THE ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE OF
HENRY DAVID THOREAU
H e n r i G i l b e r t Garand
B.A.Hons
., Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y ,
1969
A THESIS SUBMITTED I N PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF ARTS
i n the department
of
English
@
HENRI GILBERT
GARAND,
1970
SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY
November, 1 9 7 0
A P P R O V A L
Name:
Henri G. Garand
Degree: Master of Arts
Title of Thesis: The Ecological Perspective of Henry Thoreau
Examining Committee:
Chairman: Professor G.M. Newman
A.
(S,A. Black)
Senior Supervisor
CR. Blaser)
Examining Committee
.-
-
-,
&. ~urnbLl1)
Examining Committee
'
-
--
',
(ljd Sylvester)
External Examiner
Associate Professor
Department of English
University of British Columbia
Vancouver, B.C.
Date Approved:
5% [&-A&
ABSTRACT
T h i s t h e s i s traces t h e growth o f Thoreau's e c o l o g i c a l
p e r s p e c t i v e from t h e e a r l y 18401s, when Thoreau d i l u t e s
h i s ecology w i t h h i s penchant f o r s y m b o l i z a t i o n and
p h i l o s o p h i c a l m e d i t a t i o n , t o t h e e a r l y 1 8 6 0 1 s , when he
produces sound, i f elementary, e c o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s .
Dealing
o n l y w i t h t h o s e w r i t i n g s Thoreau p r e p a r e d f o r p u b l i c a t i o n ,
and n o t h i s J o u r n a l , t h e t h e s i s i d e n t i f i e s t h r e e phases i n
Thoreau"
l i t e r a r y career.
I n t h e 1 8 4 0 m s , i n f l u e n c e d by t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l concepts
of o r g a n i c u n i t y and i d e a l i s m , Thoreau o f t e n makes s i m p l e
e c o l o g i c o b s e r v a t i o n s , s u c h as n o t i n g food c h a i n s , i n h i s
e s s a y s , b u t he undercuts t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e by t r a n s forming
them immediately i n t o p h i l o s o p h i c and l i t e r a r y symbols,
He
is i n t e n t upon making n a t u r a l f a c t s flower i n t o s p i r i t u a l
truths.
T h i s aim and h i s method are e v i d e n t i n "The N a t u r a l
H i s t o r y o f Massachusetts, " "A Walk t o Wachusett,
"A Winter
-
---Week on the Concord and Merrimack R i v e r s .
Walk, " and f i n a l l y A
Only Walden, a p r o d u c t o f b o t h t h e 1 8 4 0 ' s and ' 5 0 1 s ,
a c h i e v e s a b a l a n c e , a s y n t h e s i s of v i s i o n , between Thoreau's
e c o l o g i c a l and i d e a l i s t i c p e r s p e c t i v e s ,
I n Walden Thoreau
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y g i v e s a l i t e r a l account o f man's r e l a t i o n t o
n a t u r e and a symbolic account of t h e means of s p i r i t u a l renewal.
Without s l i g h t i n g e i t h e r s u b j e c t , t h e book is a t once a s t u d y
o f b o t h human ecology and t r a n s c e n d e n t a l r e g e n e r a t i o n .
iii
Most o f Thoreau's o t h e r w r i t i n g s i n t h e 1 8 5 0 8 s ,
however, r e f l e c t e x c l u s i v e l y h i s i n c r e a s i n g a b s o r p t i o n
i n t h e world o f n a t u r e ,
Cape Cod, "Chesuncook, " "Wild
Apples," and u l t i m a t e l y "The Succession of F o r e s t Trees8'
e v i d e n c e h i s a p p l i c a t i o n o f an e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e t o
a p a r t i c u l a r p l a c e , organism, o r n a t u r a l p r o c e s s ,
O c c a s i o n a l l y he l a p s e s , as w i t h "Autumnal T i n t s , " i n t o
h i s tendency f o r symbolization, b u t mostly t h e s e w r i t i n g s
c o n s i s t e n t l y f o c u s upon the r e l a t i o n s h i p
or' urg&lisiii
( e s p e c i a l l y man) and environment.
While n o t m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t Thoreau is p r e e m i n e n t l y a n
e c o l o g i s t , t h i s t h e s i s does i n s i s t t h a t he l o o k s a t n a t u r e
a s a n i n t r i c a t e l y i n t e r r e l a t e d system and t h a t such a n
e c o l o g i c a l viewpoint forms t h e s u b s t a n c e of h i s l a t e r works,
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
PAGE
INTRODUCTION: THE ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE ,
, ,
.,.,,
11. WALDEN: SYNTHESIS OF VISION . . , , . , , . , , , .
111, ECOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS. . . . . . . ,
,. , . . . .
CONCLUSION: ECOLOGY AND THOREAU
.., . .,
BIBLIOGRAPHY . , , . , , , , . . . .
. ...
I , THE PHILOSOPHIC VEIN
.,,.,,,,.
.,.
a
,
a
1
9
35
cn
J Z
91
95
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Someone once s a i d t h a t s c h o l a r l y d e b t s a r e t h e e a s i e s t
t o make and t h e most p l e a s a n t t o repay.
C e r t a i n l y I could
n o t have w r i t t e n the p r e s e n t s t u d y w i t h o u t a s s i s t a n c e , and
I now wish t o acknowledge my d e b t s , i f n o t r e p a y them.
I
am e s p e c i a l l y o b l i g a t e d t o D r . S. A. Black, my s u p e r v i s o r ,
t?k?c chs~~elet!
my iaeqs snd
pnprF;
hilt w h o ~ m d e r s t o o dthat,
once s e t on t h e r i g h t c o u r s e , I had t o f i n d m y own way.
To D r . A. L. Turnbull, f o r v e r i f y i n g my i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f
Thoreau ' s e c o l o g i c a l s t a t e m e n t s , t o P r o f e s s o r R, Blaser,
f o r i n s p e c t i n g my d i s c u s s i o n o f t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s m and f o r
h i s encouragement, and t o M i s s C l a i r e E b e r l e , f o r c o - o r d i n a t i n g
t h e a t times t e d i o u s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a s p e c t o f t h e s i s
p r o d u c t i o n , I a m a l s o g r e a t l y indebted.
L a s t l y , I would
l i k e t o thank my t y p i s t , M r s . H, Shamanski, f o r conscient i o u s l y p r e p a r i n g t h e formal copy of my t h e s i s ,
And, t o
observe academic custom, I must add t h a t I a l o n e a m
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r any f a u l t s remaining i n t h i s work.
.
,
Henri G i l b e r t Garand
I n t r o d u c t i o n : The E c o l o g i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e
Ecology h a s r e c e n t l y become f a s h i o n a b l e , s o any new
l i t e r a r y s t u d y i n v o l v i n g t h e s u b j e c t is r i g h t l y s u s p e c t ,
But t h e p r e s e n t t h e s i s h a s a f i r m e r basis t h a n f a s h i o n a b l e ness.
Nearly t h i r t y y e a r s ago, Edward Deevey, a b i o l o g i s t ,
f i r s t p r e s e n t e d t h e argument t h a t many of Henry David
Thoreau's o b s e r v a t i o n s of n a t u r e f e l l w i t h i n t h e realm of
what is c a l l e d ecology.'
The r e s u l t s o f t h i s l i n e o f thought
w e r e s e v e r a l a r t i c l e s and an unpublished t h e s i s s e e k i n g t o
assess t h e l e v e l of Thoreau's e c o l o g i c a l awareness
.*
All
t h e s e e a r l i e r s t u d i e s were s c i e n t i f i c a l l y o r i e n t e d : t h e y
s o u g h t t o prove t h a t i f Thoreau w a s a s c i e n t i s t of any kind
he was an e c o l o g i s t : they d i d n o t c o n s i d e r ecology i n r e l a t i o n
t o Thoreau's w r i t i n g e x c e p t t o observe that it w a s c o n t r a dictory t o h i s poetic strivings.
Because ecology is n o t only
a s c i e n c e b u t a l s o a mode of p e r c e p t i o n , however, Thoreau's
own e c o l o g i c a l p e r c e p t i v i t y a f f e c t s h i s l i t e r a r y t r e a t m e n t
l ~ d w a r dS. Deevey, "A Re-examination o f Thoreau 's Walden,
Q u a r t e r l y Review o f Biology, 1 7 (1942), 1-11.
"
2~aymondAdarns , "Thoreau ' s Science, " S c i e n t i f i c Monthll,
60 (1945). 379-82: Lee Marten Nash, "Ecology i n t h e W r i t i n g s
o f Henry David Thoreau, " M.A. T h e s i s Univ. o f washington'
1951: Kathryn Whitford, "Thoreau and t h e Woodlots o f Concord, *
New Enqland Q u a r t e r l y , 23 (1950), 291-306; P h i l i p and Kathryn
Whitford, "Thoreau : Pioneer E c o l o g i s t and C o n s e r v a t i o n i s t , "
S c i e n t i f i c Monthly, 73 (1951), r p t . i n Walter Harding, ed.,
C r i t i c i s m , ( D a l l a s : Southern Methodist
Thoreau : A
Univ. Press
-
of nature,
H i s e c o l o g i c o b s e r v a t i o n s grw b o t h q u a n t i t a -
t i v e l y , a s o t h e r c r i t i c s have n o t e d , and q u a l i t a t i v e l y .
From i n d i v i d u a l e c o l o g i c o b s e r v a t i o n s , h i s c h i e f i n t e r e s t
in which is a s a b a s i s f o r t r a n s c e n d e n t a l correspondences,
-
Thoreau moves t o complete books, l i k e Walden and Cape Cod,
informed by a n e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e .
But what c o n s t i t u t e s an e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e ?
Eugene Odum d e f i n e s t h e s c i e n c e o f ecology as " t h e s t u d y o f
t h e s t r u c t u r e and f u n c t i o n o f n a t u r e ,
'13
Thoreau ' s approach
t o n a t u r e , however, i s less d e l i b e r a t e and profound t h a n
t h a t implied by Odumes d e f i n i t i o n .
Consequently, Paul
Shepard o f f e r s a more a p p r o p r i a t e , though less s c i e n t i f i c ,
explanation of w h a t an ecological perspective consists:
Ecology d e a l s w i t h organisms i n an environment
and w i t h p r o c e s s e s t h a t l i n k organism and
p l a c e . But ecology as such c a n n o t be s t u d i e d ,
o n l y organisms, e a r t h , a i r , and s e a can be
s t u d i e d . I t is n o t a d i s c i p l i n e : there is no
'body of thought and t e c h n i q u e which frames an
ecology o f man, I t must be t h e r e f o r e a scope
or way o f s e e i n g , Such a p e r s p e c t i v e on t h e
human s i t u a t i o n is very o l d and has been a
p a r t o f philosophy f o r thousands o f y e a r s .4
-+
. ' ~ u ~ e n I?.
e and Howard T. Odum, Fundamentals o f Ecol
,
2nd. ed. ( P h i l a d e l p h i a and London: W. B. Saunders, 1959
his i s theb textbook upon which I have r e l i e d f o r - a
p. 4 .
b a s i c knowledge of ecology.
4 ~ a u lShepard, " I n t r o d u c t i o n : Ecology and Man--A V i e w point, " i n he Subversive Science : ~ s s a y sToward a n Ecol
o f Man, ed. Paul Shepard and Daniel ~ c ~ i n l m s E H
n o:z g t o n
M i f f l i n , l 9 6 9 ) , p. 1 (Shepard's i t a l i c s )
--
.
Such a n o u t l o o k comes i n c r e a s i n g l y t o d i s t i n g u i s h
Thoreauts nature writing,
Proceeding from t r a n s c e n d e n t a l
i n t u i t i o n s about t h e u n i t y o f n a t u r e , l a t e r sharpened by
h i s s c i e n t i f i c knowledge, Thoreau f a s h i o n s a p e r s p e c t i v e
o r way o f s e e i n g t h a t i n t e r r e l a t e s organisms and t h e i r
surroundings.
A s t h e y e a r s p a s s , h e becomes a c u t e l y conscious
sf r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n n a t u r e .
This e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e is
p r e s e n t i n many of Thoreau's p u b l i c w r i t i n g s ( t h o s e n a t u r e
e s s a y s and books t h a t w e r e d e l i v e r e d as l e c t u r e s and/or
p u b l i s h e d d u r i n g h i s lifetime) as w e l l a s i n h i s J o u r n a l ,
I n the l a t t e r , perhaps, Thoreau approaches n e a r e s t t o t h e
s c i e n c e o f ecology,
He r e p e a t e d l y n o t e s p l a n t 3nd animal
h a b i t a t s , food r e l a t i o n s h i p s , environmental f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g
p l a n t growth, means o f seed d i s t r i b u t i o n and f o r e s t s u c c e s s i o n ,
and man's abuse o f n a t u r e
Sometimes h e even u s e s an
o b j e c t i v e method t o s t u d y a n e c o l o g i c a l q u e s t i o n , much as
a modern e c o l o g i s t would.
For i n s t a n c e , he determines the
t h e d e n s i t y o f t h e clam p o p u l a t i o n i n F a i r Haven Bay i n o r d e r
t o e s t i m a t e t h e a v a i l a b l e food s u p p l y f o r m u s k r a t s .
1n
Thoreau's p u b l i c w r i t i n g s (upon which the p r e s e n t s t u d y w i l l
f o c u s ) , however, t h e q u a l i t y o f h i s s e p a r a t e e c o l o g i c
~,
5
Nash, pp. 12-65, g i v e s a thorough d i s c u s s i o n o f T h o r e a u t s
p l a n t and animal ecology, b o t h i t s scope and s c i e n t i f i c
standard
.
%enry D. Thoreau, The J o u r n a l , ed. Bradford Torrey and
F r a n c i s A l l e n (New York and Boston: Houghton M i f f l i n , 1905),
I V , 178.
p e r c e p t i o n s is less s i g n i f i c a n t than h i s o v e r a l l way o f
looking a t nature.
Pervading h i s l a t e r works is a n a b i d i n g
s e n s e of t h e w e b o f l i f e , o f t h e l i n k s and s t r e s s e s between
organisms and environment.
While Laurence S t a p l e t o n i n t e n d s
a meaning o f p e r c e p t u a l r e l a t i o n , h i s words can w e l l d e s c r i b e
Thoreau's e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e : h i s "business w a s w i t h
relatedness:
of l i c h e n t o rock, d i s t i n t e g r a t e d rock t o s o i l ,
s o i l t o tree, tree t o sky, and h i m s e l f , a man, t o e a c h o f
t h e s e i n each phase o f change, ,I 7
The s u b j e c t o f t h i s t h e s i s , t h e n , is t h e development and
t h e r e s u l t s o f an e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e i n Thoreau's p u b l i c
writings.
I t w i l l c o n s i s t less of e v a l u a t i n g t h e l e v e l o f
h i s e c o l o g i c understanding t h a n o f p r o b i n g t h e l i t e r a r y
e f f e c t of h i s p e r s p e c t i v e .
Interestingly, the s u b j e c t involves
n o t o n l y Thoreau's s c i e n c e b u t a l s o h i s t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s m ,
During t h e l a t e 1 8 3 0 ' s and e a r l y 1 8 4 0 ' s Thoreau imbibed
t h e philosophy o f t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s m from h i s mentor, Emerson. 8
Understandably, t h e n , i n i t s t r e a t m e n t o f n a t u r e Thoreau 's
f i r s t w r i t i n g s a r e dominated by a - tendency t o Emersonian
speculation.
Only w i t h t h e c o o l i n g o f t h e i r f r i e n d s h i p d i d
Thoreau a s s e r t h i s own less a b s t r a c t , e c o l o g i c a l approach t o
.
7
Laurence S t a p l e t o n , " I n t r o d u c t i o n , " i n H. D. Thoreau,
A W r i t e r ' s J o u r n a l , e d , L. S t a p l e t o n (London: Heineman, 1961),
p. x v i .
,
-
h alter
Harding, The Days o f Henry Thoreau (New York :
A l f r e d Knopf, 1965), pp. 61-63,
Though I have c o n s u l t e d o t h e r
b i o g r a p h i e s , Harding ' s is my primary s o u r c e f o r b i o g r a p h i c a l
facts.
nature
Yet, paradoxically, Thoreau's ecology developed
o u t o f , a s w e l l a s was impeded by, h i s transcendentalism,
A s Emerson theorized i n Nature (1836)
, transcendentalism
s t r e s s e d both t h e u n i t y o f n a t u r e and an i d e a l i s t i c view
of t h e world.
The f i r s t idea, t h a t o f o r g a n i c u n i t y , was
amenable t o an e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e because i t encouraged
t h e s y s t e m a t i c s e a r c h f o r r e l a t i o n s h i p s among animals, p l a n t s ,
and t h e i r environment, r a t h e r than t h e random c o l l e c t i o n of
fragmentary d a t a about n a t u r a l h i s t o r y ,
Transcendental
idealism, however, w i t h i t s i n s i s t e n c e upon a symbolic view
o f n a t u r e , undermined t h e b a s i c materialism of a n y c o n s i s t e n t
b i o l o g i c a l view of t h e world.
Leo S t o l l e r e x p l a i n s Thoreau's
dilemma accordingly:
I t w a s a c h a r a c t e r i st i c of transcendental i s m ,
and e s p e c i a l l y of young Thoreau4s v a r i e t y , t h a t
it attempted t o c l o s e t h e gap between t h e n a t u r e
u s u a l l y sought through mysticism and t h e n a t u r e
u s u a l l y s t u d i e d by s c i e n c e , The d o c t r i n e o f
correspondence, which h e l d t h a t t h e p h y s i c a l and
b i o l o g i c a l f a c t s of n a t u r e w e r e symbols of t h e
s p i r i t u a l and moral f a c t s of d e i t y , was an
expression of t h e e s s e n t i a l u n i t y of t h e
t r a n s c e n d e n t a l cosmos, A l l was oversoul i n
varying forms, A l l moved i n accordance w i t h
i d e n t i c a l laws, expressed i n p a r a l l e l i n t h e
moral and p h y s i c a l o r d e r s , , ,
The view of n a t u r e a s mere symbol d i d n o t ,
however, wholly s a t i s f y Thoreau, who wished, i n
t h e very glimpsing of t h e s i r i t u a l , t o r e t a i n
firm hold on t h e m a t e r i a l .
.
..
18
9 ~ o t hStapleton, p. x v i - x v i i , and George Whicher, Walden
R e v i s i t e d , a Centennial Tribute t o Henry David Thoreau (Chicago :
Packard, 19y5), p. 78, p o i n t o u t Thoreau's more c o n c r e t e t r e a t ment of n a t u r e and h i s l e s s frequent leaping from n a t u r a l
o b j e c t s t o immediate philosophic observation.
