A Re-evaluationl
Overseer:
Plantation
TheSouthern
SCARBOROUGH
KAUFFMAN
V\/ILLIAM
whichbearsupon
No figureoccupieda positionof greater the availableinformation
in the managerialhierarchyof the management
importance
of southernplantationsis
the southernplantationsystemthandid the contained
by
in diariesandjournalsauthored
overseer.It was this agent,who, in great members
groupandin the
of the proprietary
contacts
measure,determinedthe successor failure accounts
whoseprincipal
of travelers
on the largerestates werewithpersonsof the samegroup.Moreof plantingoperations
of stapleagricul- over, manyresearchers
have erredin their
devotedto the production
turalproducts.Amongthe majorresponsi- evaluationof the dataincludedin contembilitiesof the overseerwerethe welfareand poraryplantation
records.It doesnotrequire
disciplineof the slaves,the careof livestock a spectacular
to discernthatinimagination
andtheproduc- stancesof mismanagement
implements,
andagricultural
weremorelikely
crops.He as- to be recordedby disenchanted
tion of stapleand subsistence
proprietors
tasks,and than were examplesof good management.
signedgangsto work,apportioned
thelaborof slavesin thefield.He
supervised
to
factorwhichcontributed
Oneimportant
overseers
of southern
reputation
was expectedto be sufiicientlyacquainted theunsavory
medicalpracticesto de- was the existencein the LowerSouthof a
with contemporary
terminewhetherailing slavesneededpro- largefloatingpopulation
overseers,
of amateur
provoked
fessionalattentionand to treatminorcom- whosegenerallackof competence
plaintswithoutoutsidehelp. To the over- a stormof abusefromcottonbelt planters.
for insuring The members
of thisgroupmovedfromone
seerwasgiventhe responsibility
that the slaveswere properlyfed and that plantationto another,offeringtheirservices
clean. He at lowerratesthanthosedemanded
by better
they kept themselvesreasonably
of qualifiedoverseers.In 1854a writerin The
was obligedto makeperiodicinspections
forthedistri- American Cotton Planter condemned"the
slavecabinsandwasresponsible
which
butionof Negroclothing.Finally,uponthe presentloosesystemof doingbusiness"
overseers
to gain posioverseerdepended,"to a large extent,the enabledincompetent
to givetheirprosecurityof the whitesagainstuprisingsof tionsand,as a consequence,
9
slaves."
fessiona badname.Saidhe:
in theplanta- . . .there are too many individualsgoing about
Althoughhis keyimportance
tion regimeof the Old Southhas beenac- over the countryseeking employnzentas overthe overseer 1This articleis based upon materialcontainedin a
knowledgedby mostobservers,
to ratherharsh doctoraldissertationsubmittedby the authorto the facbeensubjected
hasheretofore
of NorthCarolinain August,1961.
in the fieldof ultyof the University
by manyauthorities
treatment
In preparingthat study,datawerecompiledchieflyfrom
southernhistory.3He has usuallybeenpor- threetypesof primarysources:(1) manuscriptplantation
dissolute recordsin the SouthernHistoricalCollection,University
trayedas an uncouth,uneducated,
censusreturnsin the
North Carolina;(2) manuscript
slavedriver,whosetwindelightsconsistedof of
NationalArchives,Washington25, D. C.; and (3) conabusingthe Negroesunderhis controland temporaryagriculturalperiodicals.The authoris deeply
goals of his em- indebtedto KenanProfessorFletcherM. Greenof the
the progressive
sabotaging
Universityof NorthCarolinafor his incisivecriticismand
of stimulating
ployer.The mythof thegeneralineptness
guidancethroughoutthe long periodof reof searchand writing.
classwascreatedby members
theoverseer
SugarPlanthe plantercommunityand has been per- 2V. AltonMoody,"Slaveryon Louisiana
The Louisiana Historical Quarterly,VII (April,
petuatedby writerswhosechiefinsightinto tations,"
1924), 209.
hasbeengained 3 For example,see LewisCecilGray,History of Agriof the overseer
the character
in the Southern United States to I860, 2 volumes
throughthe eyes of his employer.Mostof culture
CarnegieInstitutionof Washington,1933),
(Washington:
I, 502, 557; UlrichBonnellPhillips,Life and Labor in zhe
is an Old South (Boston:Little,Brown,and Company,1929),
SCARBOROUGH
KAUFFMAN
WILLIAM
310.
assistant professor oJ' history at Northeast p. 4The
Cotton Planter, II (December,1854),
ARmerican
LoaisianaState College,Monroe,Louisiana. 372-373.
