CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Maria Theresa
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Ave Maria Singles: "Reason for Hope"
Maria Theresa
Queen of Hungary and Bohemia, Archduchess of Austria, Roman-German Empress, born
1717; died 1780.
I. FROM 1717 TO 1745
Maria Theresa was born on 13 May, 1717, the daughter of the German Emperor Charles
VI (1711-1740) and his wife Elizabeth von Braunschweig-WolfenbŸttel. Her elder
brother Leopold had died a short time before and the emperor was left without male issue.
As early as 1713 he had promulgated a family law, the Pragmatic Sanction, by virtue of
which the possessions of the Hapsburgs were to remain undivided and, in default of a
male heir, fall to his eldest daughter. He was constantly negotiating with foreign powers
to secure their recognition of this Pragmatic Sanction. Maria Theresa was endowed with
brilliant gifts, with beauty, amiability and intelligence, and was universally admired as a
girl. On 14 February, 1736, she married Duke Francis Stephen of Lorraine, who by the
Peace of Vienna, in 1738, received Tuscany instead of Lorraine. Charles VI died
unexpectedly on 20 October, 1740, at the age of 56, and Maria Theresa came into
possession of the territories of Austria without having any political training. Her husband
was an amiable man, but of mediocre mental endowments and consequently of little
assistance to her. Charles, moreover, left the internal affairs of his monarchy, particularly
the finances and the army, in a lamentable condition. His family regarded the future with
misgiving and perplexity. Maria Theresa was the first to recover her self-possession and
to appreciate the problems before her. On the very day of her father's death, she received
the homage of Privy Councillors and nobility as Queen of Hungary, Queen of Bohemia,
and Archduchess of Austria, and at her first cabinet meeting expressed her determination
to uphold to the full every right she had inherited. All admired her firmness, dignity and
strength of spirit. Certainly they were few who believed she would succeed.
At Vienna men were familiarizing themselves with the idea "of becoming Bavarian". The
Elector Charles Albert of Bavaria, who had never recognized the Pragmatic Sanction, laid
claim to Austria as the descendant of a daughter of Emperor Ferdinand I (1556-1564), and
referred to a testament of 1547, in which mention was made however not of the failure of
"male" but of "legitimate" issue. He secured the support of France, which induced Spain
and Saxony also to lay claims to the succession. A greater peril appeared in a quarter
where it was least expected: King Frederick II of Prussia laid claim to Silesia. He
promised to help Maria Theresa, provided she ceded to him JŠgerndorf, Brieg, Wohlau
and Leignitz, to which he pretended to have hereditary claims. Otherwise he would ally
himself with France, Bavaria and Saxony and make war on her. He wanted, like a good
merchant, to take advantage of the opportunity, and proposed a deal by which Maria
Theresa and himself could settle the account between them. For in case of her acceptance
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of his proposal, Maria Theresa would have been spared the war arising out of the Austrian
succession. Maria Theresa was, however, as convinced of her rights as she was
determined to enforce them by action. That Prussia had a right to expect concessions from
Austria, since, in 1686, indemnification had been promised her for the Duchies of Silesia,
Maria Theresa did not take into account. The king hastily invaded Silesia and dispatched
a disagreeable, conceited courtier as his representative. Thus the first Silesian war came
about (1740-1742). Frederick II gained a great victory at Mollwitz (10 April, 1741). On 4
June he allied himself with France which now gave its support to the Elector of Bavaria,
who aspired to the imperial dignity and won most of the electors to his side. Maria
Theresa vainly strove to secure the crown for her spouse Francis Stephen. In her
hereditary lands she found her principal support against the threats of her foes. The
energetic bearing of the princess roused general enthusiasm. When in Pressburg she
appealed to the chivalry of the Hungarians, the nobles cried out that they were ready to
give their blood and life for their queen (September, 1741). However, as the Bavarians,
French and Saxons were advancing against her, she was compelled to arrange a truce with
Prussia in order to avoid danger from that side.