I U
Leo S t o l l e r , A f t e r Walden: Thoreau's Chanqing V i e w s on
Economic Man (Stanford, C a l i f . : Stanford Univ. Press, 1 9 5 n ,
pp, 40-41.
-
Thus Thoreau w a s t o r n between the twin impulses toward
ecology and toward idealism,
This c o n f l i c t o f i n t e r e s t
a p p e a r s p r e v a l e n t l y i n "The N a t u r a l H i s t o r y o f Massachusetts,"
----
"A Walk t o Wachusett," "A Winter Walk," and A Week on t h e
and Merrimack R i v e r s ,
Concord I n t h e 1850's t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s m diminishes a s a
developing (and/or re t a r d i n g ) f o r c e on Thoreau ' s e c o l o g i c a l
p e r s p e c t i v e a s h i s i n t e r e s t i n s c i e n c e grows,
Despite
l a m e n t a t i o n s about h i s i n c r e a s i n g divorcement from p o e t r y
and philosophy, d u r i n g t h e s e y e a r s he became more and more
a field naturalist.
D i s t r u s t f u l o f t h e s c i e n c e of h i s own
day f o r amassing a i m l e s s facts, Thoreau sought f u n c t i o n a l
relationships i n nature,
The r e s u l t s a r e f a i r l y impressive,
as Mary Sherwood p o i n t s o u t i n d i s c u s s i n g Thoreau's n a t u r e
s t u d i e s a s w e l l as t h e l i m i t a t i o n s under which he worked:
Today he is considered t h e f a t h e r o f limnology
for h i s d e t a i l e d n o t e s on stream and l a k e
b i o l o g y and p h y s i c s , H e is recognized a s the
first t o work o u t p l a n t succession through h i s
s t u d y of p i n e trees--a concept which p r e s e n t
day b o t a n i s t s , e c o l o g i s t s and w i l d l i f e
managers could n o t do without.
Thoreau
i s considered our f i r s t r e a l e c o l o g i s t , and
he was a l s o one of t h e first, i f n o t t h e f i r s t ,
p h e n o l o g i s t i n t h e country, None of these
s c i e n c e s , e x c e p t botany, was i n e x i s t e n c e
then; he helped l a y t h e i r foundations, H e was
such a meticulous worker t h a t h i s n o t e s have
considerable value d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t we
now c o n s i d e r s e v e r a l machines and gadgets
e s s e n t i a l f o r a c c u r a t e o b s e r v a t i o n , I n many
.,.
c a s e s h i s d a t a a r e a l l t h a t w e have f o r h i s
t i m e , s o w e a r e f o r t u n a t e i n t h e q u a l i t y of
h i s work,ll
Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , Thoreau' s a c u t e consciousness and broadened
knowledge of fundamental ecolog i c r e l a t i o n s , i n p a r t i c u l a r
food chains and environmental stresses on organisms, a r e
apparent i n Cape Cod, "Chesuncook, " "Wild Apples, " and,
n a t u r a l l y , "The Succession of F o r e s t Trees."
snow Thoreau's s ~ i e i i t f f i r% ~ t as t h e cxpa+inq
ecological perspective.
A l l t h e s e works
fcce
QE
his
I n t h e s e e s s a y s and books Thoreau
e x p l o r e s t h e complexity of n a t u r e and y e t g i v e s thematic u n i t y
t o h i s observations by focusing on t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of organisms
and environment.
And he is e i t h e r n o t a t a l l o r b u t p e r i p h e r a l l y
concerned w i t h drawing any s p i r i t u a l correspondences o u t of
h i s ecologic perceptions,
11
&%ary P. Sherwood, "Fanny Eckstorm's Bias, " i n Thoreau
i n Our Season, e d , John H. Hicks (Univ, of Massachusetts Press,
1966), p. 64,
Although Thoreau undoubtedly pioneered i n many f i e l d s o f
biology, a puzzle e x i s t s i n regard t o h i s f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h
ecology, I n a l e t t e r , dated Jan. 1, 1858, t o h i s cousin George
Thatcher. Thoreau r e f e r s t o " a t t e n d i n q t o Botany, Ecology, &c, "
(The ~ o r r e sondence of Henry David ~ h o r e a u ,ed .- alter g r d i n g
a n d C b Y o r k : New York Univ. Press, 1958I). p. 502,)
Paul Oehser has pointed out, hawever, t h a t Thoreau's use of
t h e t e r m "ecology" a n t e d a t e s its supposed coining by E r n s t
Haeckel i n 1866 (Paul Oehser, "The Word 'Ecology,'" Science,
17 A p r i l 1959, p , 992,). Since t h e c o n t e x t o f Thoreau's l e t t e r
does n o t suggest he coined t h e word, when was it coined? d i d
t h e word have t h e same meaning a s a t p r e s e n t ? and how w e l l
developed was t h e system of ideas it r e p r e s e n t e d ? A s a l l t h e s e
q u e s t i o n s p r e s e n t l y a r e unanswerable, I have n o t taken i n t o
account t h e formative e f f e c t of any e s t a b l i s h e d e c o l o g i c a l
thought upon Thoreau's own p e r s p e c t i v e . I n s t e a d , I have t r i e d
t o e x p l a i n Thoreau's developing ecology w i t h t h e b i o g r a p h i c a l
facts a t hand,
-
Indeed, only i n Walden does Thoreau s u c c e s s f u l l y
s y n t h e s i z e h i s e c o l o g i c and t r a n s c e n d e n t a l v i s i o n s ,
Perhaps
because Walden o r i g i n a t e d i n t h e p e r i o d 1845-47, when Thoreau
w a s s t i l l immersed i n t h e a u r a of transcendentalism, and y e t
was only completed i n 1854, by which t i m e he was w e l l
into
h i s s c i e n t i f i c s t u d i e s , t h e book manages t o balance t h e s e two
ways of looking a t n a t u r e , l2
The r e s u l t is a work t h a t
b r i l l i a n t l y couples t h e e c o l o g i c i n t r i c a c i e s of l i f e w i t h
t h e symbolic depth o f s p i r i t u a l meanings,
This, then, is Thoreau's e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , a way
of looking a t n a t u r e t h a t develops from cursory p e r c e p t i o n s
t o a c o n s i s t e n t view of organisms and t h e i r environment,
which pervades h i s l a t e r p u b l i c w r i t i n g s ,
The consequences
of i t s growth are a d e c l i n e i n Thoreau's symbolic tendencies
and a focusing upon e c o l o g i c s i t u a t i o n s ,
Whatever i t s
u l t i m a t e l i t e r a r y m e r i t , Thoreau's e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e
has l e f t a d i s t i n c t imprint on h i s w r i t i n g .
12cf. William W. Nichols, "Science and t h e A r t of Walden:
Experiment and S t r u c t u r e , Emerson Society Q u a r t e r l y , 50
(Supplement, 1968). pp. 77-84, who argues t h a t t h e idea of
experiment and t h e q u a l i t y of s c i e n t i f i c o b j e c t i v i t y a r e
s t r u c t u r a l p r i n c i p l e s i n Walden,
9
Chapter I--The
Philosophic Vein
Henry Thoreau's e a r l y w r i t i n g s about n a t u r e r e f l e c t
t h e divergence between h i s a t t r a c t i o n t o t h e m a t e r i a l world
and h i s penchant f o r t r a n s c e n d e n t a l philosophizing,
This
divergence, a s was p r e v i o u s l y s t a t e d , is rooted i n t r a n s cendentalism i t s e l f , with its simultaneous a f f i r m a t i o n o f
o r g a n i c u n i t y and preference f o r a symbolic view o f t h e
world,
The f i r s t a s p e c t f o s t e r e d Thoreau ' s e c o l o g i c a l
p e r s p e c t i v e ; the second f o s t e r e d h i s transforming e c o l o g i c
f a c t s i n t o symbolic ( o r s p i r i t u a l ) t r u t h s .
Thoreau's c o n f l i c t
of i n t e r e s t is r e a d i l y apparent i n the 1840's throughout h i s
nature writings.
Thoreau's first n a t u r e essay, "The Natural History of
-
Massachusetts," which appeared i n t h e D i a l i n J u l y , 1842,
shaws how pervasive is h i s p e r c e p t u a l con•’l i c t ,
Ostensibly
reviewing a series of r e p o r t s on the f l o r a and fauna o f t h e
s t a t e , t h e e s s a y i s a c t u a l l y b o t h a c e l e b r a t i o n of n a t u r e and
a n i n q u i r y i n t o man's p e r c e p t i o n of n a t u r e ,
The whole e s s a y
balances between t h e r e p o r t i n g o f n a t u r a l h i s t o r y d a t a and the
a t t e m p t t o f i n d transcendent meaning i n t h a t d a t a ,
Of t h e f a c t u a l material, a p a r t is e c o l o g i c a l ,
Thoreau
n o t e s some foods o f snowbirds--garden s e e d s , l of r i v e r ducks-l i l y . r o o t s and c r a n b e r r i e s .(V, 110). o f ospreys--fish
I
-
Henry David Thoreau, The Writinqs o f Henry David Thoreau,
ed. Bradford Torrey and Francis Allen (Boston and New York :
Houghton M i f f l i n , 1906). V, 109, H e r e a f t e r r e f e r e n c e s t o t h e
Writinqs w i l l be i d e n t i f i e d by volume and page number w i t h i n
t h e t e x t of my t h e s i s .
(V,
110) , of muskrats--"flags
and fresh-water mussels"
(v, l l 6 ) , and of skunks--turtle eggs (V, 124).
h a b i t a t s of nuthatches and chickadees--woodland
song sparrows--shrubbery
He notes the
(V,
lO8), of
and fence rows (V, 110), of b i t t e r n s - -
f e n s (V, E l l ) , and of muskrats--river
banks (V, 116).
He
n o t e s t h e e f f e c t of t h e transparency and c u r r e n t of t h e water
on t h e d i v e r s i t y and abundance of t h e animal s p e c i e s t h a t a
r i v e r supports: t h e Concord's " c u r r e n t being much more s l u g g i s h
and i t s water more muddy than t h e rest, it abounds more i n
f i s h and game of every kind" (V, 115).
With regard t o man
and n a t u r e , he n o t e s t h e importance of t h e common mussel i n
t h e I n d i a n D sd i e t (v, 129), t h e white man's e l i m i n a t i o n of
t h e more wild quadrupeds with t h e advance o f h i s s e t t l e m e n t
(V, 117), and, of course, t h e b e n e f i c i a l psychological e f f e c t
of communion w i t h n a t u r e (V, 105-106).
But a l l t h e s e observa-
t i o n s a r e made only i n passing, a s Thoreau surveys t h e i n s e c t s ,
b i r d s , mammals, f i s h e s , r e p t i l e s , amphibians, and p l a n t s of
Massachusetts,
Moreover, Thoreau 's observations throughout t h e
e s s a y a r e o f t e n j u s t a s e l e m e n t a r i l y morphological o r e t h o l o g i c a l a s they are e c o l o g i c ,
The n a t u r e w r i t i n g i n t h e e s s a y is
a compendium of t y p i c a l nineteenth-century n a t u r a l h i s t o r y ,
woodcraft and f i s h i n g l o r e , and n a t u r e a p p r e c i a t i o n ,
The t h r u s t of t h e essay, however, a s s e v e r a l examples w i l l
i l l u s t r a t e , is philosophical,
Thoreau may quote from t h e s t a t e
r e p o r t s t h a t Cape Cod i s a topographic b a r r i e r t o t h e d i s p e r s a l
of molluscs and confines many s p e c i e s t o e i t h e r t h e n o r t h o r
south of t h e Cape, b u t h i s i n t e r e s t i n t h i s e c o l o g i c a l
information is simply t h a t it " t e a c h e s u s t o p u t a new v a l u e
on time and space" (V, 1 2 9 ) - Thoreau's concern w i t h biology,
then, is c h i e f l y t h a t it can i l l u m i n a t e broad p h i l o s o p h i c a l
o r even e x p e r i e n t i a l i s s u e s ,
Indeed, he seems t o approach
s c i e n t i f i c q u e s t i o n s w i t h a p h i l o s o p h i c mind.
I n s t e a d of
s e a r c h i n g f o r an adequate e x p l a n a t i o n of mimicry i n n a t u r e ,
f o r example, Thoreau a t t r i b u t e s it t o some cosmic l a w o f
growth: "The same independence of law on matter is observable
i n many o t h e r i n s t a n c e s [he
h a s been d i s c u s s i n g t h e v i s u a l
s i m i l a r i t y o f ice c r y s t a l s t o f o l i a g d , a s i n t h e n a t u r a l
rhymes, when some animal form, c o l o r , o r odor has i t s counterp a r t i n some v e g e t a b l e " (V, 127).
C l e a r l y Thoreau's v e n e r a t i o n
o f n a t u r a l l a w is r e l a t e d t o Emerson's c o n t e n t i o n t h a t "A
r u l e o f one a r t , o r a law o f one o r g a n i z a t i o n , holds t r u e
throughout n a t u r e , "2
Eager t o f i n d such o r d e r i n n a t u r e ,
Thoreau t o o r e a d i l y accepts t r a n s c e n d e n t a l " e x p l a n a t i o n s " f o r
unusual n a t u r a l phenomena.
That Thoreau i s mainly i n t e r e s t e d i n o r d e r i n g h i s u n i v e r s e
is e v i d e n t from t h e conclusion t o "The Natural H i s t o r y o f
Massachusetts,"
Although h e h a s deluged t h e r e a d e r w i t h
miscellaneous b i o l o g i c a l d a t a , he now maintains t h a t such
.
~
measurements and d e s c r i p t i o n s a s t h e s t a t e r e p o r t s c o n t a i n
a r e v a l u a b l e n o t a s ends i n themselves b u t as t h e basis f o r
some s y n t h e s i s : "Let u s n o t u n d e r r a t e t h e v a l u e o f a f a c t ;
2
R, W, Emerson,
Complete Works, ed. Edward Waldo
Emerson ( ~ o s t o nand New York: Houghton M i f f l i n , l 9 0 3 ) , I , 44.
it w i l l one day flower i n a t r u t h " (V, 130).
Whether this
s y n t h e s i s o r " t r u t h " would be s c i e n t i f i c o r p h i l o s o p h i c a l ,
however, w a s Thoreau8s e t e r n a l dilemma:
it a l l depended on
whether h i s a t t i t u d e a t t h e t i m e was predominantly m a t e r i a l istic o r i d e a l i s t i c ,
I n "The Natural H i s t o r y of Massachusetts" Thoreau wants
t o combine both outlooks.
H e p r a i s e s s c i e n c e f o r its s t r i v i n g
a f t e r knowledge: "Science is always brave, f o r t o know is t o
know good" (V, 107)
.
However, he a l s o s t a t e s t h a t "Nature is
mythical and m y s t i c a l always
.
," (V,
125).
But c l e a r l y a
s c i e n t i f i c approach is i n a p p l i c a b l e f o r understanding somet h i n g
mythic and mystic.
Thoreau, then, seems t o be denying t h e
v a l i d i t y of a r a t i o n a l s t u d y o f n a t u r e , o r a t l e a s t h e is
maintaining t h a t c e r t a i n p r o p e r t i e s o f n a t u r e a r e i n a c c e s s i b l e
t o such study.
H i s p o s i t i o n is made somewhat c l e a r e r a t t h e
conclusion o f t h e essay:
Wisdom does n o t i n s p e c t , b u t behold. W e must look
a long t i m e before w e can see, Slow a r e t h e
beginnings of philosophy, H e h a s something demon3 ~ r a n t e dt h a t Thoreau was predisposed t o s n y t h e s i z e h i s
observations e i t h e r s c i e n t i f i c a l l y o r p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y , why
should h i s s c i e n t i f i c \ syntheses be e c o l o g i c a l ? An example
w i l l perhaps c l a r i f y t h e m a t t e r , Thoreau c o n s i s t e n t l y noted
what animals ate and how abundant c e r t a i n foods w e r e f o r them.
H i s i n t e r e s t was thus r u d i m e n t a r i l y e c o l o g i c a l i n t h a t he was
aware t h e s u r v i v a l of an animal population was dependent on
t h e e x t e n t of i t s food supply. H e d i d n o t s p e c u l a t e upon how
t h e food was d i g e s t e d o r how c e r t a i n foods a f f e c t e d animal
growth. By c o n f i n i n g himself u s u a l l y t o a macroscopic
i n v e s t i g a t i o n of l i v e specimens i n t h e wild, Thoreau v i r t u a l l y
had t o observe f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i m s h i p s between animals,
p l a n t s , and t h e i r environment i f h e was t o do anything more
than c o l l e c t i s o l a t e d d a t a about each s p e c i e s . I n o r d e r t o
s y n t h e s i z e h i s observations on any b u t a t r a n s c e n d e n t a l l e v e l ,
t h a t is, he had t o t h i n k e c o l o g i c a l l y .
-
iacal i n him, who can d i s c e r n a l a w o r couple
,
, The t r u e man of s c i e n c e w i l l
two facts.
know n a t u r e b e t t e r by h i s f i n e r o r g a n i z a t i o n ;
he w i l l s m e l l , taste, see, hear, f e e l , better
than o t h e r men, H i s w i l l be a deeper and f i n e r
experience, W e do n o t l e a r n by i n f e r e n c e and
deduction and t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of mathematics t o
philosophy, b u t by d i r e c t i n t e r c o u r s e and
sympathy. I t is w i t h s c i e n c e a s with e t h i c s , - w e cannot know t r u t h by contrivance and method;
t h e Baconian is as f a l s e a s any o t h e r , and w i t h
a l l the h e l p s of machinery and t h e a r t s , the
most s c i e n t i f i c w i l l s t i l l be t h e h e a l t h i e s t and
f r i e n d l i e s t ma
and possess a more p e r f e c t
I n d i a n wisdom."
(V, 131)
.
U l t i m a t e s y n t h e s i s and understanding o f n a t u r e , Thoreau t h u s
b e l i e v e s , is p o s s i b l e s o l e l y through i n t u i t i v e comprehension,
Yet somehow sensory, and t h u s m a t e r i a l , c o n t a c t w i t h n a t u r e
is t h e foundation f o r t h i s i n t u i t i v e comprehension,
By
s t r e s s i n g t h e n e c e s s i t y of p h y s i c a l l y experiencing n a t u r e
i n o r d e r t o a r r i v e a t "wisdom,
Thoreau attempts t o u n i t e h i s
materialistic and i d e a l i s t i c v i s i o n s .