13
AGRICULTURALHISTORY
14
seers,at reducedrates,thathaveneitherthe capac- thereputation
of hisprofession
hadbeenseriity or qualifications
to dischargethe responsible ouslydamaged
by
the
activities
of "charlatans
dutiesof overseer.The failureo£ theseunworthy
and
pretenders,"
urged
proprietors
"to give
men,is visitednotupontheirowndemerits,butinrather
discriminately
uponthe character
of all overseers.4 good wagesto a man fullyqualiiSed,
than to pick up at a low ratea merepreThe shortageof qualifiedmanagerial
oper- tender."
9 Another veteranoverseercomativeswas particularly
acutein Mississippi.plainedthat therewere "toomanyfarmers
JohnH. Hairston,explaininghis decisionto who do not give the subjectof gettinggood
retaina veteranNorthCarolinaoverseeras overseers,
the rightbearing,andfor the sake
the managerof his uncle'splantationin of gettinga manfor a few dollarsless,will
LowndesCounty,Mississippi,
complained
bit- takea maninto theiremployment,
to manterlyof the qualityof overseers
in thatstate. age their domesticaSairs,who is wholly
"I was determined,"
said Hairston,"notto unfitfor the place,or occupation
for which
employa halfwayoverseerwithoutI should they are employed."If proprietors
would
havebeentakenin as thereis plentyof that striveto procure
competent
overseers
byofTerkindin thisCountry,
andothersveryscarce."5ing themadequatepay,he continued,"our
Progressive
Mississippiagriculturist,
Martin countrywouldsoonget ridof a floatingpopuW. Philips,experienced
suchgreatdifiiculty lation,as overseers,
and our farmerswould
n procurlngt le servlcesot competent
over- have honorablemen following,what every
seersforhis HindsCountyplantation
thathe manshouldlookuponas an honorable
occuwasobligedto changeoverseers
nofewerthan pation,whichwoulddo honorto themselves
sixteentimesin seventeen
years.Typicalare andto thatclassof menwhoarewillingand
his experiences
duringthe year 1856.Less expectto do theiremployer's
justice.''10
thana monthafterengagingone,Champion, Despitesuch pleas,the "charlatans
and
to overlookhis"LogHall"plantation,
Philips pretenders"
continuedto find employment,
hadbecomedisenchanted
withhis new over- andthe reputations
of theirmorecompetent
seer.Champion
hadbeendrunkcontinually, colleaguessufferedaccordingly.
Primaryredidn't"seemto desireto governnegroes,"
and sponsibility
for theperpetuation
of thisinept
refusedto enforceplantation
rulesrequiring groupmust thereforebe assignedto those
Negroesto attendpreaching."Hesaysit is a planterswho continuedto employsuchpersin to make
negroes
attend,and againsthis sons simplybecausethey couldbe engaged
conscience,"
recordedPhilips.6The overseer fora few dollarslessthancouldmoreexperiwas discharged,
but on the followingday, encedand betterqualifiedmembersof the
-Philipsdecidedto allowhim to remainafter overseeingprofession.Unfortunately,
many
Championpledgedhimself"toabstainfrom secondarywritershave equatedthe entire
liquorwhile-here;alsoto join a temperance classof southern
overseers
withthisgroupof
society,if one be in Raymond."
7 The reill-paid,
inexperienced,
unqualified
wanderers,
formedoverseerretainedhis post untilJuly therebyproducing
a stereotyped
imageof the
6, whenhe departed
aftervowingvengeance southern
overseer
whichdoesnotaccordwith
againstPhilipsbecause
of a misunderstandingthefacts.
whichhad developedbetweenthe two men
A numberof factorsmilitatedagainstthe
overthe ownershipof a slave.8Philipsem- establishment
and perpetuation
of a more
ployedtwo moreoverseers
duringthe same
yearwithoutfindingone who provedto be
John H. Hairston to Robert Hairston, February 13,
satisfactory.
1838, in Peter Wilson Hairston Papers, the Southern HisArticulate
representatives
of thebetterclass torical Collection, University of North Carolina.
dFranklin L. Riley, "Diary of a Mississippi Planter,
of overseers
recognizedthe pernicious
effect January
1, 1840 to April, 1863," Publications of the
whichtheactivities
of suchincompetents
had Misslssippi Historical Society, 14 volumes. Edited by
L. Riley (Oxford, Mississippi: Printed for the
uponthe managerial
profession
as a whole, Franklin
Society, 1909), X, 453.
and theysoughtin vain to dissuadepropri- Ibid.
8Ibid., p. 456.
etorsfromengagingsuchill-qualified
mento
Coleman, "A Few Words About Overseers,"
managetheir agricultural
enterprises.Ala- TheDaniel
Southern Caltivator,VII (September, 1849), 139.
bamaoverseer
DanielColeman,
charging
that 10The Sosthern Caltivator,XIX (May, 1861), 151.
.
.
.