Charles Albert of Bavaria with the French had occupied Passau on 31 July and Linz on 15
September, and had been acknowledged by the Upper Austrian Diet. On 26 November he
surprised Prague with Saxon assistance, and had himself crowned King of Bohemia on 7
December. On 24 January, 1742 he was also elected Roman emperor as Charles VII. His
success however was short-lived. The queen's forces had already made an entry into his
own country. Still, what was most needful was to rid herself of her most dangerous
antagonist. Frederick II had broken the truce, had entered Moravia "to pluck the Moravian
hens", and won a victory at Chotusitz (17 May, 1742). Maria Theresa concluded the peace
of Breslau (6 June, 1742) and ceded to him Silesia except Teschen, Troppau and
JŠgerndorf. She now turned against the Bavarians and the French. Bohemia was retaken
and Maria Theresa crowned queen (May, 1743). Her ally, King George II of England,
marched forward with the "pragmatic army" and defeated the French at Dettingen (27
June, 1743). The emperor became a fugitive in Frankfort. His rival's advantageous
position inspired Frederick II with the fear that he might again lose his recent conquests in
Silesia. He therefore again allied himself with France and the emperor and broke the
peace by invading Bohemia. But as the French failed to send the promised army and
Charles VII died on 20 January, 1745, the King of Prussia was compelled to rely upon his
own forces and to retreat to Silesia. The Bavarians made peace with Austria and in
Dresden (May, 1745) Bavaria, Saxony and Austria agreed to reduce Prussia to its former
condition as the Electorate of Brandenburg. The Prussian victories at Hohenfriedberg,
Soor-Trautenau and Kesselsdorf (June, September and December, 1745) overthrew the
allies, and the second Silesian war had thus to be settled by the Peace of Dresden, where
Prussia was confirmed in its possession of Silesia. Meanwhile Maria Theresa's husband,
Francis Stephen, was chosen emperor on 4 October, 1745. Prussia acknowledged him. He
took the name of Francis I (1745-1765). Thus the high-spirited woman had obtained what
it was possible for her to obtain; the imperial dignity remained in her family, and the
pragmatic sanction was practically confirmed. War continued to be waged in the
Netherlands and Italy, but this conflict was no longer formidable. The conclusion of peace
at Aix la Chapelle, in 1748, put an end to the war of the Austrian succession. The
relations of the European Powers were not vitally altered. What was important was that
Prussia, though not recognized as a great power, had to be tolerated as such.
II. THE PEACE INTERVAL (1746-1756)
Directly after the Peace of Dresden the empress applied herself to the reform of the
administration. In a memorandum dated 1751 she herself says: "Since the Peace of
Dresden it has been my sole aim to acquaint myself with the condition and strength of my
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states, and then honestly to become acquainted with the abuses existing in them and in the
Dicasteriis (courts of justice) where everything was found to be in the utmost confusion".
The initiative came from the queen herself. Her assistant was Count Frederick William
von Haugwitz. Finances and the army were in sorest need of reorganization. The greatest
necessity was the raising of money needed for a standing army of 108,000 men in the
hereditary states and in Hungary. For this purpose 14 millions of gulden were required.
The diets were to raise them by regular grants for a number of years, and in return would
be free from all taxes in kind. The rights of the several diets were thus restricted for the
benefit of the country. Against this opposition arose. Maria Theresa, however, came forth
energetically in support of the authority of the government and by her personal influence
carried out the project. For the present the people of the several countries made grants for
a period of ten years, and when these had passed the new conditions had become habitual
and become settled. To the credit of the empress it ought not to be forgotten that in the
levying of this contribution for the army she did not permit any oppression of the working
class. A much more important measure from the point of view of the well-being of the
state was the separation of administration and justice. The Austrian and Bohemian court
chancelleries, hitherto separate, were combined into a single supreme administrative
office. On the other hand, for the administration of the law, the supreme court was
established. In 1753 the empress appointed a commission to compile a new civil code. It
was only in 1811, however, that it was published. During her reign (1768) the
"Constitutio criminalis Theresiana" was also promulgated for criminal law. Up to that
time a heterogeneous procedure prevailed in the different countries. Centralization was
also aided by the creation of new district officials who were to carry out the measures of
the government in the several countries. As they had often to protect the subjects against
the oppression of the lords, the people became much more devoted to the government.
For the promotion of trade and industry a bureau of commerce was established in 1746,
but its development was hindered by the internal duties. The oversea trade greatly
increased. The army was improved, the Prussian army being taken as a model; in 1752 a
military academy, and in 1754 an academy of engineering science were established. The
empress also gave her attention to education and especially to the middle and higher
schools. The gymnasia received a new curriculum in 1752. The medical faculty of the
University of Vienna, after being long neglected, was raised to greater efficiency. The
legal faculty also became a strong body. Moreover, the empress founded the academy of
the nobles (Theresianum) and the academy for Oriental languages as well as the archives
for the imperial family, court and state, which since 1749, had been a model of its kind. In
her dealings with Catholicism the empress adopted the principle "cujus regio, ejus
religio", and defended unity of faith in the State not only for Christian and religious, but
also for political reasons. The Jews were not regarded by her with favour. After 1751
Protestants were not permitted to sell their property and emigrate, but all, who declined
solemnly to become Catholics, were required to emigrate to Transylvania where the
Evangelical worship was permitted. "Transmigration" took the place of "emigration".
