Marine Geology - Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam - Printed in The Netherlands
NEW DATA ON GEOMORPHOLOGY AND RECENT SEDIMENTS OF THE
BERING SEA AND THE GULF OF ALASKA
D. E. GERSHANOVICH
All-Union Research Institute o f Marine Fisheries and Oceanography, Moscow (U.S.S.R.)
Received March 3, 1967
SUMMARY
Soviet marine geological surveys carried out recently in the extreme northern
part of the Pacific Ocean (the Bering Sea, the Gulf of Alaska) showed considerable
differences in epicontinental (mainly continental) and geosynclinal (mainly oceanic)
areas. These differences, which were mainly caused by geological factors, can be especially easily observed on the shelf and the continental slope. One can clearly distinguish
two types of shelves:i(/) epicontinental and (2) geosynclinal, which are characterized
by different morphology and sediments. On the slope there is a ledge, 2,500 m deep,
and an inclined plane at the foot of the slope, which is one, of the main areas of
accumulation of sedimentary material. The large underwater ridges Shirshov (Oljutorsky) and Bowers---divide the vast abyssal plains of the Bering Sea. The geotectonic
and geomorphological complex of the Komandor-Aleutian island arc includes
the top surface (crest) of the complicated structure as well as the slopes of the Bering
Sea and the Pacific Ocean and all the macroforms of the relief of the deep Aleutian
Trench. The relief of the abyssal plains of the Gulf of Alaska within an oceanic
bed becomes complicated by many underwater volcanoes with flat peaks.
Epicontinental regions of the Bering Sea are occupied by terrigenous sediments
of different granulometry. Diatom sediments prevail in the zone of the continental
slope and especially in the deep zone of the Bering Sea. They are much more abundant
in this area than in the neighbouring areas of the north Pacific Ocean. In the area of
the Komandor-Aleutian island arc terrigenous deposits are prevalent, however,
in the eastern zone (both in the Bering Sea and in the Pacific Ocean) of the Aleutian
Islands terrigenous-volcanic and volcanic deposits are abundant. Mixed sediments
can often be found in various areas. In the shelf and continental slope of the Gulf
of Alaska terrigenous, to a lesser degree volcanogenous and organogenous (foraminiferous and diatomous) deposits are found. Near the region of continental glaciation sediments are observed, similar to glacialmarine ones. Turbidity-current
sediments are also found there. Within the boundaries of the oceanic bed, the abyssal
plains are covered either by terrigenous deposits with a relatively poorly developed
Marine Geol., 6 (1968) 281-296
282
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surficial oxidized layer or (in the southwest and south of the gulf) by deep-sea brown
sediments, to the "red oceanic clay".
The cores of bottom sediments (to 5-6 m) characterize deposits of the post-.
and Late-Glacial and, sometimes, Late Interglacial time. Considerable differences
between post- and Late-Glacial sediments were observed. The size oI" the postGlacial sediments varies greatly due to bottom topography and to the peculiarities
of the supply of the sedimentary particles (from 0.3 to 3 m).
The rate of the Recent sedimentation is very high everywhere. It varies from
2 to 30 cm/l,000 years on the shelf of the Bering Sea; in the lower inclined part of
the continental slope it sometimes reaches 40 cm. In the southern and central parts
of the deep-sea plains it decreases up to 6-.-10 cm.
INTRODUCTION
New data on the bottom relief and sedimentary processes in the Bering Sea and
the Gulf of Alaska were obtained by Soviet oceanographic research during the years
1958-t964. Geomorphological investigations were carried out on a number of
sections especially closely spaced within the boundaries of the shelf and continental
slope, and samples of bottom sediments were collected at more than 1, t 00 geological
stations, characterising almost all the major areas of the extreme north of the Pacific
Ocean. The schemes of the principal cruises are given on Fig. 1.
Geomorphological structures associated with different structural types of the
earth's crust are recognised in the bottom relief of the Bering Sea and the Gulf of
Alaska. They are grouped into three zones: (1) continental, (2) transitory and (3)
oceanic. The bottom deposits are characterised by a great variety in composition
and distribution, determined in a great measure by the geology and the relief of the
morpho-structural regions. Climatic, hydrological and biological factors affect the
processes of sedimentary differentiation in accordance with the geological-geomorphological conditions.