P
5
7
9
THE SOUTHERN PLANTATION OVERSEER
15
competent
classof overseers.
In thefirstplace, dutiesbornebymembers
of hisprofession
was
the taskof directingslavelaborwasdistaste- MooreRawls,managerof a Louisianasugar
ful to manyandwasheldin socialdisrepute estate.In the followingportiorlof-amletter
by a largesegmentof the generalpublic.In addressedto his absenteeemployer,Lewis
an addressdeliveredat the firstanniversaryThompson,
Rawlscomplains
of the difficulty
meetingof the UnitedAgricultural
Society of managiIlg
Negroesandof the longhours
of SouthCarolina
in December,
1827,White- of laborduringthe harvestseason:
marshB. Seabrook
referred
to the"degrading I thinkthisis all I CanSayaboutbusinessmatters,
function"whichoverseers
exercised"inpub- as I have not time to write long. for I tell you
lic esteem.''1l
As a result,the overseerwas we have Cold rains here more than half the
and at Such times I have to Stay at the
relegatedto a statusin southernsocietyfar time.
Stlgar
all the time of nights. I left my
beneaththatof the planterand even below houseathouse
7 o'Clocklastnight had to Stayat the
thatof the smallindependent
farmer.
Sugarhouseuntil 5 this morning then in the
9 whichwas 14 hoursand I know that
Withfew exceptions,
membersof the pro- fielduntil
was not one minutein the whole without
prietaryclassfailedto accordtheiroverseers there
rain& hardtoo. I Cantget a negroon the place
therespectto whichtheirresponsible
position thatwill makethe handsworkin Suchtimes,any
entitledthemanddidlittleto encourage
them longerthanI Standby them.l
to takepridein theirprofession.Moreover, It remainedfor a
Georgiaoverseerto furmanyplantersimposeddemandsupontheir nish the mostforceful
expression
of disilluoverseers
whichfew mencouldreasonably
be sionmentwith his occupation,which
this
expectedto meet. Few plantersreallyappre- writerhasencountered.
"If
there
ever
was
or
ciatedthe difficulties
facedby thosewho di- everwillbe a callingin lifeas meanandconrectedtheiragricultural
operations.
A Burke temptible
as thatof an overseer,"
he declared,
County,Georgia,proprietor
depictedthe life "I wouldbe rightdown
glad
to
knowwhat
of an overseerin the followingterms:
it is, andwhereto be found.I am just tired
Thus,masterof his own actions,and responsible of it, andwill quit it, as soonas I canfinda
reallyto no one, he ridesoverthe fields,and inspectsthe work and the stock, at his option; betterbusiness.''15
experimentswith implementsand with soils at
Anotherfactorwhichlessenedthe attracpleasure,and alwaysfruitlessly,since he is un- tivenessof the occupationwas the social
aidedby the knowledgeof anyscientificprinciple; isolationwhich
overseers
wereobligedto enand, knowing that neitherhis situationor his
forbidden
reputation
will be compromised
whilehis cropcan dure. Shunnedby his employer,
withtheslaves,discouraged
comparewith those of his neighbors,the better to fraternize
from
paid of them, sometimesindolentlyvisits his entertaining
companyand obligedby the
chargein a carriage,and oftenkeepshis dogsand natureof his arduousdutiesto remainconhis boat, and indulgesin the agreeablepastimes
of the chaseand the rod. Happylot is that of stantlyat his post, the overseerlived in a
overseer for a man withouteducationgenerally, virtualsocialvacuum.In May,1858,Louisiandbornto labor.He is well paidfor playingthe anaoverseer
MooreRawlswasquestioned
by
luxuricyus
partof gentleman,andpossesses,
for the his employer
aboutthe progress
of the crops
time,the plantationin his care,with all its means in his neighborhood.
Rawlsrepliedthat he
of contributing
to his comfortandpleasure.l2
had"notbeenoff of the plantation
sincethe
To say the least,the life of the average 3rd Ofoct.... SoyouCanjudgethatI CCan-not
overseerborelittleresemblance
to the idyllic
11Tke Southern Agricslturist, II (November,1829),
existenceportrayed
above.Overseer
Garland 521.
D. Harmon,the mostvocalspokesman
for
12The Southern Cultizwator,
II (June,1844), 97.
GarlandD. Harmon,"Overseers
his classin the LowerSouth,comDlained
and Their Enjoyof
The Southern Cultivator, XVIII (May, 1860),
beingcontinuallyplaguedby requestsfrom ments,7'
151.
his Negroesat night. "I can'teven readat
Moore Rawls to Lewis Thompson,December24,
night,afterthe toilsof the dayis past,"de- 1857,in LewisThompsonPapers,the SouthernHistorical
Universityof North Carolina.
claredHarmon,"withoutbeing bedeviled Collection,
JamesCalvinBonner,"ThePlantationOverseerand
with 40 niggers here aftereverythingyou SouthernNationalismas Revealedin the Careerof GarD. Harmon,"Agricultural History, XIX ( January,
canmention,"
13 Another
overseer
whohadno land
1945), 2; quotingThe Southesn Cultivator,XX (1862),
illusionsregarding
the onerousnatureof the 287.