H e wants t o see t h e
world a s a c t u a l i t y and symbol; he wants t h e c a p a b i l i t y t o
" d i s c e r n a law" i n n a t u r e and t o achieve psychological i n t e g r a t i o n with nature.
C e r t a i n l y he y e a r n s t o p e r c e i v e system i n
n a t u r e , and it is t h i s yearning t h a t d r i v e s him, on t h e
s c i e n t i f i c l e v e l , d e s p i t e h i s derogations of both i n d u c t i v e
and deductive reasoning, t o an e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e .
,
4 ~ y
"Indian wisdom" Thoreau may haye been r e f e r r i n t o
e i t h e r t h e Hindu o r t h e Amerind, I n h l s Journal f o r 1 40-41
(Consciousness & Concord, ed, Perry M i l l e r C ~ o s t o n
: Houghton
which t h i s passage o r i g i n a l l y
M i f f l i n , 1 9 5 a , p,'71),n
occurs, it follows s e v e r a l r e f e r e n c e s t o Bedouins, s o Thoreau
may have been i n an Eastern frame o f mind. I n any case,
Thoreau knew b o t h t h e Hindu and the American I n d i a n p r a c t i c e d
a n i n t u i t i v e mode of thought,
3
For the t i m e being, however, t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s m s o
s a t i s f i e d Thoreau t h a t he incorporated h i s e c o l o g i c a l i n s i g h t s
within his philosophizing,
"A Walk To Wachusett," f i r s t
published i n The Boston Miscellany i n January, 1843, is a
case i n p o i n t .
The e s s a y r e c o u n t s a three-day journey t o ,
a s c e n t o f , view from, and r e t u r n from, M t , Wachusett,
Its
t r a n s c e n d e n t a l burden is t h a t Thoreau and h i s companion are
r e v i t a l i z e d by t h e grand p r o s p e c t t h e y s e e from t h e t o p o f
Wachusett, and, as Sherman Paul s t a t e s , "Raving once had this
i n s p i r a t i o n , t h e plainsmen need n o t d e s p a i r ,
He
can
i n t h e view, i f n o t on t h e summit, o f t h e mountain.
'15
live
But
Thoreau ' s a p p l i c a t i o n o f the t r a n s c e n d e n t a l d o c t r i n e of
correspondence is what c h i e f l y i n t e r e s t s u s h e r e :
a t l e n g t h r e a l i z e t h e p l a c e mountains
occupy on t h e l a n d , and how t h e y came i n t o the
g e n e r a l scheme o f t h e universe. When first we
c l i m b their summits and observe t h e i r lesser
i r r e g u l a r i t i e s , w e do n o t g i v e c r e d i t t o the
comprehensive i n t e l l i g e n c e which shaped them;
b u t when a f t e r w a r d w e behold t h e i r o u t l i n e s i n
t h e horizon, w e c o n f e s s t h a t t h e hand which
moulded t h e i r o p p o s i t e s l o p e s , making one t o
b a l a n c e t h e o t h e r , worked round a deep c e n t r e ,
and w a s p r i v y t o the p l a n o f the u n i v e r s e ,
So is t h e l e a s t p a r t o f n a t u r e i n its b e a r i n g s
r e f e r r e d t o a l l space, These lesser mountain
ranges, a s w e l l a s t h e Alleghanies, r u n from
n o r t h e a s t t o southwest, and p a r a l l e l w i t h these
mountain streams a r e themore f l u e n t r i v e r s ,
answering t o t h e g e n e r a l d i r e c t i o n o f t h e c o a s t ,
the bank o f t h e g r e a t ocean stream i t s e l f .
Even the c l o u d s , w i t h t h e i r t h i n b a r s , f a l l
i n t o t h e same d i r e c t i o n by p r e f e r e n c e , and such
even is t h e course of t h e p r e v a i l i n g winds,
and t h e migration of men and b i r d s . A mountain
c h a i n determines many t h i n g s f o r t h e statesman and
W e could
herm man Paul, The Shores o f America (urbana, I l l . : Univ.
of I l l i n o i s Press, 1 9 5 8 ' ) ) 1 1 6 S ,
philosopher, The improvements of c i v i l i z a t i o n
r a t h e r creep along i t s s i d e s than c r o s s its
summit, How often i s it a b a r r i e r t o prejudice
and fanaticism! I n passing over these- heights
o f land, through t h e i r t h i n atmosphere, t h e
f o l l i e s of t h e p l a i n a r e r e f i n e d and p u r i f i e d ;
and as many species of p l a n t s do n o t s c a l e t h e i r
summits, s o many s p e c i e s of f o l l y , no doubt,
do n o t c r o s s the Alleghanies; it is only the
hardy mountain-plant t h a t creeps q u i t e over the
ridge, and descends i n t o t h e v a l l e y beyond, (V, 148)
Thoreau seems determined t o "discern a law" of t h e world and
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t o see harmony i n nature, e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e physiography of
t h e land.
He is e c o l o g i c a l l y c o r r e c t i n noting how mountains
a c t a s topographic b a r r i e r s t o t h e population d i s p e r s a l o f
both man and p l a n t s and i n noting t h a t t h e growth of p l a n t
s p e c i e s is r e l a t e d t o a l t i t u d e .
The impetus t o observe such
i n t e r r e l a t i o n s i n nature is of course transcendental,
The
passage thus shows the l e v e l of ecological p e r c e p t i v i t y o f
which Thoreau is capable w i t h such a stimulus, b u t it a l s o
shows how transcendentalism u l t i m a t e l y governs Thoreau ' s
thinking,
The ecologic information is f i n a l l y used j u s t a s an
appropriate example f o r i l l u s t r a t i n g h i s philosophical comments
on human character and s o c i e t y .
Under t h e pressure of t h e
d o c t r i n e of correspondence Thoreau makes each n a t u r a l f a c t
y i e l d its s p i r i t u a l counterpart,
H i s ecological perspective
a r i s e s from and p e r i s h e s by h i s overriding transcendental i s m .
A
less e f f e c t i v e example o f t h i s , perhaps, is t h e
d e s c r i p t i o n o f the woodland l a k e i n "A Winter Walk, * Thoreau's
t h i r d n a t u r e essay, o r i g i n a l l y published i n t h e October, 1843,
I n summer it is the e a r t h ' s l i q u i d eye; a mirror
i n t h e b r e a s t of n a t u r e , The s i n s of t h e wood
are washed o u t i n it, See how t h e woods form an
amphitheatre about it, and it is an arena f o r a l l
the g e n i a l n e s s o f n a t u r e , A l l t h e trees d i r e c t
t h e t r a v e l l e r t o i t s b r i n k , a l l p a t h s seek it out,
b i r d s f l y t o it, uuadrupeds f l e e t o it, and t h e
very ground i n c l i n e s toward it. I t is n a t u r e ' s
saloon, where she has s a t down t o h e r t o i l e t .
Consider h e r s i l e n t economy and t i d i n e s s ; h w t h e
sun comes w i t h h i s evaporation t o sweep t h e d u s t
from i t s s u r f a c e each morning, and a f r e s h s u r f a c e
is c o n s t a n t l y welling up; and annually, after
whatever i m p u r i t i e s have accumulated h e r e i n , its
l i q u i d transparency appears a g a i n i n ' t h e s p r i n g ,
(V, 175)
Thoreau's ecology i n t h e passage is o f course n e g l i g i b l e as
science.
Any b i o l o g i c a l dependence t h a t draws man and o t h e r
animals to the iakb is subordinated to the spirituai need that
the lake s a t i s f i e s .
The woodland lake, obviously Walden Pond,
is mare important t o Thoreau as a p l a c e of p u r i f i c a t i o n than
a s a w a t e r hole.
But again it should be noted t h a t h i s
t r a n s c e n d e n t a l v i s i o n s t i l l prompts him t o relate the l a k e t o
t h e b i r d s and mammals and t h e v e r y topography of t h e l a n d ,
I t may be unimpressive, even bad science, b u t t h e r e s u l t is,
n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e expression of an e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e ,
Thoreau does n o t view the l a k e i n i s o l a t i o n o r merely draw a
human r e l a t i o n t o it:
p a r t o f nature--a
he sees it as an i n t e g r a l , f u n c t i o n i n g
source o f water f o r the c r e a t u r e s of t h e
f o r e s t and a p a r t i c i p a n t i n t h e water c y c l e .
The same regard f o r r e l a t e d n e s s marks s e v e r a l o t h e r
comments about man and n a t u r e i n t h e e s s a y ,
Observing a
d e s e r t e d h u t , Thoreau n o t e s t h a t this human i n t r u s i o n i n t o
t h e woods has caused an invasion o f new b i r d s and p l a n t s :
"Singing b i r d s and flowers have perchance begun t o appear
here, f o r flowers a s w e l l a s weeds f o l l o w i n t h e f o o t s t e p s
o f man* (V, 172)- Thoreau is aware, t h e n , t h a t even a
s l i g h t d i s t u r b a n c e by man i n d i r e c t l y a f f e c t s t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n
o f animal and p l a n t s p e c i e s and t h e v e r y composition o f t h e
f o r e s t community,
Reciprocally, Thoreau w r i t e s o f man's
practical relation t o the forest:
W e borrow from t h e f o r e s t t h e boards which
s h e l t e r and t h e s t i c k s which warm u s , How
important is t h e i r evergreen t o t h e w i n t e r ,
t h a t p o r t i o n of t h e summer which does n o t
fade, t h e permanent y e a r , t h e unwithered g r a s s !
, What would human l i f e be w i t h o u t f o r e s t s ,
t h o s e n a t u r a l c i t i e s ? (V, 169)
..
But once a g a i n , a s t h e s e n s e o f t h e passage shows, and a s
Sherman Paul h a s pointed o u t , 6 Thoreau s e e k s t o remind men
n o t o n l y o f t h e i r p h y s i c a l b u t a l s o t h e i r s p i r i t u a l dependence
on nature..
Typically, Thoreau u s e s a m a t e r i a l i s t i c v e h i c l e ,
such a s an e c o l o g i c a l fact, t o convey h i s t r a n s c e n d e n t a l
message,
Such is the p r o c e s s by which he makes f a c t flower
transcendentally into truth.
I f Thoreau is o c c a s i o n a l l y a b l e t o s y n t h e s i z e h i s
o b s e r v a t i o n s b o t h e c o l o g i c a l l y and t r a n s c e n d e n t a l l y i n h i s
e a r l y n a t u r e e s s a y s , however, t h e n c e r t a i n l y Walden, t h e
p r o d u c t o f h i s two-year s o j o u r n i n t h e woods, i s h i s supreme
combination o f both forms o f s y n t h e s i s .
But Walden w i l l be
d i s c u s s e d i n a s e p a r a t e c h a p t e r , f o r much o f i t s f a c t u a l
c o n t e n t comes n o t from Thoreau's o b s e r v a t i o n s i n t h e p e r i o d
from 1845 t o 1847 b u t from t h e e a r l y 1850's.
Thus, i f Walden
reflects Thoreau 's i n i t i a l p a s s i o n for t r a n s c e n d e n t a l t r u t h ,
it a l s o reflects h i s s t e a d i l y i n c r e a s e d a b s o r p t i o n i n
s c i e n t i f i c facts,
For t h e t i m e being, it is t h e effects of Thoreau's s t a y
a t t h e Pond upon h i m t h a t are of c h i e f i n t e r e s t .
Before going
t o Walden, Thoreau went t o n a t u r e p r i m a r i l y t o d i s c e r n t h e
ideal, much as Emerson d i d .
A f t e r t h e Walden y e a r s , Thoreau
had a t least as much i n t e r e s t i n n a t u r e f o r its own s a k e as
i n its symbolic a s p e c t .
H i s l i f e a t t h e Pond was a . f o r m a t i v e
e x p e r i e n c e because it a l s o opened up a new theme f o r h i s
writing--how
man l i v e s i n n a t u r e .
" L i f e i n t h e Woods,
A s t h e s u b t i t l e o f Walden,
'' i n d i c a t e s , Thoreau became concerned w i t h
man's fundamental r e l a t i o n s h i p t o n a t u r e ,
C e r t a i n l y he had
w r i t t e n o f man's dependence on t h e f o r e s t p r e v i o u s l y , and i n
b o t h "A N a t u r a l H i s t o r y o f M a s s a c h u s e t t s ~and "A Winter Walkw
he had applauded t h e f i s h e r m a n ' s i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h
nature.
But Thoreau w a s t h e n i n t e r e s t e d mainly i n man's
p s y c h o l o g i c a l o r s p i r i t u a l communion w i t h t h e n a t u r a l world.
I n "A Winter Walk," f o r example, he w r i t e s o f t h e ice f i s h e r man :
H e does n o t make t h e s c e n e r y less w i l d , more than
t h e jays and muskrats, b u t s t a n d s t h e r e as a p a r t
o f it, as t h e n a t i v e s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e
. ..
voyages o f e a r l y n a v i g a t o r s
,
H e belongs
t o t h e n a t u r a l family o f man, and is planted
deeper i n n a t u r e and h a s more r o o t than t h e
i n h a b i t a n t s of towns. Go t o him, ask what luck,
and you w i l l l e a r n t h a t he t o o is a worshiper
of t h e unseen.
(V, 181)
The fisherman's t r u e r o o t s i n n a t u r e a r e emotional,
H e is,
claims Thoreau, more h e a l t h y mentally than t h e non-f i s h i n g
townsman.
I n r e a l i t y , t h e fisherman is n o t b i o l & i c a l l y
dependent on c a t c h i n g f i s h ; Thoreau simply makes symbolic
use of t h i s holidayer i n nature,
With h i s s t a y a t Walden,
however, Thoreau came i n c r e a s i n g l y t o focus on man's r e a l
functional r e l a t i o n t o nature,
Understandably, when Thoreau went on a t r i p t o Maine
i n September of 1846, he took t h i s new i n t e r e s t w i t h him.
The e s s a y "Ktaadn," t h e r e s u l t o f t h a t t r i p , was published i n
The Union Maqazine
-
f o r 1848, and amply demonstrates Thoreau's
new emphasis on human ecology i n h i s w r i t i n g .
O f course,
Thoreau's journey i n t o t h e Maine wilderness encouraged t h i s
preoccupation.
Previously Thoreau had been surrounded by a
r u r a l landscape; h i s " n a t u r e " was h a l f - c i v i l i z e d ,
and i t s
r e l a t i v e l y benign face l e n t i t s e l f t o an i d e a l i z i n g mind,
But i n Maine Thoreau encountered a n a t u r e s o r a w it could n o t
be symbolized.
On t o p of Mount Katahdin what he glimpsed
through t h e m i s t was overwhelmingly c o n c r e t e :
I t was v a s t , T i t a n i c , and such a s man never
i n h a b i t s . Some p a r t o f t h e beholder, even some
v i t a l p a r t , seems t o escape through t h e loose
g r a t i n g o f h i s ribs a s he ascends. H e is more
lone than you can imagine, , , Vast, T i t a n i c ,
.
inhuman Nature has g o t him a t disadvantage,
c a u g h t him alone, and p i l f e r s him o f some o f
h i s d i v i n e f a c u l t y . She does n o t s m i l e on
him a s i n t h e p l a i n s . She seems t o s a y s t e r n l y ,
Why came ye h e r e b e f o r e your t i m e . This ground
is n o t prepared f o r you, Is it n o t enough t h a t
I s m i l e i n t h e v a l l e y s ? I have never made t h i s
s o i l f o r t h y feet, t h i s a i r f o r t h y b r e a t h i n g ,
t h e s e rocks f o r t h y neighbors, I cannot p i t y
n o r fondle thee here, b u t f o r e v e r r e l e n t l e s s l y
d r i v e t h e e hence t o where I am kind. Why seek
m e where I have n o t c a l l e d t E e , and t h e n complain
because you f i n d m e b u t a stepmother? (111, 70-71)
F u r t h e r on he adds:
What is t h i s T i t a n t h a t h a s p o s s e s s i o n o f me?
Talk o f mysteries! Think o f our l i f e i n n a t u r e ,
d a i l y t o be shown matter, t o come i n c o n t a c t w i t h
--
it, --rocks, trees, wind on our cheek! t h e s o l i d
e a r t h ! the a c t u a l world! t h e common sense! Contact!
Contact! Who a r e we? Where ,a r e we?
(111,
9
7
-
Thoreau has enough t r o u b l e j u s t coping w i t h t h e m a t e r i a l world,
l e t a l o n e i n t e r p r e t i n g it t r a n s c e n d e n t a l l y ,
repeated references t o nature
Indeed, h i s
as " T i t a n i c " s u g g e s t he is
p o s i t i v e l y d i s t r e s s e d by its almost s u p e r n a t u r a l a s p e c t ,
An
ecological perspective a t l e a s t provides a sense o f order i n
t h i s seemingly c h a o t i c w i l d e r n e s s .