Later she came to the conclusion that compulsion ought to be avoided, but that those who
had gone astray should be led to conversion by argument and careful instruction. At court
she was strict in regard to attendance at church, frequent communion, and fasting. She
broke up the Freemason lodges by force in 1743.
III. THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR (1756-1763)
Maria Theresa would have carried out many more useful measures had she not again
turned to foreign politics. But she was irresistibly impelled to punish Prussia and to
reconquer Silesia. Her court and state chancellor, Count Kaunitz (since 1753) recognized
at times that it was better to come to an agreement with Prussia, but he had not the
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courage to oppose the empress's designs. The opportunity of taking revenge on Prussia
came when England and France made war on each other in North America and looked
about for European allies. In 1755 England received the assurance of aid from Russia. To
make Russia's assistance useless and in fact to paralyze her, Frederick the Great made the
Westminster Treaty of Neutrality in January, 1756 with England, by which the two
Powers bound themselves to prevent their respective allies, namely France and Russia,
from attacking the territory of the Confederates. This allowed the old rivals, Austria and
France, to combine. Maria Theresa was annoyed that England had joined Prussia, and
France was disgusted with Prussia's independent policy, for she had reckoned on
Frederick's help. Thus France and Austria made the defensive treaty of Versailles on 1
May, 1756. As to the origin of the Seven Years' War, whether it was an offensive or
defensive war on the part of Frederick the Great, this has been the subject of much debate.
It must be granted that Austria called upon France to participate actively in a war against
Prussia, and in return had offered concessions in the Low Countries. She had also come to
a similar agreement with Russia. The new war was an unfortunate undertaking. The
prospects of regaining Silesia were not great, and the hope of weakening Prussia was an
absolute chimera. Besides, France had no great interest in weakening Prussia, and her
active participation was doubtful from the beginning. In Russia the death of the empress
and a consequent change of policy was imminent.
Frederick the Great foresaw the intentions of Maria Theresa in good time, and anticipated
her before the preparations of his enemy were completed. As the empress made an
evasive reply or no reply at all to his enquiries as to her aims he entered Saxony on 28
August, 1756, and Bohemia in September and defeated the Austrians on 1 October, at
Lobositz. The attack, which was clearly a breach of the peace, brought about the
immediate conclusion of the alliances. Frederick made an alliance with England in
January, 1757. France and Austria came to an agreement (on 1 May, 1757) in regard to
the partition of Prussia, after Austria had come to an understanding with Russia in
January. Frederick had to defend himself on every side. He was on the offensive only in
1757 and 1758. Later he had to confine himself to acting on the defensive. The Seven
Years' War was a long struggle in which fortune alternately favoured either side. In
contrast with Frederick the Great's victories at Prague (6 May, 1757), at Rossbach (5
November, 1757), at Leuthen (15 December, 1757), at Torgau (3 November, 1760) stand
his serious defeats at Kolin (18 June, 1757), at Hochkirch (14 October, 1758), and at
Kunersdorf (12 August, 1759). In the West the allies effected very little against the
English. In the East on the other hand, Frederick seemed on the point of succumbing
(1761). The English did not renew the agreement to subsidize Frederick. His opponents, it
is true, were equally exhausted financially , as well as weary and disappointed. The
decisive turn of events was brought about by the death of the Russian Empress Elizabeth
(1762). Her successor, Peter III, an admirer of Frederick's, made peace with him and even
sought his alliance and sent him 20,000 men. When Peter lost his throne and life, the
Empress Catharine, it is true, withdrew from the Prussian alliance, but the last successes
of Frederick were largely due to the Russians (Burkersdorf, 21 July; Freiberg, 29
October). As France and England concluded peace in Paris on 10 February, 1763, the
empress was compelled to do the same. The Peace of Hubertsburg (15 February, 1763)
restored to each belligerent the possessions he had held before the war. But apart from the
loss in men and treasure, the war injured the policy of the empress and Count Kaunitz by
strengthening the position of Prussia as a great power. Frederick the Great had maintained
Prussia's power in a severe ordeal.