13
14
15
AGRICULItURALHISTORY
16
proawayfromthe overseeing
knowmuchaboutthe cropsin ourvicinity." agriculturists
manager, fession. Similarly,the dispositionof many
"Thetruthis,"addedthe harassed
no
frequently,
to changeoverseers
"nomancanbegain[sic] to attendto sucha proprietors
businesswith anyset of negros,withoutthe matterwhatdegreeof abilitythe latterhad
to hirea less
andthe inclination
displayed,20
strictestvigilanceon his part.''16
The confiningnatureof the overseerpost capableoverseerif he wouldagreeto work
is illustratedby an agreementof 1842be- for lowerwagesthan the incumbent,were
distinguishedotherpracticeswhichretardedthe developtweenWilliamLewisSharkey,
groupof manNoahA. mentof a moredistinguished
jurist,and his overseer,
Mississippi
airedhis
overseer
Alabama
irate
An
agers.
agreeWard. The latter,accordingto the
in the folagainstsuchpractices
"except resentment
ment,wasnot to leavethe plantation
on pressingprivatebusinessor forthet}enefit lowingterms:
noris he to havecompany This annualchangingof overseersis, in my opinof the plantation,
the ion, one grand cause why employershave but
Similarly,
withhimon theplantation.''17
little confidencein them. By the time eachparty
overseerof wealthyLouisianaplanter,Wil- becomes
sufficientlywell acquaintedto underunderthe follow- standeachotherandget alongwell withbusiness,
liamJ. Minor,was p-laced
"Hemustnot leavethe plan- anothercomesalongin wantof employment,and
ing restriction:
tationexcepton businessof his Employer- for fear of beingturnedaway,offershis services
less thanthe one you haveknowsit is worth
He mustneverremainod the placeat night for
to attendto yourbusiness.Of course,the cheapest
withoutthe consent takesthe place.2l
underanycircumstances
or knowledgeof his EmployerX18 Suchrethrough- Arguingthatno mancould"provehistalents
weregeneralonplantations
strictions
in a singleyear,theAlaburdened as a goodmanager"
out the South.Thus,the overseer,
to "geta manand
withexactingdutiesandweightyresponsibili-bamianurgedproprietors
for another;unchanging
before
him,
prove
ties,wasdoomedto leada lonelylife among
not let money
do
and
pursestrings,
tie
your
his ignorantblackcharges.
pleasesyouin
that
a
man
from
you
separate
pay,coupledwith brevityand
Inadequate
Unhapwages."22
his
high
but
respect
every
disadvanother
of tenure,were
uncertainty
ambitious pily, few plantersin the Southwestheeded
tageswhicl1tendedto discourage
from enteringthe over- suchadvice.
youngSoutherners
for advancement
received The lack of opportunity
Althoughoverseers
seeingprofession.
induced
profession
overseeing
the
within
incomesthandidmostother
moresubstantial
funcmanagerial
best-qualified
of
the
many
their
plantations,
on southern
whiteoperatives
occupain
other
employment
seek
to
tionaries
vast
with
the
wageswerenot commensurate
whichtheywerecalledupon tions. Althoughan overseermightgraduate
responsibilities
to
of a smallplantation
to shoulder.The casefor the overseerwas fromthemanagement
was
pay
his
estate,
of
a
larger
overseership
the
nevermoreforcefullystatedthan by a Coto compenlumbia,SouthCarolina,overseerwritingin not usuallyincreasedsufiiciently
and
responsibiliduties
the
added
him
for
sate
1849,issueof The Southern
the Septembier,
wereeletiesof hisnewpost.A fewoverseers
Cultivator.Saidhe:
buttheoppor-as stewards,
For wagesscarcelyif at all in advanceof that vatedto positions
wereextremely
given to the Irishditcller,an Overseeris obliged tunitiesfor sucha promotion
to managethe interestsof a planterwhoseestate
yieldshim from five to twentythousanddollars
a year. He has to punishand keep in orderthe
negroes,at the riskof his life, and besidesall this,
he is virtuallyexcludedfrom his kindred,and
fellow creatures,and compelledto lead a life as
secluded,in fact more so than the inmatesof
Sing-Singprison,and all this is expectedfrom
him withoutany profitto himselfwhatever.l9
Thereis littledoubtthatthe moreattracadordedbyother
tiveeconomicopportunities
seducedmanycompetentyoung
occupations
16Moore Rawls to Lewis Thompson, May 9, 1858, in
Lewis Thompson Papers.