Thus, j u s t p r i o r t o h i s
glimpse of t h e mountaintop, Thoreau, a s i f t o f o r t i f y himself
p e r c e p t u a l l y , n o t e s some o f t h e environmental f a c t o r s t h a t
produced t h e t h i c k belt o f dwarfed trees, mosses, and c r a n berries surrounding Katahdin's peak,
" I t seemed t h a t i n t h e
c o u r s e o f t i m e they had f i l l e d up t h e i n t e r v a l s between t h e
huge rocks, and t h e cold wind had uniformly l e v e l e d a l l o v e r , "
he w r i t e s ;
"Here t h e p r i n c i p l e o f v e g e t a t i o n was h a r d p u t
t o i t " (111, 67) , With a l i k e o b s e r v a t i o n s one could begin
t o apprehend t h i s bewildering, "inhuman Nature." Indeed,
it almost seems t h a t i n t h e rest of t h e e s s a y Thoreau is
p a r t i c u l a r about d e f i n i n g t h e p i o n e e r and lumberman's r e l a t i o n
t o w i l d n a t u r e simply t o b a l a n c e h i s own confusion,
C e r t a i n l y much of "Ktaadn" is concerned w i t h man's
response t o t h e w i l d e r n e s s ,
Near t h e beginning of t h e e s s a y ,
f o r i n s t a n c e , a f t e r d e s c r i b i n g t h e e x t e n s i v e lumbering and
waste of wood t h a t he observed i n Maine, Thoreau s t a t e s
disapprovingly: "The mission of men t h e r e seems t o be, l i k e
s o many busy demons, t o d r i v e t h e f o r e s t a l l o u t o f t h e country,
from every s o l i t a r y beaver swamp and mountain-side,
a s p o s s i b l e " (111, 5 - 6 ) -
a s soon
H e t h u s recognizes t h e insane, s e l f -
d e f e a t i n g e x p l o i t a t i v e a t t i t u d e t h a t men on t h e f r o n t i e r had
towards n a t u r e ,
I n "Ktaadn," however, Thoreau does n o t y e t
p l e a d f o r t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n of t h e f o r e s t , o n l y i t s w i s e u s e ,
Passing through an a r e a burned over simply i n o r d e r t o c l e a r
t h e land, he remarks :
The trees l a y a t f u l l l e n g t h , f o u r o r f i v e f e e t
deep, and c r o s s i n g each o t h e r i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s ,
a l l black a s c h a r c o a l , b u t p e r f e c t l y sound w i t h i n ,
s t i l l good f o r f u e l o r f o r timber: soon they would
be c u t i n t o l e n g t h s and b u r n t a g a i n , Here w e r e
thousands of cords, enough t o keep t h e poor of
Boston and New York amply warm f o r a w i n t e r , which
o n l y cumbered t h e ground and were i n t h e s e t t l e r ' s
way. And t h e whole of t h a t s o l i d and i n t e r m i n a b l e
f o r e s t i s doomed t o be g r a d u a l l y devoured t h u s by
f i r e , l i k e shavings, and no man t o be warmed by it,
(111, 18-19)
For a change, Thoreau's humanitarianism shows i t s e l f v e r y
b a s i c a l l y m a t e r i a l i s t i c and does n o t , involve h i s u s u a l s p i r i t u a l
concerns,
Thoreau a l s o reminds h i s r e a d e r s of t h e atmospheric
c o n d i t i o n s caused by e x t e n s i v e burning and t h e c a r e l e s s
a t t i t u d e o f h u n t e r s and lumbermen t o f i r e i n the f o r e s t :
"The lumberers r a r e l y t r o u b l e themselves t o p u t o u t their
fires, such is t h e dampness o f t h e p r i m i t i v e f o r e s t ; and
t h i s is one cause, no doubt, o f t h e f r e q u e n t f i r e s i n Maine,
o f which w e h e a r s o much on smoky days i n Massachusettsn
(111 4
While Thoreau is obviously n o t p r o t e s t i n g a i r
p o l l u t i o n , he a t l e a s t p o i n t s o u t the f a r reaching effects
o f an i n s e n s i t i v e approach t o n a t u r e .
I n addition t o h i s
concern w i t h man's impact upon t h e f o r e s t , Thoreau s p e c u l a t e s
upon how human s e t t l e m e n t has a f f e c t e d w i l d animals.
moose, i n p a r t i c u l a r , he writes :
". . . t h e s e
O f the
animals a r e
probably more numerous t h e r e now t h a n e v e r b e f o r e , being
d r i v e n i n t o t h i s w i l d e r n e s s , from a l l s i d e s , by t h e s e t t l e mentsn (111, 63).
Whether o r n o t Thoreau w a s r i g h t i n h i s
s u r p r i s i n g l y rosy e s t i m a t i o n t h a t the d e n s i t y of t h e moose
p o p u l a t i o n was increased by competition w i t h men f o r space
is, of course, q u e s t i o n a b l e , as many f a c t o r s a f f e c t the
d i s t r i b u t i o n p a t t e r n s o f animals.
But a g a i n it must be
s t r e s s e d t h a t Thoreau a t l e a s t c o n s i d e r s such an i n t e r s p e c i f i c
cause f o r an i n c r e a s e i n moose; he does n o t a t t r i b u t e it
e x c l u s i v e l y t o s u c c e s s f u l breeding.
Thoreau's i n t e r e s t i n man and n a t u r e i s n o t one-sided
e i t h e r , a s he a l s o n o t e s i n "Ktaadn" how man has adapted t o
t h e w i l d e r n e s s a s w e l l a s h i s effect upon it.
Consequently,
Thoreau d e s c r i b e s a t l e n g t h t h e crude dwellings, "very proper
f o r e s t houses" (111, 2 1 ) , i n which t h e lumbermen l i v e , and t h e
s e t t l e r s ' homesteads (111, 2 7 - 8 ) .
He lists t h e foods t h a t
t h e s e t t l e r can r a i s e and what h a s t o be packed i n t o t h e
woods (111, 22, 26)- H e o u t l i n e s the method o f f o r e s t
agriculture :
The mode o f c l e a r i n g and p l a n t i n g is t o f e l l t h e
trees, and burn once what w i l l burn, then c u t
them up i n t o s u i t a b l e l e n g t h s , r o l l i n heaps,
and burn again; then, with a hoe, p l a n t p o t a t o e s
where you can come a t t h e ground between t h e
stumps and charred logs : f o r a f i r s t crop t h e
ashes s u f f i c i n s f o r manure, and no hoeing being
necessary t h e f i r s t y e a r , I n t h e f a l l , c u t ,
r o l l , and burn again, and s o on, till t h e land
is c l e a r e d ; and soon it is ready f o r g r a i n , and
to be l a i d down, (111, 15)
Thus, i f t h e man on t h e f r o n t i e r subdued t h e wilderness, he
s t i l l had t o adapt h i s s h e l t e r , food, and system o f farming
t o h i s new environment,
A l l Thoreau's observations a r e
concerned w i t h how a man a c t u a l l y l i v e s i n t h e woods, w i t h
how a man l i v e s , "as it w e r e , i n t h e p r i m i t i v e age of t h e
world, a p r i m i t i v e mann (111, 8 7 ) .
t h a t , however
Y e t Thoreau w i s e l y notes
p r i m i t i v e t h e white man's l i f e , it is always
comparatively c i v i l i z e d t o t h e I n d i a n ' s ,
The white man's
a r t i f i c e s removed him from n a t u r e , while t h e I n d i a n ' s basic
u t i l i z a t i o n of n a t u r e k e p t him i n v i t a l c o n t a c t with it,
According t o Thoreau, t h e Indian was "a s t i l l more a n c i e n t
and p r i m i t i v e man" than t h e s e t t l e r :
I n a bark v e s s e l sewn with t h e r o o t s o f t h e spruce,
w i t h horn-beam paddles, he d i p s h i s way along, H e
is b u t
dim and misty t o m e , obscured by the aeons
t h a t l i e between t h e bark canoe and t h e b a t t e a u ,
H e b u i l d s no house of logs, b u t a wigwam of s k i n s ,
He e a t s no h o t bread and sweet cake, b u t musquash
and moose meat and t h e f a t of b e a r s , (111, 87-88)
The d i f f e r e n c e between t h e I n d i a n and t h e w h i t e man, of
c o u r s e , was t h e d i f f e r e n c e between a h u n t i n g and an a g r a r i a n
economy.
But t h e I n d i a n 9 r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h n a t u r e would
be a s u b j e c t more f u l l y e x p l o r e d i n Thoreau's two subsequent
Maine woods essays-- "Chesuncook" and "The Allegash and E a s t
Branch,"
For t h e t i m e being, h i s knowledge l i m i t e d h i m t o a
d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e w h i t e man's i n t e r r e l a t i o n w i t h n a t u r e .
T h i s , then, is Thoreau's e a r l y e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e
a t i t s peak,
Engendered by t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l p r i n c i p l e of
~ r g a n i cu n i t y and shaped by h i s e x p e r i e n c e s a t Walden Pond
and M t . Katahdin, Thoreau's ecology came more and more t o be
concerned i n h i s p u b l i c w r i t i n g s w i t h how man is related t o
n a t u r e and what is h i s impact upon it.
A s i n a l l Thoreauls
t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s , though, the theme is s u b o r d i n a t e i n "Ktaadnw
t o t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e journey i t s e l f , b u t it is no
an i n t e g r a l p a r t of the e s s a y .
less
Thoreau's e c o l o g i c view o f t h e
l a n d s c a p e is a b a s i c a s p e c t o f h i s approach t o n a t u r e ,
While Thoreau's g e n e r a l and human e c o l o g i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s
A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers, t h e
a l s o appear i n ----
-
book on t h e whole r e p r e s e n t s a r e t u r n t o t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f
e s s a y s l i k e "A Walk t o Wachusett,"
Thoreau's ecology is once
a g a i n s u b j u g a t e d t o symbolic ends.
This is q u i t e u n d e r s t a n d a b l e ,
--
however, because t h e bulk o f A Week is d e r i v e d from Thoreau's
essays and j o u r n a l s p r i o r t o 1845.
--
Thus, t h a t A Week c o n t a i n s
a n a b i d i n g t r a n s c e n d e n t a l view of t h e world is h a r d l y s u r p r i s ing.
--
Many o f t h e r e f l e c t i v e passages i n A Week employ
e c o l o g i c a l s i t u a t i o n s o n l y metaphorically.
w i l l suffice.
examples
A few
The environmental requirements of a tree come
t o r e p r e s e n t human v i r t u e .
W r i t i n g on t h e v a l u e of b i o g r a p h i e s ,
Thoreau s t a t e s :
The l i f e o f a good man w i l l h a r d l y improve us
more t h a n t h e l i f e o f a f r e e b o o t e r , f o r t h e
i n e v i t a b l e laws appear a s p l a i n l y i n t h e
infringement a s i n t h e observance, and o u r
l i v e s a r e s u s t a i n e d by a n e a r l y e q u a l expense
of v i r t u e of some kind. The decaying tree,
w h i l e y e t it l i v e s , demands sun, wind, and
r a i n no less t h a n t h e g r e e n one, (I, 101)
The o c c a s i o n a l s p i r i t u a l nourishment t h a t men r e c e i v e is
compared t o t h e chance p r e d a t i o n s of a hawk ( I , 102)
.
The
development o f human c h a r a c t e r is p a r a l l e l e d t o a s i m p l i s t i c
t h e o r y o f f o r e s t succession: "The c o n s t a n t a b r a s i o n and decay
of o u r l i v e s makes t h e s o i l o f our f u t u r e growth,
which we n m mature, when I t
La-m
-CIVILL~S
. .
The wood
, detemij;ies
VirgiTi i i i ~ l i l d
\r
t h e c h a r a c t e r o f our second growth, whether t h a t be oaks o r
p i n e s " (I, 375).
The e x t e n s i o n of t h e geographic range o f
temperate p l a n t s is d e c l a r e d a s i g n of s p i r i t u a l v i t a l i t y and
sustenance (I, 1 5 8 ) - Meditating on t i m e , Thoreau a l l u d e s t o
biogeochemical c y c l e s :
X s i t now on a stump whose r i n g s number c e n t u r i e s
o f growth, I f I look around I see t h a t the s o i l
is composed of t h e remains o f j u s t such stumps,
a n c e s t o r s t o t h i s . The e a r t h is covered w i t h
, I r a i s e my f a i r e s t and f r e s h e s t
mould.
,
I t is n o t f e r t i l e
flowers i n t h e o l d mould.
ground which w e walk on, b u t t h e l e a v e s which
f l u t t e r over our heads. The newest is b u t t h e
(I, 160)
o l d e s t made v i s i b l e t o o u r s e n s e s .
..
. .
I n these and similar passages, Thoreau shows t h a t he is
unwilling t o l e t a biological view of the world c o n s t i t u t e
h i s s o l e thought; he casually adapts it t o h i s philosophic
aims,
Instead of giving equal importance t o h i s nature
observations and h i s philosophizings (as he does in ~ a l d e n ) ,
Thoreau s a c r i f i c e s the former t o the l a t t e r , he abandons t h e
l i t e r a l for the figurative!
view.
The r e s u l t is an unbalanced world
But these blendings of philosophy and biology a r e
t y p i c a l of Thoreau's e a r l y application of .the doctrine of
correspondence,
A more knowledgeable use of ecological data is found
i n Thoreau's discussion of fishes.
A s Paul has s t a t e d ,
"Speaking of fishes, Thoreau was in e f f e c t speaking of
thoughts, of a mode of the s p i r i t
....
'17
Thus, Thoreau
makes the population d i s p e r s a l of f i s h represent the v i t a l i t y
of thought:
The seeds of the l i f e of f i s h e s are everywhere
disseminated, whether the winds waft them, or
the waters f l o a t them, or the deep e a r t h holds
them; wherever a pond is dug, straightway it is
stocked with t h i s vivacious race. They have a
lease of nature, and it is not y e t out. The
Chinese a r e bribed t o c a r r y t h e i r ova from
province t o province i n j a r s or i n hollow reeds,
o r the water-birds t o transport them t o the
mountain t a r n s and i n t e r i o r lakes. There a r e
f i s h e s wherever there i s a f l u i d medium, and
even i n clouds and i n melted metals we d e t e c t
t h e i r semblance. (I, 23 -24)
Not the mechanisms of dispersal--water,
men, and birds --but
t h e i r symbolic meaning a s l i b e r a t o r s of thought i s what
i n t e r e s t s Thoreau , The f a i r l y sophisticated ecologic
information is incorporated, as the l a s t fanciful sentence
i n the passage shows, i n t o the poetic import of the t o p i c ,
However, there seems t o be no c l e a r symbolic significance
attached t o the r e s t of Thoreau's ecological f i s h data.
It
appears simply t o r e f l e c t h i s genuine i n t e r e s t i n f i s h ( i n
the l a t e 1840's Thoreau even began t o send specimens t o
scientists),
Accordingly, he notes t h e food of bream: "From
time t o time they nibble the weeds a t the bottom or overhanging
t h e i r nests,, or d a r t a f t e r a f l y or a worm" ( I , 2 5 ) ; the
h a b i t a t of perch: " I t r a t h e r p r e f e r s the c l e a r water and
sandy bottoms, though here it has not much choice" (I, 27);
and the i n t e r s p e c i f i c and environmental f a c t o r s t h a t imperil
t h e survival of young bream:
The spawn is exposed t o s o many dangers t h a t a
very small proportion can ever become fishes,
f o r beside being t h e constant prey of b i r d s and
fishes, a g r e a t many nests a r e made s o near the
shore, ir. shallc,s water, t h a t t h y are l e f t dry
i n a few days, a s the r i v e r goes down. (I, 2 5 )
A l l t h i s information is p a r t of a n a t u r a l h i s t o r y r e p o r t on
the f i s h of the Concord and Merrimack r i v e r s .
That Thoreau
includes such data shows h i s increased focus on the material
world for i t s e l f and t h e f a i r l y high degree of h i s ecological
awareness,
B u t the tension between t h i s physical data and the
symbolic equation f i s h equals thought is s i m i l a r t o t h a t ,
--Week, between t h e a1ternating concrete
running throughout A
world of the r i v e r s and the a b s t r a c t world of Thoreau's l i t e r a r y ,
s o c i a l , and philosophic ruminations,
Another e c o l o g i c a l t o p i c , which d i s c l o s e s much t h e same
i s s u e s , is t h e d a m .
Paul i d e n t i f i e s t h e dams a s r e p r e s e n t a -
t i v e o f " a l l t h e ominous f o r c e s t h a t had destroyed t h e wild,
t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s of n a t u r a l and s p i r i t u a l l i f e i n America. w 8
C e r t a i n l y t h e symbolic a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s of t h e dams i s shown
i n Thoreau's comments on t h e i r i n t e r f e r i n g w i t h t h e m i g r a t i o n
of fishes:
S z l m ~ ~shzd,
,
slewives were fnrmerly a h w d a n t
h e r e , and taken i n w e i r s by t h e Indians, who
t a u g h t t h i s method t o t h e whites, by whom they
w e r e used a s food and a s manure, u n t i l t h e dam
and a f t e r w a r d t h e c a n a l a t B i l l e r i c a , and t h e
f a c t o r i e s a t L o w e l l , p u t an end t o t h e i r
m i g r a t i o n s hitherward; though it is thought
t h a t a f e w more e n t e r p r i s i n g shad may s t i l l
o c c a s i o n a l l y be seen i n t h i s p a r t o f t h e r i v e r .
I t is s a i d , t o account f o r t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of
t h e f i s h e r y , t h a t those who a t t h a t t i m e
r e p r e s e n t e d t h e i n t e r e s t s of t h e fisherman and
t h e f i s h e s , remembering between1what d a t e s they
w e r e accustomed t o t a k e t h e grown shad,
s t i p u l a t e d t h a t t h e dams should be l e f t open
f o r t h a t season only, and t h e f r y , which go
down a month l a t e r , were consequently stopped
, and destroyed by myriads.
Others say t h a t t h e
fish-ways were not p r o p e r l y constructed.
Perchance, a f t e r a f e w thousands of y e a r s , i f
t h e f i s h e s w i l l be p a t i e n t , and p a s s t h e i r
summers elsewhere meanwhile, n a t u r e w i l l have
l e v e l l e d t h e B i l l e r i c a dam, and t h e L o w e l l
f a c t o r i e s , and t h e Grass-ground River run c l e a r
again, t o be explored by new migratory s h o a l s
(I, 32)
...
But t h e dams a r e more t h a n a convenient symbol t o Thoreau,
f o r t h e i r e c o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s a r e , a s above, discussed a t
some length.
8
H e r e p e a t s himself about t h e dams and f i s h
Paul, p. 214.
s e v e r a l t i m e s (see I , 31, 35-36,
91).
Moreover, he
--
i n t r o d u c e s t h e dams a t t h e v e r y beginning o f A Week by
observing how t h e i r flooding of r i v e r s i d e land has a l t e r e d
t h e p l a n t community t h e r e :
The shore is more f l a t on t h e Wayland s i d e ,
and t h i s town is t h e g r e a t e s t l o s e r by t h e
flood. Its farmers t e l l m e t h a t thousands of
a c r e s are flooded n w , s i n c e t h e dams have
been e r e c t e d , where they remember t o have
seen t h e w h i t e honeysuckle o r c l o v e r growing
C Z C ~ , =EC? t
h ~ yC Qgn
Q
d~
ry C
w i tI
h shoes only
i n summer, N w t h e r e is nothing b u t bluej o i n t and sedge and cut-grass t h e r e , s t a n d i n g
i n water a11 t h e y e a r round. (I, 4 )
S t is n o t a c a s e of Thoreau's s e l e c t i n g a s u i t a b l e symbol
b u t o f t h e symbolic s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e dams a r i s i n g o u t o f
h i s knowledge o f l o c a l h i s t o r y and h i s e c o l o g i c a l p e r c e p t i v i t y ,
Personal observation and i n q u i r y about t h e s p e c i f i c effects
of t h e dams obviously preceded any l i t e r a r y i n t e n t i o n ,
The
dams a r e as much p h y s i c a l " f a c t s w as symbolic " t r u t h s . "
Nor are t h e preceding examples t h e only i n d i c a t i o n s i n
--
A Week of Thoreau's e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e ,
f o r Thoreau o f t e n
comments about human l i f e on and b e s i d e t h e r i v e r w i t h a
similar slant.
