d expl
ai
n very neat
l
y t
he
l
a
r
ge a
r
ea
s of t
e
n
s
i
on
a
l f
au
l
t
i
n
g o
n t
h
e s
ou
t
h
er
n mar
gi
n of
t
he Paci
f
i
c P
l
at
e wh
er
e t
he r
oc
ks a
r
e e
xpo
s
e
d n
or
t
he
a
s
t of
t
he Mamb
er
amo Th
r
u
s
t Be
l
t a
r
o
un
d Ja
y
apu
r
a a
n
d a
cr
o
s
s t
he
b
o
r
de
r i
n P
apu
a New Gui
n
ea (
Fi
g.
1
1
)
.
Thes
e a
r
e t
he on
l
y
t
en
s
i
on
al
s
t
r
uc
t
u
r
e
s ma
p
ped i
n t
h
e bo
dy o
f I
r
i
a
n Ja
ya
,
a
nd
t
hey coul
d have res
ul
ted f
rom t
ensi
onal s
tress wher
e t
he
Paci
f
i
c l
i
t
hosphere bends downwar
ds i
nto the s
ubducti
on
zone. Si
mi
l
ar tensi
onal feat
ures are known from the Paci
f
i
c
Oc
ea
n ma
r
gi
n (
Hi
l
d
e 1
98
3
)
,
bu
t t
o ou
r kn
owl
ed
ge i
n n
o ot
h
er
r
eg
i
on hav
e t
he
y be
en r
e
c
ogn
i
ze
d on l
an
d.
As
sumi
ng that the Paci
f
i
c Pl
ate i
s subducti
ng al
ong t
he
norther
n coas
t of the body of I
ri
an Jaya,
then t
he
Mamberamo Thrust Bel
t can be seen to be a zone of
under
thr
us
ti
ng have been over
pr
es
sur
ed and ar
e bei
ng buoyed
t
o t
he s
ur
face as shal
e di
api
rs and mud vol
cani
cs.
Some of
t
he compr
es
si
ve st
ress i
s bei
ng tr
ans
mi
tt
ed across the
n
or
t
he
r
n mar
gi
n of t
he c
on
t
i
nen
t
al
b
l
oc
k an
d i
s bei
ng r
e
l
i
e
ve
d
b
y s
out
hwar
d
s ov
er
t
hr
us
t
i
n
g a
l
o
n
g t
wo f
r
ac
t
u
r
e z
on
es
,
one
a
l
on
g t
he Oph
i
o
l
i
t
e Be
l
t
a
n
d t
h
e o
t
he
r a
t t
he s
o
ut
he
r
n mar
gi
n
of the Mobi
l
e Bel
t
.
Acknowl
edgement
s
Thi
s p
ape
r i
s ba
s
e
d on da
t
a c
ol
l
e
ct
e
d b
y me
mbe
r
s o
f t
he I
r
i
a
n
J
ay
a Geo
l
o
gi
cal
Map
pi
n
g Pr
o
j
e
ct wh
o con
t
r
i
bu
t
ed a
l
s
o i
n
d
eve
l
o
pi
ng t
he i
d
ea
s pr
es
en
t
e
d.
The
i
r h
e
l
p i
s gr
a
t
ef
ul
l
y a
c-
k
no
wl
ed
ge
d.
Pu
bl
i
s
h
ed wi
t
h t
he pe
r
mi
s
s
i
on o
f t
he Di
r
e
ct
or
,
Geol
ogi
cal Resear
ch and Devel
opment Cent
r
e, Bandung,
I
nd
one
s
i
a,
a
nd Di
r
e
c
t
or
,
Bur
ea
u o
f Mi
ne
r
a
l Re
s
o
ur
c
es
,
Geo
l
-
ovy and Geop饰 si
cs
, Canberra, Austr
al
i
a.
D.
B. Dow has worked si
nce 1955
wi
th the Aust
ral
i
an Bur
eau of
Mi
neral Resour
ces and has mapned
wi
de
l
y i
n Aus
t
r
a
l
i
a a
nd Pa
pu
a New
Gui
nea.
He was Di
r
ect
or of t
he
Ge
ol
ogi
ca
l S
ur
vey of Et
hi
o
pi
a
between 1968 and 1971,
and Chi
ef
Ge
ol
ogi
s
t
of t
he Geo
l
ogi
ca
l
S
ur
v
e
y
of Ken
ya bet
we
e
n 1
9
74 a
nd 1
97
7.