1qFrancisGarvin Davenport, ed., "Judge Sharkey Papers," The MississippiValley HistoricalReview, XX (June,
1933), 76.
18Joseph Carlyle Sitterson, Sugar Country: The Cane
(Lexington:
Sugar Industry in the South, I753-I950
University of Kentucky Press, 1953), p. 60.
19 The Southern Cultivator,VII (September,1849), 140.
20 For the most candid exposition of this viewpoint, see
Milton Baggs, Jr., "Changing Overseers," The Southern
Cultivator,XVIII (July, 1860), 207.
21 The 24mericaCotton Planter, II (May, 1854), 149.
22lbid.,p. 150.
THE SOUTHERNPLANTATIONOVERSEER
17
limited.The only realchancefor advance- Thosewithintheoverseeing
profession
were
ment lay outsidethe overseeingprofession. confrontedby additionaldifficultieswhich
Thus,the mostambitiousmanagersaspired proceeded
fromthe verynatureof theirposito positionsas independent
farmersandsmall tion in the plantationestablishment.
The
slaveholders,
therebyimpedingthe formation overseerwas pulledin two incompatible
diof a corpsof topflight,professional
overseers. rectionsby the concurrent
planteremphases
Sucha conclusion
is confirmed
bystatistics
de- uponproduction
of a largestaplecrop,on
rivedfrom the statecensusreturns,which the one hand,anduponthe careof Negroes,
revealthataboutfour-fifths
of thoseengaged livestock,
andfarmimplements
andbuildings
in thebusinessof overseeing
in 1860werebe- on the other. His plightwas renderedinlow theageof forty.23
creasingly
diflicult
bythefailureof theplanter
Finally,the propensity
of plantation
own- classto reacha generalunanimity
of opinion
ersto bombard
theiroverseers
witha constant on this subject.An overseermightmallage
streamof complaintsand criticismengen- theinterests
of a proprietor
whoregarded
the
deredan atmosphere
of discouragement
and size of the cropas paramount
and thenfind
low moraleamongmembersof the overseer himself,in thefollowingyear,withan owner
class.The averageplanterwasnot notedfor who placedprimaryemphasisupon longhis penetrating
discernment
of the difficulties rangeagricultural
considerations.
The fact
facedby the man who directedthe laborof thatfew overseers
remainedin one situation
his slavesand supervised
the cultivationof long enoughto decipherthe personality
of
his land. No matterhow zealouslyan over- their employeraddedto the magnitudeof
seerendeavored
to fulfillthe wishesof his theirpredicament.
employer,
the latterusuallyfoundsomepoint Anotherproblemengendered
by thenature
uponwhichto criticizehim. As onediscour- of theoverseer
systemconcerned
thedivision
agedAlabamian
phrasedit, "thepoorover- of managerial
responsibility
betweenplanter
seer. . . is oftenerblamedfornotdoingmore and overseerand the consequentdegreeto
thanpraisedforwhathe hasdone.... There whichthe activitiesof the latterwere subaresomepersonsin theworldthatneversuf- jectedto supervision
by the owner. Underfer one chanceto escapeto say something standably,few proprietors
displayedmuch
derogatoryto the reputationof poor over- willingnessto entrustto hiredsubordinates
seers."
94
completeauthorityover agricultural
enterDuringtheyear1857E.A. Knowlton,
man- priseswhich frequentlyrepresented
investagerof R. R. Barrow's
vast sugarestatein mentsamountingto manythousands
of dolTerrebonneParish,Louisiana,becamein- lars.On theotherhand,the overseerargued
creasinglyconcernedwith the failureof his with considerable
logic that he shouldbe
employer
to proceedwithdispatch
in making
given
control
of
routine
mattersassociated
necessaryrepairsto the sugarhouseequipwith
the
operation
of
the
plantationif he
menton the estate.DespiteKnowlton's
perwere
tO
be
held
accountable
for the results.26
sistenteffortsto accelerate
preparations
for
It
is
diS;cult
to
discern
how
this
fundamental
the sugarharvest,Barrowdid not hesitateto
reprimand
his managerwhen the grinding conflictbetweenplanterand overseercould
seasonextendedthroughChristmas
and into havebeenresolvedwith mutualsatisfaction
the new year. Earlyin January,1858,the to bothprincipals.
headstrong
proprietor
directedKnowlton"to
write&in theplantation
journalandsaythat 23Computedfrom a surveyof more than fifteen hundred
in seventecn sample counties throughout the
anymanwhowasgrinding&Roolingat this overseers
South.
timea yearhe considered
thatsucha manis
24 Thc Amencan Cotton Plantcr,II (May, 1854), 149.
25R. R. Barrow Residence Journal,January5, 1858, in
no managerandhasno buisness[sicl witha
Historical Collection, University of N. Carolina.