He n o t e s how r i v e r s a r e r e l a t e d t o human
d i s t r i b u t i o n and d i s p e r s a l : "They a r e t h e n a t u r a l highways
of a l l n a t i o n s , n o t only l e v e l l i n g t h e ground and removing
o b s t a c l e s from t h e p a t h o f t h e t r a v e l e r , quenching h i s t h i r s t
and b e a r i n g him on t h e i r bosoms, b u t conducting him through t h e
most i n t e r e s t i n g scenery, t h e most populous p o r t i o n s of t h e
1
.,,
(I, 1
.
Thoreau observes how s e v e r a l i n s t a n c e s
of e r o s i o n have been i n d i r e c t l y caused by man.
e r o s i o n by w a t e r :
He w r i t e s of
*It [the ~ e r r i m a c k ] is probably wider than
i t was formerly, i n many p l a c e s , awing t o t h e trees having
been c u t down, and t h e consequent wasting away of its banksn
(I, 88).
Passing by a "small d e s e r t ,
" he records an i n s t a n c e
o f e r o s i o n by wind:
A very o l d i n h a b i t a n t , , , t o l d us t h a t he
remembered when corn and g r a i n grew t h e r e , and
iC, w== 2 ?.~dlti.pted ficd4,
=C, Img+-h+
&
fishermen
, p u l l e d up t h e bushes on t h e
shore, f o r g r e a t e r convenience i n hauling t h e i r
s e i n e s , and when t h e bank w a s t h u s broken, t h e
w5nd began t o blow up t h e sand from t h e s h o r e ,
u n t i l a t length it had covered about f i f t e e n
a c r e s s e v e r a l f e e t deep, (I, 152)
..
Seeing another e x t e n s i v e sandy a r e a and l e a r n i n g t h a t it w a s
caused by sheep, which, "being worried by f l e a s , began t o
paw t h e ground, till they broke t h e sod and s o t h e sand began
t o blow" (I, 209). Thoreau recommends:
his e v i l might e a s i l y
have been remedied, a t first, by spreading b i r c h e s w i t h t h e i r
l e a v e s on over t h e sand, and f a s t e n i n g them down w i t h s t a k e s ,
t o break the wind" (I, 209).
F i n a l l y , Thoreau o u t l i n e s t h e
s t a g e s o f human s e t t l e m e n t :
Some s p r i n g the white man came, b u i l t him a
house, and made a c l e a r i n g here, l e t t i n g i n t h e
sun, d r i e d up a farm, p i l e d up t h e old g r a y
s t o n e s i n fences, c u t down t h e p i n e s around h i s
dwelling, p l a n t e d orchard seeds brought from t h e
o l d country, and persuaded t h e c i v i l a p p l e - t r e e
t o blossom next t o t h e wild p i n e and t h e juniper,
shedding its perfume i n t h e wilderness, Their old
s t o c k s s t i l l remain. H e c u l l e d t h e g r a c e f u l e l m
from o u t t h e woods and from t h e r i v e r s i d e , and s o
r e f i n e d and smoothed h i s v i l l a g e p l o t . H e rudely
b r i d g e d t h e stream, and drove h i s team a f i e l d
i n t o t h e r i v e r meadows, c u t t h e w i l d grass, and
l a i d bare t h e homes o f b e a v e r , o t t e r , muskrat,
and w i t h the w h e t t i n g o f h i s s c y t h e s c a r r e d o f f
t h e d e e r and b e a r , He s e t up a m i l l , and f i e l d s
of E n g l i s h g r a i n s p r a n g up i n t h e v i r g i n s o i l . And
w i t h h i s g r a i n he s c a t t e r e d t h e s e e d s of t h e
d a n d e l i o n and t h e w i l d t r e f o i l o v e r t h e meaduws,
mingling h i s E n g l i s h flwers w i t h t h e w i l d n a t i v e
ones, The b r i s t l i n g burdock, t h e sweet-scented
c a t n i p , and t h e humble yarrow p l a n t e d themselves
a l o n g h i s woodland road, t h e y , t o o , s e e k i n g
"freedom t o worship God" i n t h e i r way, And t h u s
he p l a n t s a town. The w h i t e man's m u l l e i n soon
r e i g n e d i n I n d i a n c o r n - f i e l d s , and sweet-scented
,
-,
E n g l i s h grasses c i u i i l e G ilie iiex 5~1:.
t h e n , could t h e r e d man s e t h i s f o o t ? ( I , 5 2 )
,T
.
WU=A=,
Thus Thoreau r e c o g n i z e s man's u s e and abuse o f h i s n a t u r a l
surroundings,
I n t h e immediately preceding passage, he relates
t h e s t o r y o f man's encroachment on n a t u r e ,
From the e r a d i c a t i o n
o f c e r t a i n p l a n t s and a n i m a l s t o t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n and f a v o r i n g
o f c o m p e t i t i v e s p e c i e s , Thoreau sees how profound is t h e impact
o f t h e w h i t e man's method o f s e t t l i n g on t h e new land.
By
comparing t h e p r e s e n t landscape w i t h h i s knowledge o f the
p a s t , Thoreau a c h i e v e s an e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e w i t h a broad
h i s t o r i c a l dimension; he c a n n o t h e l p b u t see how t h e w h i t e man
h a s reshaped h i s environment, w i t h i t s consequent e f f e c t on
n a t i v e a n i m a l s and p l a n t s and on t h e I n d i a n , who had l i v e d i n
harmony w i t h w i l d A m e r i c a ,
Moreover, a l l t h e s e human e c o l o g i c a l
--
o b s e r v a t i o n s relate t o one o f Thoreau's major themes i n A Week:
t h e c o n t r a s t between t h e p r i m i t i v e freedom of t h e voyage on
t h e r i v e r and t h e c i v i l i z e d , man-dominated landscape through
which t h e voyagers p a s s .
With r e g a r d t o man and n a t u r e , it must be p o i n t e d o u t
t h a t w h i l e Thoreau8s e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e proceeds from
t h e t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i d e a o f o r g a n i c u n i t y , it is r a d i c a l l y
d i f f e r e n t from Emerson's viewpoint.
For Emerson, "All t h e
p a r t s [of ~ a t u r e ) i n c e s s a n t l y work i n t o each o t h e r ' s hands
f o r t h e p r o f i t o f man. *'
Thoreau, i n c o n t r a s t , sees man as
a fimctioning part of nature.
--
Near t h e end o f A Week, h e
writes :
Thus t h o u g h t f u l l y w e w e r e rowing homeward t o
f i n d some autumnal work t o do, and h e l p on t h e
r e v o l u t i o n o f t h e s e a s o n s , Perhaps Nature would
condescend t o make u s e o f u s even w i t h o u t o u r
knowledge, as when w e h e l p t o scatter h e r seeds
i n o u r walks, and c a r r y b u r s and c o c k l e s on o u r
clothes from f i e l d t o f i e l d . (I, 415)
A t best man fits harmoniously i n t o n a t u r e ; a t w o r s t he
e x p l o i t s it,
relationship.
N e c e s s a r i l y , Thoreau encourages t h e former
H e states, for example:
"The farmer who h a s
skimmed h i s farm might perchance l e a v e h i s body t o Nature t o
be plowed i n , and i n some measure r e s t o r e i t s f e r t i l i t y .
should n o t r e t a r d b u t forward h e r economies" ( I , 1 7 9 ) .
is n o t made f o r man b u t man f o r n a t u r e ,
We
Nature
N e i t h e r does n a t u r e
spontaneously work, nor is it e x c l u s i v e l y t o be h a r n e s s e d ,
f o r human b e n e f i t .
Thoreau p e r c e i v e s t h a t man must u l t i m a t e l y
l i v e w i t h i n a n a t u r a l framework.
Man i s encompassed by t h e
processes of nature.
- -Week w i t h
Although Thoreau is c h i e f l y concerned i n A
propounding t r a n s c e n d e n t a l t r u t h s , he s t i l l shows h i s i n t e r e s t
'~merson, Complete Works, I, 14.
i n p h y s i c a l l y coming t o terms w i t h n a t u r e .
Nature is n o t
simply a s u b j e c t f o r contemplation b u t a system i n which
one is i n e x t r i c a b l y involved.
This new emphasis on under-
s t a n d i n g the e x t e r n a l world, which began w i t h "Ktaadn," f i n d s
its basis, i n t h e conclusion of & Week, i n Thoreau's question-
ing of t h e d o c t r i n e of correspondence: " I s n o t Nature, r i g h t l y
read, t h a t of which she is commonly taken t o be t h e symbol
merely?" (I, 408)
I f n a t u r e i s an end i n i t s e l f , then
Emerson's contention, "Every n a t u r a l fact is a symbol o f some
s p i r i t u a l fact, " l o no longer a p p l i e s ,
N a t u r a l f a c t s need
n o t be symbolized b u t can be understood w i t h i n a m a t e r i a l frame
of r e f e r e n c e ; indeed, their s o l e meaning d e r i v e s from t h e
material world because t h e r e is no i d e a l world t o which t h e y
can refer.
Thoreau, however, leaves such a s t r i c t l y m a t e r i a l -
i s t i c comprehension of n a t u r e t o subsequent t r a v e l n a r r a t i v e s ,
----
But i f A Week on t h e Concord
and Merrimack
Rivers g e n e r a l l y
c o n t a i n s much t h e same t r e a t m e n t o f n a t u r e a s i n Thoreau's
e a r l y essays, then it a l s o shows i n p l a c e s a more considered,
more knowledgeable view of man and n a t u r e which Thoreau had
developed over t h e years.
During t h e 1840's Thoreau undoubtedly progressed from
providing simple demonstrations of o r g a n i c u n i t y and a p p l i c a t i o n s
of t h e d o c t r i n e of correspondence t o a broad e c o l o g i c a l
p e r s p e c t i v e founded on a knowledge of t h e h i s t o r y of man's
1•‹~merson,Complete Works, I, 27.
r e l a t i o n t o n a t u r e i n America.
H e began t o observe more
c l o s e l y how animals and p l a n t s , i n p a r t i c u l a r man, depended
on and a f f e c t e d t h e i r environment,
Y e t i f t h e r e was t h e
philosophic impulse t o p e r c e i v e and understand r e l a t i o n s h i p s
i n n a t u r e , then t h e r e was t h e e q u a l l y philosophic (and
l i t e r a r y ! ) impulse t o t r a n s form t h o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n t o
meaningful s p i r i t u a l symbols,
Usually Thoreau ended up by
s t r e s s i n g one o r t h e o t h e r tendency,
Only i n Walden was he
t o achieve a balance between h i s e c o l o g i c and t r a n s c e n d e n t a l
visions.
Chapter 11-Walden:
the S y n t h e s i s o f Vision
The t e n s i o n between t h e symbolic and o b j e c t i v e modes o f
v i s i o n (one o f which u s u a l l y t e n d s t o dominate Henry Thoreau' s
w r i t i n g s ) is f i n a l l y r e s o l v e d i n Walden,
For y e a r s r e a d e r s
have c o n s i d e r e d the book a mixture of s o c i a l criticism and
n a t u r e o b s e r v a t i o n , and t h i s a t t e s t s t o t h e s t r e n g t h o f its
literal level,
But Walden, as c r i t i c s have i n c r e a s i n g l y
shown, is a l s o a symbolic t a l e of t h e i n d i v i d u a l 's s p i r i t u a l
growth,
Thus, i f Walden p r o v i d e s an account o f Thoreau's
1
l i f e i n t h e world o f n a t u r e , t h e n it a l s o p r e s e n t s t h e world
of n a t u r e as s u g g e s t i v e of t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s l i f e ,
And c e n t r a l
t o Thoreau's d e p i c t i o n of the i n d i v i d u a l 's p h y s i c a l and
s p i r i t u a l l i f e is human involvement i n n a t u r e ' s w e b ,
Thoreau ' s e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e b o t h u n i f i e s h i s t r e a t m e n t
of n a t u r e and informs t h e symbolic import o f Walden,
Kcch of Walden is explicitly coficerfied with the ifitzr
'
r e l a t i o n between man and n a t u r e ,
-
Indeed, "Walden, b o t h t h e
e x p e r i e n c e o f l i v i n g by t h e pond and t h e book t h a t r e p o r t e d
it," as S t a n l e y Edgar Hyman p o i n t s o u t ,
experiment i n human ecology
". . . w a s
an
. , . a n a t t e m p t t o work
out a
s a t i s f a c t o r y rela t i o n s h i p between man and h i s environment, ,I
Thoreau n o t only relates t h e details o f h i s own " l i f e i n t h e
woodsw b u t a l s o examines t h e basis o f l i f e f o r a l l men,
% t a n l e y Edgar Hyman. "Henry Thoreau i n Our Time, " i n
Thoreau: A Century o f C r i t i c i s m , e d , walter Harding ( D a l l a s :
Southern Methodist K i v , P r e s s , l 9 5 4 ) , p. 175,
H i s first c h a p t e r , "Economy,
"
founded upon an e c o l o g i c a l
view o f man t h e animal, is l o o s e l y organized around a d i s c u s s i o n o f what Thoreau c a l l s t h e " n e c e s s a r i e s of l i f e , "
He
compares d i r e c t l y man's b i o l o g i c a l needs t o those o f o t h e r
creatures:
By the words, necessary -s f l i f e , I mean whatever,
o f a l l t h a t man o b t a i n s by h i s own e x e r t i o n s , has
been from t h e f i r s t , o r from long use h a s become,
s o important t o human l i f e t h a t few, i f any,
whether from savageness. o r poverty. o r philosophy,
e v e r a t t e m p t t o do w i t h o u t i t , To many c r e a t u r e s
t h e r e is i n t h i s s e n s e b u t one n e c e s s a r y of l i f e ,
Food, To t h e b i s o n o f t h e p r a i r i e it is a f e w
inches o f p a l a t a b l e g r a s s , w i t h w a t e r t o d r i n k ;
u n l e s s he s e e k s t h e S h e l t e r o f the f o r e s t o r t h e
mountain's shadow, None of the b r u t e c r e a t i o n
r e q u i r e s more than Food and S h e l t e r , The n e c e s s a r i e s
of l i f e f o r man i n t h i s c l i m a t e may, a c c u r a t e l y
enough, be d i s t r i b u t e d under t h e s e v e r a l heads o f
Food, S h e l t e r , Clothing, and Fuel; f o r n o t till we
have secured t h e s e a r e we prepared t o e n t e r t a i n
t h e t r u e problems o f l i f e w i t h freedom and a
p r o s p e c t of s u c c e s s , (11, 13)
These needs are, i n p a r t , the subjects that
e x p l o r e d u r i n g t h e course of Walden.
Thoretiu w i l l
But w h i l e t a k i n g a
m a t e r i a l i s t i c view o f man, Thoreau keeps i n s i g h t t h e h i g h e r
aims o f human l i f e .
H i s purpose i n determining t h e fundamental
requirements f o r l i f e is t o show how l i t t l e energy t h e
i n d i v i d u a l need expend on s a t i s f y i n g t h e s e and how much
energy he can devote t o t h e e q u a l l y important c u l t i v a t i o n
of self,
I n a d d i t i o n , a s w i l l s h o r t l y be seen, Thoreau
makes even t h e a c t i v i t i e s t h a t s a t i s f y human needs symbols
o f self - c u l t i v a t i o n ,
Thus Thoreau weighs h i s b i o l o g i c a l
i
viewpoint a g a i n s t a p h i l o s o p h i c a l o b j e c t i v e , s u b j u g a t i n g
n e i t h e r one t o t h e o t h e r .
This s e a r c h f o r e q u i l i b r i u m is
e v i d e n t i n t h e following comparison :
The s o i l , it appears, is s u i t e d t o t h e s e e d ,
f o r it h a s s e n t its r a d i c l e downward, and it
may now send its s h o o t upward a l s o w i t h
con•’idence. Why h a s man r o o t e d himself t h u s
f i r m l y i n the e a r t h , b u t t h a t he may rise i n
t h e same p r o p o r t i o n i n t o t h e heavens above?
(11, 17)
Throughout Walden Thoreau is i n t e n t upon showing man's
b i o l o g i c a l r o o t s as w e l l as any p h i l o s o p h i c a l s h o o t s .
If
the b i o l o g i c a l message o f Walden is t h a t man is a material
c r e a t u r e p h y s i c a l l y involved i n n a t u r e , t h e n i t s p h i l o s o p h i c a l
message is t h a t man can o n l y r e a l i z e h i s f u l l s e l f by becoming
~ s y c h o l o g i c a l l yinvolved w i t h n a t u r e .
But, understandably, Thoreau b e g i n s h i s book by examining
man's p h y s i c a l t i e s t o the n a t u r a l world.
Reducing the r e l a t i o n -
s h i p t o i t s e l e m e n t a l l e v e l , he conceives o f man's basic needs-food, s h e l t e r , c l o t h i n g , and fuel--as
o p e r a t i n g thermodynamically,
" I t appears, t h e r e f o r e , " Thoreau s t a t e s ,
life
e x p r e s s i o n , animal -,
-
'I.
. . t h a t the
is n e a r l y synonymous w i t h t h e expres-
s i o n , animal h e a t " (II, 1 4 ) -
The s u p p o r t o f human l i f e is
t h e n fundamentally a problem of m a i n t a i n i n g t h i s " v i t a l h e a t "
1 1 1 4 , Using a n analogy, p u t f o r t h by J u s t u s von Liebig,
t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y German chemist, t h a t "man's body is a
s t o v e " (11, 1 4 ) , Thoreau d i s c u s s e s man's r e l a t i o n t o matter
e s s e n t i a l l y i n terms o f energy t r a n s f e r e n c e o r a t l e a s t
utilization.
A l l t h i s is n o t t o imply t h a t Thoreau a n t i c i p a t e d
t h e l a w s o f thermodynamics, b u t it should make clear t h a t he
w a s c a p a b l e of o c c a s i o n a l l y viewing r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n n a t u r e
on a primary p l a n e .
Moreover, t h e n o t i o n o f an i n d i v i d u a l ' s h e a t b e i n g
e q u i v a l e n t t o h i s l i f e p r o v i d e s an e x c e l l e n t symbol o f t h e
v i t a l self.
The evanescence o f h e a t a p p r o p r i a t e l y r e p r e s e n t s
t h e impermanence o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s i d e n t i t y .