MORPHOSTRUCTURAL FEATURES OF THE BERING SEA AND THE GULF OF ALASKA
The zone of continemal structures comprises the shelf of north-eastern Asia
and Alaska. It is most developed in the Bering Sea where one of the largest epicontinental shelves of the northern Pacific is found. The zone of transitory structures
includes the continental slope, the geotectonic and morphological complex of the
Komandor-Aleutian island arc, the deep-sea basins and submarine ridges of the
Bering Sea. Certain areas of ocean bottom in the Gulf of Alaska belong to the zone
of oceanic structures (Fig.2). An important feature of the investigated region are
the substantial differences in the relief of the platform and geosynclinal regions.
These differences are most pronounced in the zone of continental structures. Stable
Marine GeoL, 6 (1968) 281-296
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Fig.l. Scheme of the cruises in the Bering Sea and the Gulf of Alaska, 1958-1962.
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Fig.2. Scheme of t h e m o r p h o l o g y of the Bering Sea a n d the G u l f o f A l a s k a . a = fault zone; b = large s u b m a r i n e c a n y o n s a n d valleys; c - sea m o u n t s ;
d = continental zone b o u n d a r y ; e = t r a n s i t o r y z o n e b o u n d a r y ; 1 = c o a s t a l slope; 2 = shelf plain; 3 - b o r d e r shelf plain; 4 .... c o n t i n e n t a l slope;
5 =~ continental rise; 6 = ridge shelf; 7 = m a r g i n a l rise o f b a s i n floor.
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GEOMORI?HOLOGY AND SEDIMENTS OF NORTHERNMOST PACIFIC
285
regions, formed mainly on Mesozoic formations, are characterised by a large shelf
with a very smooth and slightly dissected relief, whereas in geosynclinal regions of
Cenozoic age the shelf is usually narrow and steep and much more rugged.
All the shelves are divided into three parts: (a) coastal, (b) central and (c)
outer. The coastal part coincides largely with the submarine coastal slope. The gently
sloping central part, a median shelf plain, which formation is related to eustatic
factors, determines, in a great part, the width of the whole shelf. The outer part of
the shelf, its margin, is very steep. It is often regarded as the border line of the continental structural zone. The depth of the outer edge of the shelf varies between 120
and 160 m in the Bering Sea and between 110 and 260 m in the Gulf of Alaska, fixing
the intensity of neotectonic movements by its position. Its subsidence is greatest
along the region of continental glaciation of southern Alaska. Some regions of the
Bering Sea shelf have no sharp outer edge: a gently sloping marginal plain is formed
continuing the subsidence of the median shelf plain. This is observed in the Anadyr
and Bristol shelf depressions, the isolation of which is determined by their geology.
The Karaginsk shelf depression is recognised. The two-plane dissection on the continental shelf of southern Alaska by numerous submarine valleys is well known.
Shelikhov Strait and Cook Inlet are important morpho-structural elements of the
eastern end of the Komandor-Aleutian mountain structure, separating its southern
chain from the main northern one. The transversal valleys, which dissect the shelf
of the Gulf of Alaska, are troughlike: their gently sloping floor sinks below the edge
of the shelf. Like analogous valleys of other glacial regions they were formed by
Tertiary fractures and shaped by subsequent glacial and fluvial erosion, under subaerial conditions. The neotectonic movements of the Alaskan shelf are highly differentiated, emphasizing the clean-cut disposition of the positive and negative elements
of the bottom relief.
The relief of the zone of transitory structures is especially varied. The continental slope can be followed down to 3,500-3,800 m and in the Gulf of Alaska to
almost 4,000 m. The steepness of the bottom varies from 1-3 to 6 - 8 reaching in
places 15-25 ° and even more. The precipitous and rugged scarp of the slope can be
followed to a depth of 2,000-2,750 m. Bedrock crops out on the steepest portions of
the scarp and on the sides of the submarine canyons: argillites with a Tertiary fauna
and flora, solid siltstones and clays are encountered. This permits the assumption
that the scarp was formed at a relatively recent time. There are also smoothed out
stretches at depths less than 2,500 m, for instance westward of the Bay of Bristol.