SugarPlantationand he considered
such a Southern
28In 1854 Mississippiplanter, Martin W. Philips, and
mannothingmorethana DAMJackass s25 Garland D. Harmon, renowned Georgia overseer, enIn the lightof suchcircumstances,
it is little gaged in a vigorous literary debate on this subject. See
Smerican Cotton Plantcr, I (December, 1853), 377;
wonderthatan airof frustration
anddiscour- The
1t (luly, 1854), 214; II (September, 1854), 281-282 II
agementpervaded
theoverseer
group.
(November, 1854), 347.
18
HISTORY
AGRICULTURAL
on the SouthCaroveteranoverseers
Some
Inassessingthe personalcharacterand
largeholdingsin
ricecoastaccumulated
acumenof southernoverseers, lina
managerial
courseof their
the
during
and slaves
importantfactorsmustbe considered: land
three
for 1860
returns
Census
careers.
managerial
the size of the plantation;(2) the place
(1)
managers,
thattwo ColletonDistrict
of theowner(whetheran absen- indicate
residence
of
J. Andersonand NathanielB.
Alexander
and (3) ahegeoor residentproprietor);
Antee
prosperous.
wereastonishingly
Adams,
areain whichthe plantationwas
graphical
owned
Chisolm,
R.
A.
for
theoverseer
derson,
Thereis little doubtthat the best
situated.
slavesand listed $10,000in real
thirty-one
with
employment
tendedto secure
overseers
and $35,000in personalproperty.
property
largestand most affluentplanters.The
the
combinedland and slave propertyof
establish- The
of a largeagricultural
management
forJamesKing,
whowasoverseeing
slaveforceclearly Adams,
withits concomitant
ment
owned no
Adams
valuedat $40,000.
the employmentof an experi- was
as
necessitated
Spectacular
slaves.
than forty-two
upper-class fewer
man.Moreover,
andcapable
enced
match
quite
not
did
they
holdings,
these
wereableto paysalarieswhichwere were
planters
of PrinceGeorge's
of JohnJ. Anderson
those
talented
most
the
high to attract
sufEciently
in GeorgetownDistrict.The latter
In like manner,the addedre- Parish
managers.
slavesandlistedcombined
forty-seven
with owned
andhigherpayassociated
sponsibilities
Of course,
holdingsof $45,ooo.28
of absenteeestatesusually property
management
the
theydo
but
exceptional,
were
holdings
of ableoverseers such
in the procurement
resulted
could
which
property
of
amount
the
thoseunits.In addition,thegreaterfree- indicate
for
coast.
rice
on the
by topoverseers
of ab- beamassed
of actionaccordedto overseers
along
dom
society
of
to ambitiousand The moresettlednature
appealed
plantations
sentee
had the effectof prosucha post theAtlanticseaboard
andrendered
managers
group
self-reliant
a morestableand permanent
thana situationon a resident ducing
desirable
more
in the
developed
which
that
than
ofoverseers
size.
of comparable
Overplantation
Southwest.
the
of
states
slave
newer
An analysisof the statecensusreturnsof seers
to be
tended
andriceareas
in thetot}acco
in
in
1860revealsa significantdifferentiation
olderthantheircounterparts the
betweenthe various slightly
characteristics
overseer
greaterperSouth,anda substantially
in the Lower
regions.As a group,overseers
staple
someplropowned
and
weremarried
to those centage
of the
riceandsugardistrictsweresuperior
consequence
important
Another
erty.29
inanyotherstaplearea.Menof considerable socialstabilitywhichprevailedin the older
in
ability,experience,and judgmentwere re- slavestateswasthe tendencyforoverseers
quiredto managethe intricateand compli- thoseregionsto continuein the serviceof a
with the producassociated
catedoperations
longerperiodsthanwas
to controlthe singleemployerforwith
and
sugar
and
tionof rice
thosewho directed
case
in generallythe
largeslave gangs which predominated
the Southwest.
in
operations
agricultural
thoseregions.In addition,the highersal- Continuous
termsof ten, fifmanagerial
ariesofferedby affluentriceandsugarplant- teenand even twentyyearsor longerwere
ers attractedmore competentmanagerial recorded
in Virginiaand
by someoverseers
personnel.27
of his agriculcourse
the
In
the Carolinas.