Thus a
s c i e n t i f i c p e r c e p t i o n becomes transmuted i n t o a p h i l o s o p h i c
symbol.
Much t h e same method is employed i n d i s c u s s i n g t h e
n e c e s s a r y o f l i f e Clothing.
O f c l o t h e s Thoreau states: " L e t
him who h a s work t o do r e c o l l e c t t h a t t h e o b j e c t of c l o t h i n g
is, first, t o r e t a i n t h e v i t a l h e a t
. . ." (11, 2 3 ) .
c l o t h i n g is a b u f f e r a g a i n s t t h e environment.
Thus
The r e s t of
Thoreau's d i s c u s s i o n i s t a k e n up c h i e f l y w i t h a c r i t i q u e o f
fashion i n dress.
Thoreau champions u t i l i t y .
But t h e
p h i l o s o p h i c a l e q u i v a l e n t of c l o t h i n g 's b i o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n a l i t y
is, o f c o u r s e , t h a t a man's c l o t h i n g should i d e n t i f y h i s t r u e
character.
From an e c o l o g i c a l defence of c l o t h e s ,
Thoreau
t h e n proceeds t o symbolize c l o t h i n g as t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of
self and t o demand t h a t it be t r u l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e .
A man's
c l o t h e s should be b o t h s e r v i c e a b l e and u n p r e t e n t i o u s .
Thus
Thoreau g r a f t s s y m b o l i c a l l y a moral message o n t o h i s framework
of b i o l o g i c a l t r u t h .
Thoreau's d i s c u s s i o n of a n o t h e r n e c e s s a r y o f l i f e , Fuel,
is c o n f i n e d t o m a t e r i a l i s t i c m a t t e r s .
I n the nineteenth
c e n t u r y , o f c o u r s e , wood was s t i l l t h e major f u e l :
". . . i n
most p a r t s o f t h e world, " Thoreau w r i t e s , " t h e p r i n c e and t h e
p e a s a n t , t h e s c h o l a r and t h e savage, e q u a l l y r e q u i r e s t i l l a
f e w s t i c k s from t h e f o r e s t t o w a r m them and cook t h e i r foodw
(XI,
277).
One o f Thoreau's concerns is, then, w i t h t h e w i s e
u t i l i z a t i o n of t h i s resource.
A t Walden, Thoreau burned t h e
stumps e x t r a c t e d from h i s b e a n f i e l d , " t h e dead and f o r t h e
most p a r t unmerchantable wood behind [his]
house, and t h e
driftwood from t h e pond" (11, 60) f o r h e a t and cookery,
c o n s c i o u s l y p r a c t i s e d an extreme n a t u r a l economy.
He
During
h i s second w i n t e r , by using a s m a l l cooking s t o v e , he even
applied
technology t o conserve t h e f o r e s t .
By h i s own
example Thoreau advocates t h e husbanding of e a r t h ' s commodities,
Collateral with
Thoreau's remarks on f u e l is h i s
o b s e r v a t i o n on human s u r v i v a l and c l i m a t e .
Thinking o f t h e
long New England w i n t e r s , Thoreau p e r c e i v e s t h a t , d e s p i t e
heated houses, men remain i n a p r e c a r i o u s p o s i t i o n w i t h r e g a r d
t o c o l d weather.
H e s t a t e s : ", ,
. need w e t r o u b l e o u r s e l v e s
t o s p e c u l a t e how t h e human r a c e may be a t l a s t d e s t r o y e d ,
It
would be e a s y t o c u t t h e i r t h r e a d s any t i m e w i t h a l i t t l e
s h a r p e r b l a s t from t h e n o r t h w (11, 280).
Man, indeed a l l
l i f e , Thoreau knows, is s t i l l v e r y much s u b o r d i n a t e t o t h e
c l i m a t i c p a r t o f t h e environment; human e x i s t e n c e on e a r t h is
s o l e l y p o s s i b l e because o f a moderate range of s u r f a c e
temperatures,
But, n o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , Thoreau e l a b o r a t e s most f u l l y
on man's r e l a t i o n t o n a t u r e i n d i s c u s s i n g h i s c h i e f necessary
o f life--Food.
I n s e a r c h of a n economically simple l i f e
Thoreau is forced i n t o c l o s e r c o n n e c t i o n w i t h n a t u r e .
He
makes primary use of w i l d p l a n t s and animals as w e l l as
c u l t i v a t i n g r e g u l a r c r o p s , and h e d i s c o v e r s j u s t how r u d i mentary are man s d i e t e t i c r e q u i r e m e n t s ,
I l e a r n e d from my two y e a r s ' e x p e r i e n c e
.,,
t h a t a man may u s e as simple a d i e t as t h e
animals, and y e t r e t a i n h e a l t h and s t r e n g t h ,
I have made a s a t i s f a c t o r y d i n n e r , s a t i s f a c t o r y on s e v e r a l a c c o u n t s , simply o f f a d i s h
of p u r s l a n e ( P o r t u l a c a o l e r a c e a ) which I
g a t h e r e d i n m y c o r n f i e l d , b o i l e d and s a l t e d .
(11, 6 8 )
N e i t h e r g r e a t d i v e r s i t y nor high q u a l i t y a r e necessary i n
t h e foods needed f o r human s u r v i v a l ,
Thoreau a l s o p e r c e i v e s t h e f l e x i b i l i t y o f man's p o s i t i o n
as a n omnivore.
H e r e p o r t s mockingly:
One farmer s a y s t o m e , "You c a n n o t l i v e on
v e g e t a b l e food s o l e l y , f o r it f u r n i s h e s
, , walking
n o t h i n g t o make bones w i t h ; "
a l l the w h i l e he talks b h i i l d his men,,
which, w i t h vegetable-made bones, j e r k him
and h i s lumbering plow along i n s p i t e o f
every obstacle ( I f , 10)
.
.
Applying h i s knowledge of b i o l o g y , Thoreau a r g u e s t h a t
the p a t h t o economic s i m p l i c i t y is, i n p a r t , b i o l o g i c a l
simplification--the
e l i m i n a t i o n o f a l i n k i n t h e food c h a i n
between p l a n t s and men,
I f men change from p a r t - t i m e c a r n i -
v o r e s t o e x c l u s i v e l yeh e r b i v o r e s and e a t o n l y t h e i r own o r
n a t u r e ' s produce, t h e n t h e i r socioeconomic connections a r e
reduced, t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o n a t u r e is more immediate.
Thoreau
g i v e s some specific advice :
Every New Englander might e a s i l y r a i s e a l l
h i s own b r e a d s t u f f s i n t h i s land of r y e and
I n d i a n corn, and n o t depend on d i s t a n t and
f l u c t u a t i n g markets f o r them, , , For t h e
most p a r t t h e farmer g i v e s t o h i s c a t t l e and
hogs t h e g r a i n of h i s own producing, and
buys f l o u r , which is a t least no more wholesome, a t a g r e a t e r c o s t , a t t h e s t o r e , I saw
t h a t I could e a s i l y r a i s e my bushel o r two
o f r y e and I n d i a n corn, f o r the former w i l l
grow on t h e p o o r e s t land, and t h e l a t t e r
does n o t r e q u i r e t h e best, and g r i n d them
i n a hand-mill, and s o d o w i t h o u t rice and
pork; and i f I must have some c o n c e n t r a t e d
s w e e t , I found by experiment t h a t I could
make a very good molasses e i t h e r of
pumpkins o r beets, and I knew t h a t I needed
o n l y t o set o u t a f e w maples t o o b t a i n it
more e a s i l y s t i l l , ,
, (11, 70-71)
.
.
Thus, by r e l y i n g on n a t i v e r e s o u r c e s , men escape t h e complexities o f ' t r a d e and e s t a b l i s h firmer bonds w i t h n a t u r e ,
To h i s economic reasons f o r u t i l i z i n g p l a n t s d i r e c t l y ,
Thoreau adds, i n the c h a p t e r "Higher Laws, " t h e p h i l o s o p h i c
i d e a l of p u r i t y ,
E a t i n g meat, he contends, d e f i l e s t h e body;
t h u s vegetarianism becomes a symbol o f p u r i f i c a t i o n .
Of
c o u r s e , Thoreau can never adhere even i n t e l l e c t u a l l y t o
vegetarianism.
J u s t a s a t t h e beginning o f "Higher Laws"
he is " s t r o n g l y tempted t o s e i z e and devour @ woodchuck]
rawM (11, 232), s o he r e p e a t e d l y is a t t r a c t e d , a s w i l l soon be
seen, t o t h e l i f e of t h e hunter and fisherman,
What m a t t e r s
u l t i m a t e l y is h e a l t h y involvement w i t h n a t u r e , n o t t h e v a r i e t y
o f t h a t involvement,
Consequently, whether Thoreau's arguments
f o r a v e g e t a r i a n d i e t a r e economic
o r transcendental, t h e i r
basis still lies h i s ecological interests,
The same i n t e r e s t s a r e e v i d e n t i n Thoreau's d i s c u s s i o n
o f farming a t the s u b s i s t e n c e l e v e l .
The c h a p t e r "The Bean-
F i e l d " d e a l s n o t o n l y w i t h methods o f a g r i c u l t u r e b u t a l s o
w i t h t h e dynamics of n a t u r e .
Charles Anderson h a s s t a t e d t h a t
t h e c h a p t e r is l a r g e l y humorous and symbolic: Thoreau's
a g r i c u l t u r a l v e n t u r e is an economic f a i l u r e , though he
contends it is a s u c c e s s ; .the t r u e s u b j e c t is t h e c u l t i v a t i o n
and d i s c i p l i n i n g o f s e l f .
Y e t Thoreau 's e c o l o g i c a l viewpoint
i n h i s account o f r a i s i n g beans should n o t be d i s c o u n t e d ,
Though it may s e r v e humorous and symbolic ends, such a viewp o i n t , n e v e r t h e l e s s , c o n s t i t u t e s Thoreau's a b i d i n g p e r c e p t u a l
relation t o nature,
Thoreau b e g i n s "The Bean-Field" by s t a t i n g t h i s s e n s e
o f r e l a t i o n s h i p by means o f a s i m i l e ,
The beans, he s a y s ,
" a t t a c h e d m e t o t h e e a r t h , and s o I g o t s t r e n g t h l i k e Antaeus"
(118
171).
J u s t as t h e g i a n t w r e s t l e r w a s p h y s i c a l l y renewed,
s o Thoreau is s e n t i e n t l y renewed through c o n t a c t w i t h t h e l a n d ,
Indeed, as Sherman Paul states, t h e primary impulse f o r
Thoreau's c u l t i v a t i n g beans is t o a c h i e v e a f e e l i n g o f
involvement w i t h n a t u r e .
"He had worked i n t h e b e a n f i e l d ,
moreover, n o t s o much f o r the sake o f beans, " Paul asserts,
H
, ,
. as f o r t h e s a k e o f p a r t i c i p a t i n g
i n t h e n a t u r a l processes,
f o r intimacy w i t h n a t u r e , because h e b e l i e v e d t h a t farming
w a s a n a t u r a l and u n s p e c i a l i z e d v o c a t i o n , a p r i m i t i v e and
u n i v e r s a l one
.,,.
lg3
The i d e a o f r e l a t i o n is c a r r i e d
' ~ h a r l e s ~ n d e r s o n ,The Magic C i r c l e o f Walden (New York :
H o l t , R i n e h a r t and Winston, 1 9 6 8 ) T z - 8 7 & 178,
f u r t h e r i n Thoreau's comparison o f Walden woods a s he knew
it when a c h i l d w i t h t h e woods o f h i s manhood:
The p i n e s s t i l l s t a n d h e r e o l d e r t h a n I; o r ,
i f some have f a l l e n , I have cooked my supper
w i t h t h e i r stumps, and a new growth is r i s i n g
a l l around, p r e p a r i n g a n o t h e r a s p e c t f o r new
i n f a n t eyes. Almost t h e s a m e johnswort s p r i n g s
from t h e same p e r e n n i a l r o o t i n t h i s p a s t u r e ,
and even I have a t l e n g t h helped t o c l o t h e
t h a t fabulous landscape o f my i n f a n t dreams,
and one o f t h e r e s u l t s o f my p r e s e n c e and
i n f l u e n c e i s s e e n i n t h e s e bean l e a v e s , c o r n
b l a d e s , and p o t a t o v i n e s . (11, 172)
While acknowledging t h e e f f e c t s upon t h e woods o f h i s l i v i n g
n e a r t h e pond and o f h i s farming, Thoreau c o n c e i v e s o f himself
as f i t t i n g i n t o t h e n a t u r a l world and o f h i s impact b e i n g
absorbed by the environment.
T h i s does n o t mean t h a t Thoreau f a i l s t o apprehend t h e
a r t i f i c i a l i t y o f a l l farming a c t i v i t i e s .
He w r i t e s of the
ground-nut's f a t e as an example o f t h e u n n a t u r a l stress caused
by t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n and growing of a l i e n
plants:
C u l t i v a t i o n h a s well-nigh e x t e r m i n a t e d i t ,
I n t h e s e days of f a t t e d c a t t l e and
is
waving g r a i n - f i e l d s t h i s humble r o o t
q u i t e f o r g o t t e n , o r known o n l y by i t s
flowering v i n e ; b u t l e t w i l d Nature r e i g n
h e r e once more, and t h e t e n d e r and l u x u r i o u s
E n g l i s h g r a i n s w i l l probably d i s a p p e a r
b e f o r e a myriad o f f o e s , and w i t h o u t t h e c a r e
o f man t h e crow may c a r r y back even t h e l a s t
s e e d o f c o r n t o t h e g r e a t c o r n f i e l d of t h e
I n d i a n ' s God i n t h e southwest, whence he i s
s a i d t o have brought i t ; b u t t h e now almost
e x t e r m i n a t e d ground-nut w i l l perhaps r e v i v e
and f l o u r i s h i n s p i t e o f f r o s t s and w i l d n e s s ,
prove i t s e l f indigenous, and resume its a n c i e n t
importance and d i g n i t y a s t h e d i e t o f t h e
(11, 264-265)
hunter t r i b e .
...
...
Thoreau p e r c e i v e s t h a t farm c r o p s f l o u r i s h s o l e l y because
o f human p r o t e c t i o n , t h a t i n t h e i r abundance t h e y e x c l u d e
n a t i v e p l a n t s adapted t o t h e same open land, and t h a t i n
free c o m p e t i t i o n t h e y might be e l i m i n a t e d , c e r t a i n l y reduced
i n range, by n a t i v e p l a n t s ,
Thoreau's sympathy, as h i s
f a n c i f u l r e f e r e n c e t o t h e crow o b v i o u s l y i n d i c a t e s , is w i t h
wild nature,
N e v e r t h e l e s s , i n r a i s i n g h i s beans a t Walden,
Thoreau d i s c r i m i n a t e s a g a i n s t o t h e r p l a n t s :
Consider t h e i n t i m a t e and c u r i o u s a c q u a i n t a n c e
one makes w i t h v a r i o u s k i n d s o f weeds
,
disturbing t h e i r d e l i c a t e organizations s o
r u t h l e s s l y , and making s u c h i n v i d i o u s d i s t i n c t i o n s w i t h h i s hoe, l e v e l l i n g whole r a n k s o f
s p e c i e s , and s e d u l o u s l y c u l t i v a t i n g a n o t h e r .
..
(11, 178)
Thoreau's d a i l y work, then, is t o compete a g a i n s t t h e n a t i v e
p l a n t s and a l s o animals s u c h a s woodchucks; he i s a c u t e l y
aware o f t h e d i s r u p t i o n t h a t he is c a u s i n g i n the o r d i n a r y
fabric o f n a t u r e ,
Y e t he r e a l i z e s t o o t h a t t h e t e n d i n g o f
b e a n s i n v o l v e s him i n n a t u r e ' s workings, even i f it does
u p s e t t h e normal b i o t i c community:
T h i s w a s my c u r i o u s l a b o r a l l summer,--to
make t h i s p o r t i o n of the e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e ,
which had y i e l d e d o n l y cinque f o i l , b l a c k berries, johnswort, and t h e l i k e , b e f o r e ,
s w e e t w i l d f r u i t s and p l e a s a n t flowers,
My
produce i n s t e a d t h i s p u l s e ,
a u x i l i a r i e s a r e dews and r a i n s which w a t e r
t h i s d r y s o i l , and what f e r t i l i t y is i n
t h e s o i l i t s e l f , which f o r t h e most p a r t
is l e a n and e f f e t e . My enemies a r e worms,
c o o l days, and most o f a l l woodchucks,
, , , But what r i g h t had I t o o u s t
...
johnswort and t h e rest, and break up t h e i r
a n c i e n t h e r b garden? Soon, however, t h e
remaining beans w i l l be t o o tough f o r
t h e m , and go forward t o m e e t new foes,
( I f , 171-172)
Thus Thoreau sees t h a t he is b o t h r e s i s t e d and a b e t t e d by
n a t u r e , t h a t he himself becomes an environmental f o r c e
o p e r a t i n g on t h e v a r i o u s p l a n t s p e c i e s , t h a t h e t o o p l a y s a
r o l e i n nature.
Because Thoreau c o n s i d e r s a l l forms o f l i f e v a l u a b l e ,
however, he contends t h a t any e v a l u a t i o n o f b i o l o g i c a l
p r o d u c t i v i t y should i n c l u d e w i l d a s w e l l a s domestic n a t u r e :
And, by t h e way, who e s t i m a t e s the value of
the c r o p s which n a t u r e y i e l d s i n t h e s t i l l
w i l d e r f i e l d s unimproved by man? The c r o p o f
E n q l i s h hay is c a r e f u l l y weighed, t h e
moisture c a l c u l a t e d , t h e silicates and t h e
p o t a s h ; b u t i n a l l d e l l s and pond-holes i n
the woods and p a s t u r e s and swamps grows a
r i c h and v a r i o u s c r o p o n l y unreaped by man.
Mine was, as it w e r e , t h e connecting l i n k
between w i l i ! an2 cultivated f i e l d s
my
f i e l d was ,
a half-cultivated f i e l d ,
They w e r e beans c h e e r f u l l y r e t u r n i n g t o
their w i l d and p r i m i t i v e s t a t e t h a t I
cultivated , , ,
(11, 174)
...
..
.
Thoreau is u n w i l l i n g t o d i s c o u n t the f e c u n d i t y of w i l d n a t u r e
simply because it does n o t economically p r o f i t man,
Moreover,
i n a f f i r m i n g the importance of t h e whole n a t u r a l world,
Thoreau denounces an e x t r a c t i v e a t t i t u d e towards t h e land.