They seem to be analogues to marginal plateaus overlaid by Recent sedimentary
strata. There is usually a sloping plain at the foot of the slope representing a most
important zone of accumulation. Such gently sloping plains are prevalent, although
a step-like plain has been discovered south of the Pribilov Islands and southward
of the Bay of Anadyr. The course of the continental slope in the eastern part of the
Bering Sea is characterised by an alternation of sub-meridional and sub-latitudinal
areas determined by an intersection of structures almost perpendicular to the direction
of the slope. Great submarine valleys, many of them only recently discovered, are
Marine Geol., 6 (1968) 281-296
situated at the boundaries of the separate blocks of the slope, reflecting in their
relief the position of some of the fractures and the significant subsidences associated
with them (the valleys Navarin, Pervenez, Zhemchug, Pribilov and otherst. The trend
of the western Bering Sea slope is similar to the general orientation of continental
structures. The same is observed in the Gulf of Alaska but here also the slope culs
away a series of submarine extensions of continental structures. In regions ofj uncture
of differently oriem ated areas of the slope the bottom relief as a rule becomes more
complicated, as, for instance, eastwards of Cape Navarin and near the island U nimak.
Until recently two deep-sea basins were recognised in the Bering Sea-thc
Kamchatkan and the Aleutian-separated by the meridional submarine Shirshov
(Oljutorsky) ridge. The new data point to the outline of a third one--the Bowers
Basin between the Bowers ridge and the western part of the Aleutians. The bottom
of the basins is an abyssal plain of extreme planation. The relief of the Shirshov and
Bowers ridges is as yet insufficiently known, especially in the southern part of the
former and in the western part of the latter. At the point of their nearest approach
to the northwest of the Near islands the ridges may even be connected with one
another. The summit plane of the Shirshov ridge can be traced at a depth of 600-1,000
m; southwards it descends to still greater depths. The Bowers ridge consists of stretches of different width and extent. The surface of its summit is quite uneven, its depth
ranging from 100 to 1,500 m in the southern and central parts of the ridge. In places
it is very strongly rugged: both planed blocks and separate rises and volcanoes are
encountered. On the slopes of the ridges valleys are known and relatively gently
sloping areas.
The Komandor-Aleutian island arc which passes into the Aleutian ridge on
the Alaska peninsula determines, in many respects, the geomorphology of the extreme
north of the Pacific. At the junction of the Bowers ridge with the mountain structure
of the Aleutian Islands the island arc changes its northwestern direction for a northeastern one. The colossal submarine ridge of the arc, crowned with islands, is broken
in numerous large blocks, the position of which is determined by the lines of fracture.
The summit plane characterised by a great variety has been subject to erosive planation in many places to a depth of 1,000 m. Active volcanoes occur in the central
and eastern parts of the island range, on its northern side. The Bering Sea slope of
the range is steeper than the Pacific and less rugged. In its eastern part areas of blockfaulting dissection occur. The Pacific slope is cut by numerous large submarine
valleys. At depths greater than 3,600 m it passes into a levelled bench complicated
by several rises. This bench corresponds to the bottom level of the deep basins of
the Bering Sea. Not infrequently the Pacific slope directly joins the steep northern
slope of the Aleutian Trench forming a huge scarp as high as 7,000-8,000 m and
more. The southern slope of the Aleutian Trench is much smoother. Within the Gulf
of Alaska the depth of the trench diminishes to 4,500-5,000 m, but morphologically
it can be traced approximately to the Yakutat Bay. The floor of the trench is levelled
and has a bead-like outline on a contour map.