VirThe demandfor overseersof superior turalsurveyof ScuthCarolinain 1843>
South
the
on
greatest
probably
was
ability
ricecoast,whereunhealthy a7Overseerson GovernorWilliam Aiken's vast Jehossee
Carolina-Georgia
South Carolina coast received
inducedmanyproprietorsIsland rice estate off the
climaticconditions
$1,800 to $2,000 during the
from
ranging
salaries
annual
Agricultural
to leave the directionof their agricultural1840's. Private Diary of Edmund Ruflin
in Edmund
1843,
1,
March
subordinates
Carolina,
hired
South
of
in
Surveyor
affairsin the hands
CollecHistorical
Southern
the
Books,
and
Papers
Robinson in
Solon
Carolina;
duringthe crucialplantingand harvesting Ruflin
North
of
University
tion,
IX (August, 1850), 202.
periodfrommid-Mayuntil mid-November.De Bow's Review,
Archives),
most
aSManuscriptcensus returns, 1860 (National1 ( volume
the
became
overseer
the
Schedule
Consequently,
Carolina,
South
District,
Colleton
2 (volume 3); Georgetown District, South
importantsingleelementin the managerial 3), Schedule
1 (volume 4), Schedule 2 (volume 4).
Schedule
Carolina,
hierarchyof the rice belt.
THE SOUTHERN PLANTATION OVERSEER
19
ginia reformerEdmundRuffinvisitedthe tantlythatthecottonbalewasthe allsontrolof MajorSamuel ling motivein Mississippi.33
SanteeRiverriceplantation
Similarly,an
Porcherandhadwarmpraisefor the latter's Englishtraveler,
writingto theLondonDawly
who had"beenin News fromMississippi
S. Hawksworth,
overseer,
in 1857,declaredthat
his presentemploymentfor more than 20 "thefutureof the overseerdependsvltogether
years."Such a term of service,remarked on the quantityof cotton he is able to mate
evidenceof his great up for the martet.
34MaunselWhite,wealthy
Ruflin,was "sufiicient
madehispomeritas a manager,as well as of his regard Louisiana
andplanter,
merchant
negotiaclearin contract
for his employer& faithfulsupportof his sitionunequivocally
SouthCaro- tionswith one of his overseers
outstanding
30 Another
interests."
in the fall of
lina low countryoverseer,JesseBelflowers, 1847.In resporlse
to a queryfromthe overyearsin the employof seerregardingpossiblesalarytermsfor the
servedfor twenty-five
RobertF. W. Allston,a leadingGeorgetown followingyear,White repliedthat he was
Bel- "perfectly
Thehighly-esteemed
Districtriceplanter.
willingto employyou&desireyou
flowersmanagedAllston's"ChicoraWood" to staybuttheFigureof Salarymustsurely&
and adjoiningplantationsfrom 1842until certainly
withtheamountof gain,
correspond
his deathin 1866at the age of fifty-nine.31fromthe pursuityou direct...."350ne untermof serviceby a fortunateresultof such pressureupon the
The longestcontinuous
whichthe authorhasencoun- overseerwasto increasethe latter'stendency
singleoverseer,
tered,wasthatof JohnsonG. Giles,who re- to disregard
thewelfareof theNegroesin his
of North Caro- determination
to makea goodcrop.
mainedin the employment
lina planter,Peter Wilson Hairston,from As a consequence
of thefactorsenumerated
term of in the firstportionof this paper,southern
1843until 1876 an uninterrupted
years.32
did not,as a group,measureup to
overseers
thirty-four
set forthemby memOverseersin the LowerSouthwere fre- the exactingstandards
by their bers of the proprietary
to greaterpressures
quentlysubjected
class. Nevertheless,
theirduandthistoo tendedto promotea the majority
performed
of overseers
employers,
degreeof energyand
rapidturnoverof overseersin that region. ties with a surprising
ownersin the seabordslavestates eSciency.Ironically,
it wastheplanterclassPlantation
and finan- the groupmostdisposedto crucifythe overwere,in general,well-established
cially secure.In many instancesthey had seer which was primarilyresponsiblefor
inheritedtheirlandand slavesand,as a re- many of the flawswhich did exist in the
by financialworries.
sult,werenot oppressed
for the expansionof
opportunities
Moreover,
a9A statisticalanalysisof more than fifteen hundred
based upon the state censusreturnsof 1860
werenot presentin the overseers
plantingoperations
yieldedthe followingfigures:
samedegreeas theywerein the Gulfstates.
Upper Rice Sugar Cotton
On theotherhand,manyof the enterprising
South Coast Parishes Belt
men who had acquiredplantationsin the
30.6
33.8
34.0
33.8
age
Average
fertilecottonand sugarstatesof the South- Percentmarried
46
57
67
66
westhad not yet madetheirfortunes.Con- Percentowning
44
40
66
sequently,intensepressurewas broughtto personalproperty 56
in thoseareasto produce 30PrivateDiaryof EdmundRuffin AgriculturalSurbearuponoverseers
veyor in South Carolina,March22, 1843, in Edmund
largestaplecropJs.