The common farmer, he s a y s , "knows Nature b u t a s a r o b b e r "
(11 1 8 3
I n s t e a d of t h i s s e l f i s h approach t o n a t u r e Thoreau
champions a p e r s p e c t i v e which concedes a p l a c e t o o t h e r
l i v i n g p l a n t s and animals and t o land o t h e r than farms:
W e are wont t o f o r g e t t h a t t h e sun looks on our
c u l t i v a t e d f i e l d s and on t h e p r a i r i e s and
f o r e s t s without d i s t i n c t i o n , They a l l reflect
and absorb h i s r a y s a l i k e , and t h e former make
b u t a small p a r t of t h e g l o r i o u s p i c t u r e which
be heholds i n h i s d a i l y course. I n h i s view t h e
e a r t h is a l l e q u a l l y c u l t i v a t e d l i k e a garden,
Therefore we should r e c e i v e t h e b e n e f i t o f h i s
l i g h t and h e a t w i t h a corresponding t r u s t and
magnanimity, What though I value t h e seed of
t h e s e beans, and h a r v e s t t h a t i n t h e f a l l of
t h e y e a r ? This broad f i e l d which I have looked
a t s o long looks n o t t o m e as t h e p r i n c i p a l
c u l t i v a t o r , b u t away from m e t o i n f l u e n c e s
g e n i a l t o it, which water and make it green,
These beans have r e s u l t s which a r e n o t
harvested by m e , Do they n o t grow f o r wood, How, then, can our h a r v e s t
chucks p a r t l y ? ,
f a i l ? I t m a t t e r s l i t t l e comparatively whether
the f i e l d s fill t h e f a r m e r ' s b a r n s , The t r u e
husbandman w i l l cease from a n x i e t y , a s t h e
s q u i r r e l s manifest no concern whether t h e
woods w i l l b e a r c h e s t n u t s t h i s y e a r o r not,
and f i n i s h h i s l a b o r w i t h every day,
r e l i n q u i s h i n g a l l claim t o t h e produce o f
h i s f i e l d s , and s a c r i f i c i n g i n h i s mind not
only his first 5 ~ his
t
last f;r.csits also.
(11, 183-184)
.
However extravagant t h e ending of t h e above passage may be,
it does show Thoreau's f e e l i n g o f r e l a t e d n e s s w i t h a l l
n a t u r e and h i s awareness of man's t r u e p o s i t i o n i n t h e
scheme of nature.
Man is n o t t h e p r o p r i e t o r of t h e world--he
is j u s t one s p e c i e s t h a t e x i s t s i n it.
Thus, though t h e passage demonstrates t h e humor ( i n i t s
extreme i m p r a c t i c a l i t y ) and symbolism ( i n its p l e a f o r
a l t r u i s m ) i n d i c a t i v e , a s was p r e v i o u s l y s a i d , of "The Bean
F i e l d , " it s t i l l expresses what is e s s e n t i a l l y an e c o l o g i c a l
viewpoint,
Thoreau c o n s i s t e n t l y m a n i f e s t s h i s c o n s c i o u s n e s s
o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f o t h e r organisms and t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n
w i t h man,
Again, h i s e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e b o t h g i v e s
coherence t o h i s n a t u r e w r i t i n g and s e r v e s symbolic ends.
Undoubtedly, p a r t o f t h e symbolic d i s c i p l i n i n g o f s e l f i n
"The Bean-Field" is t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of man's place i n n a t u r e ,
That such r e c o g n i t i o n can best come from a c t u a l l y l i v i n g
i n n a t u r e is made clear by Thoreau's b u i l d i n g a h u t a t
Walden Pond and by h i s o b s e r v a t i o n s on t h e f o u r t h n e c e s s a r y
of l i f e - - S h e l t e r .
F i r s t , he n o t e s t h e importance o f s h e l t e r
t o t h e s u r v i v a l o f man:
Man , , , w a s a t first bare and o u t o f d o o r s ;
b u t though t h i s w a s p l e a s a n t enough i n s e r e n e
and w a r m weather, by d a y l i g h t , t h e r a i n y
s e a s o n and t h e w i n t e r , t o s a y nothing o f the
t o r r i d sun, would perhaps have nipped h i s
race i n t h e bud i f he had n o t made h a s t e t o
c l o t h e himself w i t h t h e s h e l t e r o f a house,
(11, 30)
While Thoreau ' s e v o l u t i o n a r y s e n s e is scmewhat f a u l t y , 4 he
d o e s show h i s awareness of man's v u l n e r a b i l i t y t o c l i m a t e
and o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f man's a d a p t a t i o n o f s h e l t e r .
He
* ~ h o r e a u' s knowledge o f t h e stages o f human e v o l u t i o n ,
of c o u r s e , is l i m i t e d , b u t h i s g r a s p o f t h e mechanism o f
e v o l u t i o n is pronounced. P a r e n t h e t i c a l l y , it may be noted
t h a t Thoreau had no d i f f i c u l t y i n a c c e p t i n g Darwin's t h e o r y
o f e v o l u t i o n , The i d e a o f n a t u r a l s e l e c t i o n , the s u r v i v a l of
t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s best adapted t o t h e environment, a b l e t o
compete s u c c e s s f u l l y f o r food and t o escape p r e d a t i o n , seems
t o have accorded w i t h Thoreau ' s own understanding o f e c o l o g i c a l
relationships,
a l s o p o i n t s o u t , however, how simple a s h e l t e r s u f f i c e s f o r
man.
H e d i s c u s s e s t h e s k i n wigwams o f the I n d i a n s and t h e
wood-lined h o l e s i n t h e ground o f t h e first New England
settlers,
Yet Thoreau does n o t s c o r n c i v i l i z e d improvements
i n housing, f o r he acknowledges t h a t " I n such a neighborhood
as t h i s , boards and s h i n g l e s , l i m e and b r i c k s , are cheaper
and more e a s i l y o b t a i n e d t h a n s u i t a b l e caves, o r whole l o g s ,
o r b a r k i n s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t i e s , o r even well-tempered c l a y
o r f l a t s t o n e s w (11, 4 4 ) .
What is o f prime importance is t o
make i n t e l l i g e n t u s e o f t h e materials o f n a t u r e a t hand.
Thoreau does n o t advocate p r i m i t i v i s m b u t a w i s e u t i l i z a t i o n
o f resources,
But t h e h i g h l y r e f i n e d use o f r e s o u r c e s is
dangerous i n t h a t it creates a gap between t h e c i v i l i z e d man
and n a t u r e .
The modern s h e l t e r s u s t a i n s a n a r t i f i c i a l s t y l e
of l i f e :
From the cave we have advanced to roofs of
palm l e a v e s , o f b a r k and boughs, o f l i n e n
woven and s t r e t c h e d , o f grass and s t r a w , of
boards and s h i n g l e s , of s t o n e s and t i l e s , A t
l a s t , w e know n o t what it is t o l i v e i n t h e
open a i r , and our l i v e s a r e domestic i n more
senses than we t h i n k , From t h e h e a r t h t h e
f i e l d is a great d i s t a n c e , (11, 31)
C i v i l i z e d housing and l i f e , Thoreau t h u s sees, have a
p s y c h o l o g i c a l as w e l l as a p h y s i c a l effect on man,
Not o n l y
d o t h e y i s o l a t e him s p a t i a l l y from the rest o f n a t u r e , b u t
a l s o t h e y f o s t e r i n him a s e n s e o f d i s s o c i a t i o n from n a t u r e ,
C l e a r l y , then, Thoreau's b u i l d i n g of h i s own s h e l t e r a t
Walden is 'both a p r a c t i c a l and symbolic a c t ,
On t h e f i g u r a -
t i v e as w e l l as t h e l i t e r a l l e v e l it i s a r e i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h
n a t u r e ( i f it is e v e r p o s s i b l e r e a l l y t o escape nature!)
shows man's r e l i a n c e
and
on n a t u r e f o r a basic needO5 Thoreau
locates h i s h u t away from the v i l l a g e , i n t h e woods, i n a s
w i l d a n a t u r e a s l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s permit, and he u s e s p i n e s
and h i c k o r i e s , trees t h a t he c u t s h i m s e l f on t h e site, t o
b u i l d t h e frame of h i s h u t ,
Though Thoreau makes c o n c e s s i o n s
t o t h e , economy, and convenience by employing used boards,
s h i n g l e s , windows, b r i c k s , and o t h e r ready-made i t e m s t o
f i n i s h t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n , he h a s dug h i s cellar i n , and made
h i s framework o f , t h e s u b s t a n c e o f w i l d n a t u r e ,
The h u t a t Walden Pond p r o v i d e s the o p p o r t u n i t y , as
R. B, L e w i s states, " f o r a wholeness o f s p i r i t r e a l i z e d i n
a d i r e c t e x p e r i e n c e of t h e whole o f n a t u r e . w6
It was t h i s
p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t l u r e d o t h e r men, even i f they w e r e n o t
f u l l y conscious o f it, t o t h e woods,
By l i v i n g a t t h e pond,
Thoreau e n c o u n t e r s t h e s e men, n a t u r a l men who l i v e t h e i r
5
Sherman Paul i d e n t i f i e s a n o t h e r symbolic meaning o f
t h e h u t : it "was perhaps t h e most obvious symbol o f b u i l d i n g
h i s l i f e , , ," (p, 329). But it is most i m p o r t a n t t h a t
Thoreau b u i l d s h i s l i f e i n n a t u r e where it w i l l be i n t e r connected w i t h a l l t h e l i f e a b o u t him, Once a g a i n , Thoreau's
e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e adds meaning t o h i s symbol.
-
-
6 ~ .B , L e w i s , The American Adam: Innocence, Traqedy, and
Tradition in t h e Nineteenth Century, (Chicago : Univ. o f
Chicago P r e s s , 1955) , p. 2 1 ,
,
l i v e s i n t h e w i l d , f o r t h e most p a r t , harmoniously and w i t h
zest.
H e w r i t e s envyingly o f them:
Fishermen, h u n t e r s , woodchoppers, and o t h e r s ,
spending t h e i r l i v e s i n t h e f i e l d s and woods,
i n a p e c u l i a r s e n s e a p a r t o f Nature themselves,
are o f t e n i n a more f a v o r a b l e mood f o r observi n g h e r , i n t h e i n t e r v a l s of t h e i r p u r s u i t s ,
t h a n p h i l o s o p h e r s o r p o e t s even, who approach
h e r w i t h e x p e c t a t i o n , She is n o t a f r a i d t o
e x h i b i t h e r s e l f t o them, (11, 232-233)
Thoreau does n o t simply want t o observe n a t u r e c l o s e l y ,
however; he wants t o f u n c t i o n i n n a t u r e .
And h e a g a i n g i v e s
symbolic meaning t o hi's e c o l o g i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s : e x p e r i e n c e
o f n a t u r e comes t o symbolize t h e s e l f ' s c o n t a c t w i t h r e a l i t y ,
Comparing t h e ice fisherman and t h e n a t u r a l i s t , Thoreau makes
h i s d e s i r e f o r t h e real evident:
H i s [the fisherman'sr) l i f e i t s e l f p a s s e s
deeper i n n a t u r e than t h e s t u d i e s o f t h e
n a t u r a l i s t penetrate; himself a s u b j e c t f o r
t h e n a t u r a l i s t , Tfme latter r a i s e s the moss
and t h e b a r k g e n t l y w i t h h i s k n i f e i n s e a r c h
o f i n s e c t s ; t h e former l a y s open l o g s t o
t h e i r c o r e w i t h h i s axe, and moss and b a r k
f l y f a r and wide, H e g e t s h i s l i v i n g by
b a r k i n g trees, Such a man h a s some r i g h t t o
f i s h , and I l o v e t o see n a t u r e c a r r i e d o u t
i n him, The p e r c h swallows t h e grub-worm,
the p i c k e r e l swallows t h e p e r c h , and the
fisherman swallows t h e p i c k e r e l ; and s o a l l
t h e chinks i n t h e s c a l e of being a r e f i l l e d ,
(11, 314)
While it i s impossible, o f c o u r s e , f o r Thoreau t o avoid
f i t t i n g i n t o some kind o f food c h a i n , what he wants is t o
f e e l e m o t i o n a l l y such entanglement i n n a t u r e .
The h u t a t
Walden a t l e a s t f u r n i s h e s t h e chance o f sensuous involvement;
it p e r m i t s immersion i n t h e f o r e s t s and meadows surrounding
Concord; it s u p p l i e s " t h e t o n i c o f w i l d n e s s " (11, 350) t h a t
Thoreau c l a i m s a l l men need.
Thus Thoreau can w r i t e :
"This
i s a d e l i c i o u s evening, when t h e whole body is one s e n s e ,
and imbibes d e l i g h t through e v e r y pore.
I g o and come w i t h
a s t r a n g e l i b e r t y i n Nature, a p a r t o f h e r s e l f " (11, 1 4 3 ) Another passage shows more o f a n e c o l o g i c a l s e n s i t i v i t y :
What d o w e want most t o dwell n e a r t o ? Not
,
b u t t o the
t o many men s u r e l y
p e r e n n i a l s o u r c e o f our l i f e , when i n a l l
o u r e x p e r i e n c e w e have found t h a t t o i s s u e ,
as t h e willow s t a n d s n e a r t h e w a t e r and
s e n d s o u t its r o o t s i n t h a t d i r e c t i o n , (11, 148)
. .
Thoreau's u s e o f an e c o l o g i c a l s i m i l e is r e v e l a t o r y .
It a t
once e x h i b i t s h i s consciousness o f t h e n e c e s s a r y r e l a t i o n s
i n n a t u r e and s u g g e s t s a similar p s y c h o l o g i c a l bond between
man and n a t u r e ,
A
more c o n c r e t e bond is ennunciated i n t h e
ca~emeiit: "The earth
..
,
is a living €art$; cozpared w i L l
whose g r e a t c e n t r a l l i f e a l l animal and v e g e t a b l e l i f e is
merely p a r a s i t i c w (11, 340-341).
Admittedly, Thoreau p o s s e s s e s
a romantic s e n s i b i l i t y , and t h e emotion from which t h e three
p r e c e d i n g p a s s a g e s s p r i n g is t y p i c a l l y romantic, b u t the
p r e s e n c e o f an e c o l o g i c a l example (the w i l l o w tree--water
s i m i l e ) and t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f o r g a n i c l i f e as p a r a s i t i c
b o t h i n d i c a t e a heightened e c o l o g i c a l awareness.
Thoreau
feels involved i n n a t u r e ( t h e emotion t h a t he wants) when
he observes and contemplates e c o l o g i c a l s i t u a t i o n s ,
Understandably, t h e n , as t h e v e r y c h a p t e r t i t l e s o f
Walden--"The
Ponds," "Brute Neighbors," "Winter Animals,"
.
.
.
.
"The Pond i n Winter, " " S p r i n g M - - i n d i c a t e , Thoreau is a keen
r e p o r t e r o f t h e l i f e about him,
The h u t a t Walden p r o v i d e s
a n o u t p o s t f o r s p y i n g on n a t u r e and p e r c e i v i n g i t s workings.
"As I s i t by my window t h i s a f t e r n o o n
. . . ," Thoreau
w r i t e s , "a f i s h hawk dimples t h e g l a s s y s u r f a c e o f t h e pond
and b r i n g s up a fish-; a mink steals o u t o f t h e marsh b e f o r e
my d o o r and s e i z e s a f r o g by t h e s h o r e
. . -"
(11, 127)
.
One o f Thoreau's major concerns, as t h e above q u o t a t i o n
i l l u s t r a t e s , is t h e s e a r c h f o r food.
Repeatedly i n c a s u a l
d e s c r i p t i o n s of n a t u r e he i n c l u d e s t h e theme, showing t h a t
In
animals as w e l l a s men pursue t h e n e c e s s a r i e s o f life.'l
t h e c h a p t e r s "Brute Neighbors I' and "Winter Animals, " i n
p a r t i c u l a r , he d e a l s e x t e n s i v e l y w i t h h u n t i n g and f i s h i n g by
A s C h a r l e s Anderson states, "Not j u s t t h e
b o t h man and beast.
p l e n i t u d e o f c r e a t u r e s i n a l l t h e i r range and d i v e r s i t y
f a s c i n a t e s him b u t t h e e n d l e s s c h a i n o f e a t e r and e a t e n . 8
'8
I n "Winter Animals,
"
f o r i n s t a n c e , Thoreau, having t o s s e d a
h a l f b u s h e l of e a r s o f s w e e t c o r n o u t s i d e h i s h u t , relates
how i t is disposed o f :
7
See, f o r example, h i s remarks on woodcocks s e a r c h i n g
f o r worms (11, 252), s q u i r r e l s and j a y s e a t i n g n u t s (11, 263264), and p r e d a t i o n a t n i g h t (11, 1 4 3 ) .
I n t h e t w i l i g h t and t h e n i g h t t h e rabbits
came r e g u l a r l y and made a h e a r t y meal. A l l
day long t h e r e d s q u i r r e l s came and went
...
A t length the jays a r r i v e
and
p i c k up t h e k e r n e l s which t h e s q u i r r e l s
have dropped,
,
Meanwhile a l s o came chickadees i n f l o c k s ,
which, p i c k i n g up t h e crumbs t h e s q u i r r e l s
had dropped, flew t o t h e n e a r e s t t w i g
,
,
(11, 302-304)
. .
. .
Thus, d i f f e r e n t c r e a t u r e s manage t o g e t h e r t o make f u l l u s e
of any food supply: t h e r e is no
w a s t e in n a t u r e ,
CPhnrea11
a l s o t e l l s o f p a r t r i d g e s e a t i n g t h e buds o f w i l d a p p l e trees
and o f mice t h e bark of p i t c h p i n e s .
Though t h i s l a s t
a c t i o n r e s u l t s i n k i l l i n g t h e p i n e s , Thoreau comments:
". , , perhaps
it is n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r t o t h i n t h e s e trees,
which a r e wont t o grow up d e n s e l y " (11, 309).
By combining
h i s knowledge of tree d i s t r i b u t i o n and h i s o b s e r v a t i o n o f a n
i n t e r s p e c i f i c i n t e r a c t i o n , Thoreau concludes t h a t such
depredations as mice d e s t r o y i n g p i n e s a r e e s s e n t i a i t o t h e
functioning of nature.