In the Gulf of Alaska the greatest part of the bottom at depths greater than 4,000
Marine GeoL, 6 (1968) 281-296
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Fig.3. Genetic types o f t h e b o t t o m relief o f t h e Bering Sea a n d the G u l f o f A l a s k a . I = tectonic relief; H = volcanic relief; 1 1 1 = a b r a s i o n - a c c u m u lative relief; I l i a = areas where t h e processes o f a b r a s i o n are prevalent; I I I B - - areas where t h e rate o f processes o f a b r a s i o n a n d t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n are
the same; l l l C = areas where t h e processes o f a c c u m u l a t i o n are prevalent; I V ~ relief o f t h e abyssal a c c u m u l a t i o n ; I V A = partial p l a n a t i o n ; I V B =
limit planation.
1 ~ shelf break; 2 = outer edge o f c o n t i n e n t a l slope; 3 - o u t e r edge o f deep-sea terraces; 4 ~ ridge shelf break; 5 -~ s u b m a r i n e c a n y o n s a n d
valleys; 6 -- deep-sea channels.
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m is occupied by an abyssal plain characte, rised by abyssal accumulations with a high
degree of levelling. In the eastern part of the Gulf at depths of 2,750 4,000 m is a ~cr\
wide sloping abyssal plain, apparently formed in a zone of continental rise. Analogou~
areas may possibly be outlined in the Kamchatka Basin of the Bering Sea and the
Aleutian Basin north-eastwards of the Shirshov ridge. In all the deep regions of the
Gulf of Alaska the bottom relief is complicated by numerous submarine mountains,
frequently flat-topped, mostly volcanoes. Their distribution is governed by a distinc~
linear regularity and associated with the lines of fracture that seem to intersect thc
floor of the Gulf. Certain areas have many volcanic upheavals where peculiar deepseated volcanic regions are formed (Fig.2).
The coastal and central parts of the shelves, the surface of the summits of submarine ridges and of the Komandor-Aleutian ridge are characterised by an abrasionaccumulative relief'. On the outer edge of the shelf, the scarp of the continental slope,
the slopes of the submarine ridges are examples of a tectonic relief but slightly transformed by exogenous factors. The sloping plain at the foot of the slopes, the floor
of the deep basins and of the Aleutian trench are related to the intensive levelling
effect of abyssal accumulation. Many of the bottom rises (seamounts) in the Gulf
of Alaska, the region of the island arc and Bowers ridge are of volcanic origin.
Forms of relict relief are encountered too, such as glacial troughs etc. (Fig.3).
BOTTOM DEPOSITS OF THE BERING SEA AND THE GULF OF ALASKA AND THEIR RELATION
TO THE BASIC MORPHOSTRUCTURES OF THE BOTTOM RELIEF
The types of bottom deposits most common in the extreme north of the Pacific
are various terrigeneous sediments, organogenous siliceous and carbonaceous deposits, sediments enriched by volcanic material and deep-sea sediments, brown in color,
transitory to "red oceanic clays" (Fig.4).
The wide continental shelf of the Bering Sea is occupied by clastic sediments.
Coarse elastic sediments are prevalent in its coastal part and finer sediments in the
central part. The sediments of the outer edge of the shelf are characterised by a coarser
granulometry. The narrow shelves of the geosyncline regions are characterised
mainly by sediments with a low content of fine particles. Within the limits of the
scarp of the continental slope clastic deposits are replaced by slightly diatomaceous
sediments containing up to 10-30 °/
/o of authigenic silicic acid. These sediments
are usually widely distributed in depths greater than 1,000 m. On the summit plane
of the Shirshov ridge slightly diatomaceous and silico-spongeous deposits are predominant. The deposits of the Bowers ridge are more varied, including sitico-spongeous, slightly diatomaceous, foramineferal sediments as well as sediments with a
high content of volcanic particles. Fine slightly diatomaceous deposits cover the
bottom of the sloping plain at the foot of the continental slope, of the Kamchatka
basin and the circumference of the Aleutian Basin. In the central part of the latter
diatomaceous sediments occur containing as much as 30-40~ of authigenic silicic
Marine Geol., 6 (1968) 281 296
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Fig.4. Scheme of the distribution of the main types of Recent sediments in the Bering Sea and the Gulf of Alaska. l = terrigenous sediments; 2 = terrigenous sediments largely of glacial origin; 3 = terrigenous sediments containing an admixture of volcanic particles; 4 = carbonate-rich sediments (shell and
foraminiferal deposits) ( > 10% CaCOD; 5 = slightly siliceous sediments containing moderate quantities of sponge spicules and diatoms (10-30~g authigenic
SiO2); 6 = siliceous sediments rich in diatoms ( > 30~}~, authigenic SiO2); 7 = brown deep-water sediments; 8 = mixed deposits.