Si
nce 1978 he has been the
Au
s
t
r
a
l
i
an Ma
na
ge
r of t
he I
r
i
an
Ja
ya Pr
oj
e
ct (
I
AGMP
,
JI
.
Ci
l
a
ki
49,
Bandung, I
ndonesi
a)
.
i
mbr
i
ca
t
i
on a
l
o
ng t
he c
on
ve
x f
r
on
t of t
h
e s
ub
du
ct
i
n
g p
l
a
t
e
.
R.
Sukamto i
s chi
ef of the Geo-
Though the end product i
s si
mi
l
ar to an accreti
onary wedge
l
og
i
cal
Mapp
i
n
g Di
v
i
s
i
on o
f t
he
a
n
d i
n
c
l
ud
es a maj
o
r s
c
a
l
y cl
a
y c
ompo
ne
nt (
Wi
l
l
i
ams e
t al
.
,
1
98
4
)
,
i
t
s o
r
i
gi
n i
s compl
e
t
e
l
y di
f
f
er
e
nt
f
r
om t
h
at u
s
u
al
l
y
as
cr
i
bed to accret
i
onary wedges.
Here the s
edi
ments ar
e
au
t
o
ch
t
h
ono
us
,
b
ei
n
g der
i
v
ed ma
i
n
l
y f
r
om er
os
i
o
n o
f t
he
o
r
og
eni
c be
l
t
t
o t
he s
o
ut
h,
a
nd t
he s
c
al
y cl
a
ys ar
e f
o
r
me
d,
no
t b
y t
ec
t
on
i
c down
-
pu
s
h
i
n
g,
b
ut r
a
t
h
er b
y t
he upwa
r
ds
,
buoyant,
di
api
ri
c res
ponse.
I
f P
aci
f
i
c Pl
at
e cr
us
t
i
s i
n
dee
d down
-
g
oi
n
g,
i
t i
s a
pp
ar
en
t
that the subducti
on i
s i
n i
t
s ear
l
y st
ages
, becaus
e nowhere i
n
I
ri
an Jaya i
s ther
e r
ecent i
gneous acti
vi
t
y.
The si
nki
ng s
l
ab,
t
h
er
ef
or
e
,
h
as n
o
t ye
t r
ea
ch
ed de
p
t
h
s n
ec
es
s
ar
y f
o
r ma
gma
ge
ne
r
at
i
on
.
The de
pt
h o
f t
h
e z
one of e
ar
t
h
qua
ke f
o
ci
i
ndi
cates t
hat up to 100km of crust coul
d have been
s
ub
du
ct
e
d,
gi
v
i
ng a t
ot
al
c
r
u
s
t
a
l
s
h
or
t
e
ni
n
g s
i
nc
e t
h
e
be
gi
nn
i
n
g of t
he Mi
d
dl
e Pl
e
i
s
t
oc
e
ne of up t
o 1
80 km.
Summar
y
Geol
ogi
cal Research and Devel
op-
m ent Cent
re
e (
JI
.
Di
pon
e
go
r
o 57,
I
n
don
es
i
a
)
,
a
nd the
I
n
do
ne
s
i
a
n Pr
oj
e
ct Man
a
ger o
f t
h
e
Bandung,
I
r
i
an Jaya Pr
oj
ect.
He has been a
f
i
el
d geo
l
o
gi
s
t of t
h
e Ge
ol
ogi
ca
l
Res
earch and Devel
opment Centr
e
si
nce 1958,
and has been i
nvol
ved
wi
t
h f
i
e
l
d mapp
i
n
g i
n Ja
va
,
S
ul
a
we
s
i
,
Ba
ng
gai
,
Su
l
a,
Ta
l
au
d an
d
Halm ahera.
References
Amer
i
ca
n Ass
oci
at
i
on of Pe
tr
o
l
eum Ge
ol
o
gi
s
t
s
, 19
81. Pl
a
te Tect
oni
c Map of t
he户i
rc
um-Paci
fi
c Regi
on.
Bl
ow, W.
H.