Papersand Books.
in the Ruffin
The overseerof a cottonplantation
ed., The Sosth CarolinaRice
31 JamesHaroldEasterby,
LowerSouthwasgivenoneyear if he were Plantation vs Revealed in the P«cpersof Robert F. W.
(Chicago:Universityof ChicagoPress,1945), pp.
lucky in orderto provehisability.If he did Allston
25-26, 278.
notharvesta bountifulcropduringhisinitial 32 PeterWilsonHairstonPapers.
Plantyearof service,he waslikelyto findhimself 33GarlandD. Harmon,"GeorgiaandiMississippi
The So>thern Cultzaator,XIV (April, 1856), 111.
lookingfora newpositionthefollowingyear. ing,"
Law Olmsted,iq Journey the Bact Coan34 Frederick
GeorgiaoverseerGarlandD. Harmon,as- try (New York:MasonBrothers,1860), p. 61. Italicsin
betweenplantingmeth- Orlglnal.
sayinga comparison
35MaunselWhite to JamesN. Bracewell,October4
aftermoving 1847,
ods in GeorgiaandMississippi
in MaunselWhitePapersand Books,the Southern
to the latterstatein 1856,concludedreluc- HistoricalCollection,Universityof NorthCarolina.
t'n
.
.
.
20
AGRICULTURALHISTORY
managerial
system.It was the planterwho
No greatertestimonyto the utilityof the
refusedto payjustandadequate
wages,who overseersystemcouldbe offeredthan that
failedto accordhis overseerthe respectto contained
in a letterof November,
1861,from
whichhis responsible
plosition
entitledhim, a SouthCarolinariceplanter,JamesB. Heywho constantlyand capriciouslychanged ward,to the-Confederate
militaryauthorities
managers,who persistedin the practiceof in his district.Protesting
against"thewithhiringill-qualified
operatives
merelybecause drawalof the Overseers
fromthis neighborthey could be securedfor lowerrates,and hood,"Heywardwarnedthat,if suchaction
who contributed
to the low moraleof the weretaken,"notonlyindividual
interests
but
overseergroupby his irresponsible
criticism. the wholecommunitywill sufferevil conseproprietor
furDespitehis deficiencies,
the overseerre- quences."TheSouthCarolina
ther assertedthat civil controlof the slave
maineda keyfigurein the plantation-slavery
regimeuntiltheendof theantebellum
period. populationwas preferableto militarycon"theOverseersysHe was,in fact,an indispensable
agentin the trol,and he characterized
commercial
agricultural
systemwhichflour- tem as the bestcivil policesystemthatcan
ishedin the Old South.The over-allsuccess beinvented."36
of the overseer
systemis conclusively
demon- In the finalanalysis,the conclusion
seems
stratedby the followingdevelopments:
(1) warranted
that,withinthelimitations
imposed
the consolidation
andexpansion
of the plan- bytheirbackground
andby thevastresponsitationslaveryorganization
duringthedecades bilitieswith whichthey wereburdened,
the
immediatelyprecedingthe Civil War; (2) majorityof southernoverseersperformed
the retentiondespitefrequentcomplaints,
of theirdutieswith commendable
energy,efiitheoverseer
systemby theoverwhelming
ma- ciency,andcompetence.
jorityof those planterswhose agricultural
unitsweresuSiciently
largeto justifytheem- 36Letterof James B. Heyward, November 12, 1861, in
ployment
of suchanagent;and(3) thestorm Heyward-FergusonPapers and Books, the Southern Hisof planterprotestswhichgreetedthe efforts torical Collection, University of North Carolina; see also
Avery to Major General Richard Taylor, June 2,
of Confederate
authorities
to draftoverseers Dudley
1864, in Avery Family Papers, the Southern Historical
into militaryserviceduringthe CivilWar. Collection, University of North Carolina.
MERITSOF GOODAND POORSOIL
As to the comparative
valueof soil, it has been justlyremarked,
that too much can
hardlybe paidfor goodsoil,andthatevena low rentwill not makea poorone profitable.
The labourof cultivating
a richanda poorsoil is nearlythe same;whilethe latterrequires
moremanure,andconsequently
is moreexpensive.Poorsoils,at the sametime mayhave
sucha commandof lastingmanures,as lime or marl,or evenof tempXorary
sorts,like seaweed,or the refuseof fish,as mayrenderthemprofitable
to cultivate.It is a wise maxim
in husbandry,
thatthesoil,likethecattlebywhichit is cultivated,
shouldalwaysbekeptupin
goodcondition,
andneversufferedto fallbelowtheworkit maybe expectedto perform.
Loudon's Encyclopedia of 24griculture
(London,1831)