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GEOMORPHOLOGYAND SEDIMENTSOF NORTHERNMOSTPACIFIC
291
acid: this is one of the largest areas of diatomaceous deposits in the north Pacific.
In the region of the Komandor-Aleutian arc terrigenous sediments are
dominant, but farther east, both on the Bering Sea side and especially on the Pacific
side, terrigenous-volcanic deposits are frequent. The Gulf of Alaska shelf is characterised by an uneven distribution of sediments: on plateau-like areas coarse clastic
sediments are dominant, not infrequently enriched by shelf detritus, while in submarine valleys fine sediments are important. Many sediments of the western Alaskan
shelf contain significant amounts of volcanic particles. In the northern and northeastern parts of the Gulf Recent glacial-marine deposits are encountered. Unlike
most other sediments they are grey colored, very uniform and occur both on positive
and negative elements of the relief. Their component particles are derived from
regions of continental glaciation and have been relatively little modified under subaerial and subaquatic conditions. These sediments are in many respects identical
with Late Pleistocene deposits, underlying the Recent ones. They indicate that physical
weathering processes were predominant during the glacial epochs in the regions from
where the sedimentary material was derived. In the zone of the gulf's continental
slope along with terrigenous deposits, slightly diatomaceous, foraminiferal and
volcanic sediments are known to occur.
The floor of the ocean is occupied by brown deep-sea sediments. Their composition and properties are distinctly affected by near-bottom oxidative conditions
at low rates of sedimentation. Some of the surface horizons in the southern parts of
the deep-sea basins of the Bering Sea have many features in common with the brown
deep-sea sediments. In the central part of the Gulf of Alaska volcanic and foraminiferal deposits are encountered in places, while on the summit and the flanks of submarine mountains outcrops of volcanic rocks are known.
A study of the chemical composition of bottom deposits in the extreme north
of the Pacific permitted to obtain a general picture of the distribution of such
important components as iron, manganese, authigenic silicic acid, organic carbon.
It was found that the composition of sediments depends not only on their granulometry but also on the material nature of the sedimentary particles and the degree
of diagenic transformation. This is especially important with regard to iron, manganese and organic carbon which are characterised by a high geochemical lability
(Fig.5-8).
THE GENERALTREND OF SEDIMENTARYDEPOSITIONIN THE BERING SEA AND THE GULF OF
ALASKA
The processes of sedimentation in the Bering Sea and the Gulf of Alaska have
many features in common and are linked by a series of sequential transitions in the
conditions of formation and occurrence of bottom deposits. With increasing distance
from shores and the approach to deep-sea regions the diverse terrigenous sediments
of epicontinental regions as well as the much more localised sediments of the geosynMarine Geol., 6 (1968) 281-296
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Marine Geol., 6 (1968) 281-296
GEOMORPHOLOGY AND SEDIMENTS OF NORTHERNMOST PACIF1C
295
clinal zone (terrigenous, volcanic, organogenous and mixed or polygenous) are
replaced by diatomaceous sediments in the Bering Sea and partly also in the Gulf
of Alaska. This change, which takes place mainly within the limits of the continental
and insular slopes, is accompanied by a smoothing out of the differences between the
sediments of epicontinental and geosynclinal regions, so that at the foot of the slopes
the sediments are quite similar. In the Gulf of Alaska diatomaceous deposits are not
widely developed, due to a less intensive vertical circulation. In the deep-sea basins
of the Bering Sea, in regions remote from the sources of sedimentary material, the
composition of bottom sediments undergoes further modifications, but these are
determined rather by an intensive diagenesis than by the different origin of the component particles. The same, but much more so, is observed in the Gulf of Alaska beyond
the regions of intensive sedimentation.