, 19
69. Lat
e mi
ddl
e Eoce
ne t
o Rec
ent pl
a
nkt
on
i
c f
or
ami
ni
fe
ra
l bi
os
tr
at
i
gr
aph
y. Pro
cee
di
n
gs o
f
t
he Is
t I
nt
er
nat
i
onal Conf
e
re
nce on Pl
ank
to
ni
c Mi
cr
of
os
s
i
l
s
.
, 1
967, Ge
neva
, Swi
t
zer
l
and, v. 1, p. 19
9-
422.
\
Dow, D.
B.
, 1977
. A geol
ogi
cal s
ynt
h
esi
s of Pa
pua New Gu
i
ne
a. Aus
t
ra
l
i
a
n Bur
e
au of Mi
ner
a
l Re
so
ur
ces
,
Geo
l
og
y Geo
phy
si
cs
, n
o. 201. 41
p.
I
n t
he Lat
e Mi
ocene and Pl
i
ocene, compres
si
on i
n eas
tern
I
r
i
a
n J
a
ya r
es
u
l
t
i
n
g f
r
o
m con
v
er
ge
nce be
t
wee
n t
h
e Aus
t
r
al
i
an
a
nd Pac
i
f
i
c pl
at
e
s ca
us
ed s
ou
t
hwa
r
ds ove
r
t
hr
us
t
i
n
g of t
h
e
c
on
t
i
n
en
t
a
l
cr
us
t
al
r
oc
ks o
f t
he no
r
t
he
r
n mar
gi
n o
f th
e
Aus
t
r
al
i
an c
ont
i
n
en
t
a
l b
l
o
ck (
Fi
g.
1
2
A)
.
Thi
s l
ed t
o t
h
e
f
or
ma
t
i
on o
f a t
hi
c
ke
ne
d an
d up
l
i
f
t
e
d we
dg
e o
f co
nt
i
ne
nt
al
cr
u
s
t t
h
a
t no
w f
o
rms t
he Ce
nt
r
a
l Ran
ge
.
Th
ou
gh t
h
er
e i
s n
o
di
rect evi
dence, i
t seems l
i
kel
y that the I
r
i
an Jaya Ophi
ol
i
te
Be
l
t was up
l
i
f
t
ed t
o i
t
s pr
e
s
en
t e
l
e
vat
i
on b
y ov
er
t
h
r
u
s
t
i
n
g
(
obducti
on) of the Paci
fi
c Pl
ate crust and mant
le r
ocks.
Down
bu
ck
l
i
n
g of t
he l
i
t
h
o
s
pb
er
e on bo
t
h s
i
des of t
he
o
ve
r
t
hr
us
t
we
l
t f
or
med d
ee
p ba
s
i
n
s
,
e
s
pe
ci
a
l
l
y i
n t
he n
or
t
h
(
Fi
g.
12
B)
.
I
n t
he
s
e a
c
cumu
l
at
e
d gr
e
at t
hi
ck
ne
s
s
es of
s
ed
i
men
t
s der
i
ve
d f
r
om t
he er
odi
ng mo
u
nt
ai
ns
.
S
ub
s
e
que
nt
l
y,
t
he ov
er
t
hr
us
t wel
t
r
es
i
s
t
ed f
ur
t
he
r de
f
o
r
mat
i
on a
nd d
ur
i
ng
t
he Pl
ei
s
t
oce
ne t
h
e no
r
t
he
r
n f
or
e
de
ep b
e
came t
h
e s
i
t
e of
s
ou
t
hwa
r
ds un
de
r
t
h
r
u
s
t
i
ng o
f Pa
ci
f
i
c Pl
a
t
e l
i
t
h
os
ph
er
e.
I
t i
s
bel
i
eved that t
he l
i
t
hosphere has detached al
ong the nor
thern
ma
r
gi
n of t
he Mo
bi
l
e Be
l
t a
nd i
s n
ow s
u
bd
uc
t
i
ng at a s
t
ee
p
angl
e.
Immedi
at
el
y south of t
he subducti
ng l
i
thospher
e,stranded
zone of
oc
ea
ni
c cr
u
s
t i
s b
ei
n
gst
rongl
y i
mbri
cated al
ong a
undert
hrusti
ng. The Pliocene sedim ents involved in this Epi
sodes, VoL 7, No. 4, December 1984
Dow, D.
B. a
nd Har
t
ono
, U.