IV. THE EVENING OF LIFE (1763-1780)
The empress had still seventeen years to rule. However, this period no longer exclusively
bore the impress of her personality. She did not indeed give up the reins, but she could not
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make headway against the passionate impulses of her son Joseph II, or entirely carry out
her own views. Thus the Theresian period gradually became the "Josephine" period. On
27 March, 1763, Joseph was chosen as Roman king. Francis I, to whom Theresa was
really devoted, and to whom she had borne sixteen children (eleven daughters and five
sons), died suddenly, fifty-seven years old (1765). Joseph II became emperor (17651790), and in Austria co-regent with his mother. To her ambitious son, brimful of
projects, the liberal-minded autocrat who with the noblest intentions was able to effect
nothing, she could not transmit her political talent. In many respects their views differed,
particularly on religious affairs. Joseph had entirely different ideas on the treatment of
non-Catholics. Indeed even under Maria Theresa the politico-ecclesiastical policy known
as "Josephinism" had its rise, though the empress was a pious woman and attended strictly
to her religious duties. Papal Bulls were only to be made public with the consent of the
government, and intercourse with Rome was to be conducted through the Foreign Office.
Festivals were reduced in number. The jurisdiction of the Church over the laity ceased, as
well as the immunity from taxes enjoyed by the clergy. The number of monasteries was
restricted. The Jesuits lost their standing as confessors at the court, as well as the direction
of the theological and philosophical faculties at the University of Vienna, and were
confined to the lower schools.
The empress maintained a neutral attitude towards the dissolution of the Jesuit Order. Her
fortune was devoted to the care of souls and to education. In foreign politics a conflict of
views between mother and son arose on the occasion of the first partition of Poland. The
empress not only doubted that the acquisition of Polish territory would be an advantage,
but she also recoiled from doing wrong to others. At last she yielded to the pressure of her
son and Count Kaunitz, but later she often regretted having given her assent. Nor did she
approve of the War of the Bavarian Succession, clearly foreseeing that Prussia would
interfere. She could not sufficiently thank Providence for the fortunate issue of the affair.
In the last ten years of her life she developed an unremitting activity on behalf of the
improvement of the primary schools. The excellent Abbot Felbiger, the father of the
Catholic primary schools of Germany, was summoned from Silesia. She also tried to
improve the condition of the peasantry, and to put an end to the oppression of the
landlords. When she sought to abolish the serfdom in Bohemia she encountered
unexpected opposition from the emperor, whom the landlords had caused to hesitate.
She was tireless in her care for the welfare and education of her children. When they were
at a distance she carried on a busy correspondence with them and gave them wise
instruction and advice. Marie Antoinette, the Dauphiness, and afterwards Queen, of
France, with her light and thoughtless temperament, her frivolous disregard of dignity, her
love of pleasure and her extravagance, caused her much anxiety. Nearest to her heart was
her daughter Maria Christina who was happily married to Prince Albert of SaxonyTeschen. Death was made hard for the courageous woman. On 15 October, 1780, she
made her will and in it directed, which was characteristic of her, besides generous
bequests to the poor, the granting a month's pay to the soldiers. On 8 November she was
present at a hunt and appears to have caught a cold in the pouring rain. Night and day she
suffered from a racking cough and choking fits, nevertheless she was but little in bed, but
busied herself by putting her papers in order, and consoling her children. On the 25th she
received Communion; on the 28th extreme unction was given to her, and with her own
hand she put certain bequests on paper, among them, again, characteristic of her
disposition, 100,000 florins for the funds of the normal schools. during the night of 29
November, 1780, she died, at the age of sixty-three years.
She was the last and beyond doubt the greatest of the Hapsburgs. She is not only, as
Sonnenfels described her as early as 1780, the restorer, but rather the foundress of the
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Austrian monarchy, which with a skillful hand she built up out of loose parts into a well
rivetted whole, while in all essential respects she left the administration radically
improved. In her personal character she was a thorough German, always proud of her
German descent and nationality, intelligent, affable, cheerful, pleasant, fond of music, and
at the same time thoroughly moral and deeply religious. In her character were united, as v.
Zwiedineck-SŸdenhorst says, all that was amiable and honourable, all that was worthy
and winning, all the strength and gentleness of which the Austrian character is capable.
Klopstock was right when he appraised her as "the greatest of her line because she was
the most human", and even Frederick the Great recognized her merits when he said: "She
has done honour to the throne and to her sex; I have warred with her but I have never
been her enemy."