Noteworthy is the strong spatial localisation of certain deposits. Thus coarse
clastic sediments accumulate only in areas of highly mobile near-bottom waters,
though in the northern Bering Sea boulders, shingle and gravel may be carried far
away by drifting ice and deposited in the fine deep-sea sediments. Volcanic deposits
usually concentrate near volcanic foci; only in one case, after the eruption of the
volcano Katmai in 1912, was volcanic ash widely dispersed over the ocean. Very
localised also are the carbonaceous sediments encountered in the warm water zone
of the Alaska current and in some areas where sedimentation of clastic particles is
negligible.
The very distinct stratification of the bottom deposits in the Bering Sea and the
Gulf of Alaska is determined by the considerable changes of sedimentary conditions
which took place during the Late Quarternary and by the action of turbidity flows.
The sharp delimitation of Holocene and Pleistocene layers, established by lithological
and micropaleontological investigations, permits new data on the rate of recent
sedimentation in the extreme north of the Pacific to be obtained. Thus on the shelf
off the coastal regions not included in the investigations, this rate ranges from 2 to
30 cm/1,000 years, and may be still higher in areas of accumulation of glacial-marine
sediments in the Gulf of Alaska. Averages obtained for the scarp of the continental
slope indicate a rate of about 15-20 cm and about 30 cm for the sloping plain at the
foot of the slope. In the deep-sea basins of the Bering Sea the rate of sedimentation
increases from 6-10 cm to 33 cm/1,000 years. The latter value was calculated for the
area at the foot of the Bowers ridge. In the great depths of the Gulf of Alaska the
rate of sedimentation is much slower, approaching the values known for the periphery
of the ocean.
Thus it may be concluded that in most regions of the extreme north of the
Pacific sedimentation is relatively rapid, especially on the continental slope. This
possibly is not a local phenomenon but an inherent feature of sedimentary accumulation in open oceanic regions. It is characteristic that not only the accumulation
of the whole sediment is increased but of some of its most important components
too, in particular of organic carbon as evidenced by the distribution of its absolute
masses (g/cm2) during Holocene in the Bering Sea (Fig.9).
Marine GeoL, 6 (1968) 281-296
296
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Fig.9. Accumulation of organic carbon during the Holocene (g/cmZ).
REFERENCES
GEaSrt~Novmrx, D. E., 1962. New data on Recent deposits in the Bering Sea. Tr. Vses. Nauchn
Issled. Inst. Morsk. Rybn. Khoz. i Okeanogr., 46 : 128-164 (in Russian).
GERSrt*NOWC,, D. E., 1963a. Topography of the major fishing areas (the shelf, the continental slope)
and some geomorphological features of the Bering Sea. Tr. Vses. Nauchn. Issled. Inst. Morsk.
Rybn. Khoz. i Okeanogr., 48 : 13-76 (in Russian).
GERSHAr~OVXCH,D. E., 1963b. Shelf deposits in the Gulf of Alaska and the conditions of their formation. Tr. Akad. Nauk. S.S.S.R., 1963 : 32-38 (in Russian).
GERSHANOVICH,D. E., KOTENEV,B. N. and Novucov, V. N., 1964. Topography and bottom deposits
of the Gulf of Alaska. Tr. Vses. Nauehn. lssled. Inst. Morsk. Rybn. Khoz. i Okeanogr., 53 :
83-133 (in Russian).
GIBSON, W. M., 1960. Submarine topography in the Gulf of Alaska. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 71 :
1087-1108.
MENARD, H. W. and DIETZ, R. S., 1951. Submarine geology of the Gulf of Alaska. Bull. Geol. Soc.
Am., 62(10) : 239-253.
NAYtrDU, Y. R., 1959. Recent sediments of the northeast Pacific. Intern. Oceanog. Congr., Preprints,
pp.477--478.
Marine Geol., 6 (1968) 281-296