, 1982
. The nat
ur
e of t
h
e cr
us
t und
er
l
yi
ng Cend
er
awas
i
h (
Gee
l
vi
n
k) Bay I
r
i
an
Ja
ya. I
n
dones
i
a Pet
r
ol
e
um As
s
oci
ati
on, Pr
ocee
di
n
gs II
t
h An
nual Con
vent
i
on.
Dow, D.
B. and Sukamt
o, R.
, 1
984
. Wes
t
er
n I
ri
an Ja
ya: The end
-pr
o
duct of ob
l
i
q
ue p
l
at
e c
onve
r
genc
e i
n t
he
l
at
e Ter
ti
ar
y, Tect
o
noph
ysi
cs
, v
. 1
06, no
. 1
-2
, p
. 10
9-
139
.
Doz
y, J.
J.
, 1938
. Ei
re gl
et
s
cher
wel
t i
n Ni
e
der
l
a
ndi
sc
h Ne
ugui
nea. Zei
t
a
chr
i
f
t f
ur Gl
et
s
ch
er
kun
de, v. 26
,
no
. 1
-2
, p
. 45
-51
.
Hami
l
t
on,W.
,19
79
. Te
ct
oni
c
s o
f t
he I
ndon
es
i
an Regi
on. U.
S. Ge
ol
og
i
ca
l Sur
ve
y Pr
of
e
ss
i
onal Pa
per
, 1078
,
345
p.
He
rmes
, J
.
J.
, 196
8. The Pa
pua
n Geo
s
yncl
i
ne and t
he con
cep
t of geos
ync
l
i
n
es
. Ge
ol
o
gi
c e
n Mi
j
nb
ouw, v. 47
,
(
2
)
, p. 81
-97
.
di
ment s
ubd
uct
i
on v
er
s
us accr
et
i
on ar
oun
d t
he Pa
ci
f
i
c. Te
ct
onop
hys
i
rs
, v. 9
9,
Hi
l
de
, T.
W.
C.
, 198
3.Se
(
no. 2-
4)
, p. 381
-3
97.
Ja
cque
s
, A.
L. and Rob
i
n
son
, Gj一
,1
977
. The con
ti
nen
t
/i
s
l
an
d ar
e col
l
i
s
i
on m nor
the
rn Pap
ua New Gui
n
ea.
BMR Jo
ur
nal of Au
s
tr
al
i
an Geo
l
og
y an
d Ge
oph
ysi
c
s, v
. 2
, no. 4, p. 289
-30
3.
Mi
ns
t
er
, J.
B. and J
ord
an
, T.
H.
, 19
78. Pr
es
ent
-
da
y p
l
at
e moti
ons
. Jo
urn
al of Geoph
ys
i
ca
l Res
ear
c
h, v. 83
,
no
. Bit
, n.
533
1-
535
4.
No
rv
i
ck
, M.
S.
, 1
979
. Th
e t
ec
t
oni
c h
i
s
t
or
y o
f t
he Banda ar
cs
, e
as
ter
n I
ndon
es
i
a: a re
vi
ew.
J
our
na
l of t
he
Ge
ol
o
gi
ca
l S
oci
et
y ofL
o
ndon,
13
6 (
par
t 5
)
, p. 51
9-
527
.
Pi
gr
am, C.
J.
, Ro
bi
ns
o
n, G.
P. and Tobi
ng, S.
L.
, 1
982
. Lat
e Cai
n
ozoi
c or
i
gi
n f
or t
he Bi
n
tu
ni Bas
i
n and
ad
j
ac
ent Len
ggur
u Fol
d Bel
t
, I
r
i
an J
aya. I
n
done
si
a Pet
r
ol
eum As
s
oci
at
i
on Pr
oce
edi
ngs lI
th Ann
ual
Conventi
on.
Pi
gr
am, C.
J. and Pan
gga
bean
, H.
, 1
983
. Ri
f
t
i
n
g of t
he nor
t
he
rn mar
gi
n of t
h
e Aus
t
ra
l
i
a
n con
ti
nen
t du
r
i
ng
t
he br
ea
kup of Gon
dwana
, 6
t
h Aust
r
al
i
an Geo
l
ogi
ca
l Co
nven
ti
on, Canb
er
r
a, Abs
t
r
act
.
A
R
i
u
p
s
p
t
e
r
r
a
,
l
1
i
I
a
.
n
D
S
.
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45-
146
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9