Indeed, i n "Spring " Thoreau affirms
t h e sacrifice o f many l i v e s i n t h e w i l d because it is a s i g n
o f t h e v i t a l force of nature:
W e are cheered when w e observe t h e v u l t u r e
f e e d i n g on the c a r r i o n which d i s g u s t s and
d i s h e a r t e n s us, and d e r i v i n g h e a l t h and
s t r e n g t h from t h e r e p a s t .
I love t o
s e e t h a t Nature is s o r i f e w i t h l i f e t h a t
myriads can be a f f o r d e d t o be s a c r i f i c e d
and s u f f e r e d t o p r e y on one a n o t h e r ; t h a t
t e n d e r o r g a n i z a t i o n s can be s o s e r e n e l y
squashed o u t o f e x i s t e n c e l i k e pulp, -t a d p o l e s which herons gobble up, and
t o r t o i s e s and t o a d s r u n over i n t h e road;
and t h a t sometimes it h a s r a i n e d f l e s h and
blood!
(11, 350)
...
The a d m i s s i b i l i t y of mass d e a t h and t h e c y c l i n g o f o r g a n i c
matter a t t e s t t o the d u r a b i l i t y o f nature.
Ta Thoreau's
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e e c o l o g i c a l n e c e s s i t y of p r e d a t i o n , t h e n ,
is added i t s symbolic v a l u e a s a n e x p r e s s i o n o f n a t u r e ' s
vitality,
Anderson sums up Thoreau's i n t e n t i o n a c c o r d i n g l y :
D e s t r u c t i o n is a n e c e s s a r y a s p e c t o f t h e
abundant h e a l t h and v i t a l i t y o f n a t u r e . I t
is n o t a world o f two c o n f l i c t i n g f o r c e s ,
l i f e and d e a t h , b u t of a s i n g l e triumphant
v i t a l f o r c e . Thus he j u s t i f i e s t h e ways o f
n a t u r e t o man, who must f i n d empathy w i t h
i t s w i l d n e s s i f he is t o be a t home t h e r e .9
Men are n o t o n l y t o empathize w i t h n a t u r e b u t a l s o t o
p a r t a k e s y m b o l i c a l l y o f its v i t a l i t y .
A l l the intimations
and demonstrations o f i n t e r r e l a t i o n i n n a t u r e s e r v e symbolic
ends i n making s i g n i f i c a n t t o man t h e r e b i r t h o f n a t u r e i n
t h e s p r i n g and a f f i r m i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f corresponding
human s p i r i t u a l r e b i r t h .
Thoreau ' s e c o l o g i c p e r c e p t i o n s a g a i n
f u r t h e r h i s symbolic meaning.
A
s k i l l f u l symbolic u s e o f e c o l o g i c information is
l i k e w i s e made i n Thoreau's account o f Walden Pond,
Undoubt-
e d l y , Thoreau's most comprehensive e c o l o g i c r e p o r t is on t h e
pond.
The o b s e r v a t i o n s , examined by b i o l o g i s t Edward Deevey,
have earned f o r Thoreau t h e t i t l e o f p i o n e e r l i m n o l o g i s t ,
Deevey summarizes some o f Thoreau's e c o l o g i c a l f i n d i n g s t h u s l y :
That Walden was a r e l a t i v e l y unproductive
l a k e w a s a p p r e c i a t e d by Thoreau, who
observed t h e s c a n t y c r o p o f l i t t o r a l
v e g e t a t i o n , t h e absence o f o r g a n i c
sediment e x c e p t i n t h e d e e p e s t w a t e r
(where he c o r r e c t l y a t t r i b u t e d i t s
e x i s t e n c e t o decomposing f o r e s t l e a v e s ) ,
and t h e " p u r i t y w o f t h e w a t e r , H e a l s o
r e a l i z e d t h a t food c h a i n s are t h u s
affected
and he p o i n t s o u t t h a t
t h e l a r g e r b u t comparatively s h a l l o w Sandy
Pond ( F l i n t ' s Pond) s u p p o r t s an abundance
o f a q u a t i c v e g e t a t i o n , is " n o t remarkably
p u r e , " and " i s more f e r t i l e i n f i s h . "
Walden w a t e r is indeed "pure"
r e s p e c t t o its plankton content,
. . .;
18'
What d i s t i n g u i s h e s Thoreau's o b s e r v a t i o n s o f Walden is t h e i r
p e r c e p t i v i t y and r e l a t i v e thoroughness.
H i s remarks on t h e
p e r i o d i c rise and f a l l o f the waters o f t h e pond w i l l
i l l u s t r a t e these points :
T h i s rise and f a l l of Walden a t long i n t e r v a l s
serves t h i s use a t l e a s t ; t h e w a t e r standing
at t h i s g r e a t h e i g h t f o r a y e a r o r more,
though it makes it d i f f i c u l t t o walk round it,
k i l l s t h e s h r u b s and trees which have sprung
up a b o u t i t s edge s i n c e t h e l a s t rise, --pitch
p i n e s , b i r c h e s , a l d e r s , aspens, and o t h e r s ,
and, f a l l i n g a g a i n , l e a v e s an u n o b s t r u c t e d
s h o r e ; f o r , u n l i k e many ponds and a l l w a t e r s
which a r e s u b j e c t t o a d a i l y t i d e , i t s s h o r e
is c l e a n e s t when t h e w a t e r is l o w e s t , On t h e
s i d e of t h e pond n e x t my house a row o f p i t c h
p i n e s , f i f t e e n f e e t high, h a s been k i l l e d and
t i p p e d o v e r as i f by a l e v e r , and t h u s a s t o p
p u t t o t h e i r encroachments; and t h e i r s i z e
i n d i c a t e s had many y e a r s have e l a p s e d s i n c e t h e
l a s t rise t o t h i s h e i g h t .
When the w a t e r
is a t i t s h e i g h t , the a l d e r s , willows, and
maples send f o r t h a mass o f f i b r o u s r e d r o o t s
s e v e r a l f e e t long from a l l s i d e s of t h e i r
s t e m s i n t h e w a t e r , and t o t h e h e i g h t o f t h r e e
o r f o u r f e e t from t h e ground, i n t h e e f f o r t t o
m a i n t a i n themselves; and I have known t h e h i g h
b l u e b e r r y bushes a b o u t t h e s h o r e , which
commonly produce no f r u i t , b e a r an abundant
c r o p under t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , (11, 201-202)
--
...
The passage is i n t e r e s t i n g because it r e c o r d s w i t h d e t a i l
t h e r e s u l t s o f a s l o w l y o c c u r r i n g phenomenon,
Thoreau
n o t e s t h e s i z e o f t h e p i t c h p i n e s as b i o l o g i c a l i n d i c a t o r s
o f t h e d a t e o f t h e l a s t rise i n w a t e r , and h e
reports the
r e s p o n s e s o f v a r i o u s p l a n t s t o an i n c r e a s e i n t h i s one
environmental f a c t o r : t h e trees send f o r t h s u b s i d i a r y r o o t s ,
t r y i n g t o s u p p o r t themselves, and t h e b l u e b e r r y bushes, h i g h e r
up t h e s h o r e , f l o u r i s h w i t h t h e e x t r a w a t e r , b e a r i n g f r u i t ,
Thoreau t h u s observes n o t only t h e g e n e r a l e f f e c t of t h e
rise i n waters--the
k i l l i n g o f vegetation--but
also particular
r e a c t i o n s by p l a n t s t o this u p s e t i n , o r bounty o f , t h e i r
environment.
I n a l l , Thoreau shows a r e a s o n a b l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d
ecological perspective,
A s f o r the symbolic u s e o f Thoreau's
ecology, t h i s becomes e v i d e n t i n h i s i d e a l i z a t i o n o f the pond.
Sherman Paul states : "That the pond was the r e a l self and
t h e s h o r e t h e e m p i r i c a l s e l f was made clear i n t h e c h a p t e r
on 'The Ponds. "I1
Walden's low b i o l o g i c a l p r o d u c t i v i t y
(and t h u s i t s c l a r i t y ) and i t s f l u c t u a t i o n i n volume, w i t h
the consequent e c o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s , b o t h c o n t r i b u t e t o its
symbolization a s t h e r e a l s e l f ,
Because Walden c o n t a i n s less
o r g a n i c matter t h a n o t h e r ponds, it seems more s p i r i t u a l ,
more sublime.
While a s t e r i l e s p a c e o f s h o r e u s u a l l y d i v i d e s
Walden from t h e v e g e t a t i o n of t h e land', i t s w a t e r o c c a s i o n a l l y
rises t o a c t upon t h e l a n d ; s o t o o t h e r e a l self i s c a p a b l e
of a l t e r i n g the empirical self.
Thus, t h e e c o l o g i c a l
,
a t t r i b u t e s of Walden Pond lend themselves t o Thoreau's
symbolic designs,
B u t preceding any process of symbolization,
of course, is Thoreau's ecologic perceptivity.
Thoreau ' s ecological perspective, then, connects h i s
comments on nature and gives depth t o the symbolic meaning
of Walden,
Throughout the book Thoreau can be seen t o examine
the f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g an organism's, i n p a r t i c u l a r man ' s ,
survival--clothing,
fuel, food, and s h e l t e r ,
Thoreau s t r e s s e s
t h a t nature is a perpetually functioning system.
By looking
a t both man and nature ecologically, Thoreau provides a common
basis for h i s s o c i a l c r i t i c i s m and nature observation.
His
ecological perspective shows both the i n t r i c a c y of the
n a t u r a l world and how man r e l a t e s t o t h a t world.
I n addition,
Thoreau t r i e s t o bring men psychologically closer t o nature:
h i s own involvement i n the functioning of nature is emotional
a s well as physical.
On the psychological plane many of
Thoreau's perceptions of nature's workings a l s o symbolize
aspects of human l i f e ,
Indeed, Charles Anderson s t a t e s :
What is the t r u e human-animal r e l a t i o n s h i p
for Thoreau, the f i n a l application of a l l
t h i s imagery i n Walden t o man's l i f e ? The
whole book is a quest for the most important
of a l l animals, not named i n the t e x t but
being sought there--man in h i s complete
fulfillment. Hence, when the narrator goes
out t o explore the world of h i s "Brute
Neighbors, " he is r e a l l y hunting. for h i s
~elf.12
Consequently, the p r o c e s s e s o f n a t u r e correspond t o t h o s e
o f t h e human spirit.
The renewal of l i f e i n s p r i n g is as
much moral as s u b s t a n t i a l .
But n e i t h e r Thoreau's ecology
nor h i s symbolism is s u b j u g a t e d one t o t h e o t h e r ; e a c h
o p e r a t e s l u c i d l y and f o r c i b l y a t i t s awn l e v e l .
Walden i s
a t once a p i c t u r e o f Thoreau's l i f e i n n a t u r e , an attempt
t o d e f i n e man's r e l a t i o n t o n a t u r e , a s t u d y o f t h e mechanism
of n a t u r e , a n e x h o r t a t i o n t o t h e human s p i r i t , and a
symbolic drama o f t h e f u l f i l l m e n t of s e l f .
I n Walden,
Thoreau mediates s u c c e s s f u l l y between symbolic and materiali s t i c modes o f v i s i o n , between t r a n s c e n d e n t a l m e d i t a t i o n
and e c o l o g i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n , by grounding t h e former on an
a n a l y s i s o f fundamental n a t u r a l r e l a t i o n s .
b r i l l i a n t symbolic and e c o l o g i c s y n t h e s i s .
Walden is a
Chapter 111--Ecological A p p l i c a t i o n s
The s n y t h e s i s of v i s i o n a t t a i n e d i n Walden is n o t
p r e s e n t i n Thoreau's o t h e r works.
The remaining t r a v e l
n a r r a t i v e s and n a t u r e e s s a y s t o b e d i s c u s s e d a g a i n demonstrate
h i s e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , b u t t h e y e i t h e r l a c k symbolic
dimension o r do n o t thoroughly i n t e g r a t e t h e i r symbols w i t h
t h e i r natural history.
Indeed, a book l i k e Cape Cod o r an
essay l i k e "Wild Apples" may be viewed a s a n i n s t a n c e of
Thoreau's applying an e c o l o g i c a l viewpoint t o a p l a c e o r a
subject.
T h i s is n o t t o d e l i m i t t h e s e works a s s c i e n t i f i c
studies--far
from it, f o r t h e y a r e a l s o rambling t r a v e l
a c c o u n t s and p h i l o s o p h i c m e d i t a t i o n s .
But t h i s i s t o emphasize
t h a t Thoreau's approach t o the' l a n d and n a t u r a l phenomena is
primarily ecologic.
This ecological perspective l e a d s t o a
more o r l e s s c o h e r e n t account of man and n a t u r e i n Thoreau's
later writings. 1
1
& Yankee
Canada, it must be admitted, b e l i e s t h e a l l i n c l u s i v e n e s s of t h e above a s s e r t i o n s . The e s s a y , p a r t s o f
which w e r e p u b l i s h e d i n Putnam's Monthly f o r January, February,
and March of 1853 and t h e whole of which w a s c o l l e c t e d p o s t humously i n 1866, e x p l o r e s Canadian s o c i e t y more t h a n it d o e s
t h e land. Two r e a s o n s account f o r Thoreau's focus i n t h e e s s a y .
F i r s t , Thoreau t r a v e l l e d o f t e n through an urbanized o r a t l e a s t
l o n g - s e t t l e d t e r r i t o r y on h i s Canadian t r i p ; most o f t h e n a t u r e
he s a w had been domesticated, Thus, t h e v i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s
between man and n a t u r e h a t i n t e r e s t Thoreau and t h a t form t h e
b u l k o f h i s s t a t e m e n t s n human ecology were g e n e r a l l y a b s e n t .
While he c l e a r l y longed o see t h e w i l d e r n e s s a r e a s of Canada,
i t e d him t o t h e populated
t h e b r e v i t y of h i s excursi
s h o r e s of t h e S t , Lawrence River. Second, Thoreau found t h e
d i f f e r e n c e s i n custom and s e t t l e m e n t between French Canada and
America engaging. The Church, t h e M i l i t a r y , and t h e Feudal
Land System were t h e c h i e f shaping f o r c e s on Canadian l i f e ; t h e
examination o f t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s , r a t h e r t h a n t h e environment,
o f f e r e d t h e b e s t chance of understanding t h e country. Both t h e
o p p o r t u n i t y f o r and t h e i n c l i n a t i o n towards a c o n s i s t e n t
e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e r e f o r e , were l a c k i n g i n Thoreau 's
t r i p n o r t h i n 1850.
L&&d
-
E c o l o g i c a l p e r c e p t i v i t y is most p r e v a l e n t i n Cape C o d ,
Based on Thoreau's t r i p s t o t h e Cape i n 1849, 1850, and
1855, t h e book w a s p u b l i s h e d , i n p a r t , i n Putnam's Monthly
d u r i n g t h e summer o f 1855 and, i n its e n t i r e t y , i n 1865.
-
Cape Cod is a p i c t u r e o f a f a s c i n a t i n g b u t h o s t i l e environment.
Thoreau is absorbed i n t h e r i g o r s o f l i f e on b o t h sea and
shore,
H e sees, as Sherman Pauf states, t h a t "Men w e r e n o t
subdued on t h e Cape; t h e y had p e r s e v e r e d i n the face of the
encroaching sea and t h e s h i f t i n g sands.
1t2
Through h i s
e c o l o g i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s Thoreau makes clear t h e n a t u r e o f l i f e
on Cape Cod.
Thoreau observes t h a t t h e sea is t h e p r i n c i p a l f e a t u r e
o f t h e l i v e s o f Cape Cod r e s i d e n t s .
"Everything t o l d o f t h e
sea, even when w e d i d n o t see i t s waste or h e a r its r o a r "
( I V , 32), he s a y s .
It is b o t h t h e p r o v i d e r and d e s t r o y e r of
1i
----af a
Fundamentally, t h e sea is a h o s t i l e environment. / A s
Thoreau' s r e p e a t e d r e f e r e n c e s t o shipwrecks --those
St, John,
-
of the
t h e F r a n k l i n , and o f a schooner c a r r y i n g lumber--
e
and t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of/ t h e i r o n l i g h t h o u s e i l l u s t r a t e , t h e
power o f t h e s e a i s
waves a t h i s p e r i l
264).
normous, man c o n t e s t s with t i d e s and
6-13,
73, 108, 163, 259-60,
I n a d d i t i o n t o human c o r p s e s t h e s e a c a s t s up marine
c r e a t u r e s a l o n g t h e shore.
Thoreau f i n d s s e a - j e l l i e s and
l a r g e clams strewn on t h e beach a f t e r a storm ( I V , 70, 72-73).
And, of course, the sea is the stronghold of w i l d n e s s :
"The ocean is a wilderness reaching round the globe, w i l d e r
than a Bengal jungle, and f u l l e r of monsters, washing the
very wharves of our c i t i e s and the gardens of our seaside
residences" ( I V , 188).
Man cannot check the savage predation
i n the sea and may even be a victim himself,
"They w i l l
t e l l you tough s t o r i e s of sharks a l l over the Cape
(IV,
1 1 2 ) , Thoreau reports.
n
. Thoreau accepted death,
, ,
. , ."
Yet, a s Sherman Paul points out,
a s the inhabitants of the
Cape did, with a c e r t a i n matter-of-fact
inevitability, as
a p a r t of the economy of d a i l y l i f e and nature, "3 The sea
a l s o transforms the land, adding a sandbar t o the Cape a t
one place, eroding the shore a t another, often with biological
consequences,
Thoreau records, for example, t h i s singular
incident :
I saw i n Cohasset, separated from the sea
only by a narrow beach, a handsome but
shallow lake of some four hundred acres,
which, I was told, the sea had tossed over
the beach i n a g r e a t storm in the spring,
e s had passed i n t o it,
o u t l e t , and now the
thousands, and the
inhabitants were apprehending a pestilence
a s the water evaporated, ( I V , 1 7 )
Yet i f the sea takes l i f e , it is a l s o the source of l i f e
f o r Cape Cod.
Not only is the sea the place of evolutionary
o r i g i n for a l l earthy l i f e (as Thoreau, quoting Darwin, Agassiz,
and other b i o l o g i s t s , a s s e r t s ) , but a l s o is it the supplier of
food f o r man ( I V , 127-128).
Nearly a l l Cape Cod men f i s h
f o r a l i v i n g , d r y i n g and s e l l i n g t h e i r s a l t e d c a t c h e s ,
Besides
f i s h , t h e sea a l s o p r o v i d e s d r i f t w o o d , which supplements t h e
wood Cape Codders import f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n and f u e l .
a n e a s t e r l y storm i n t h e s p r i n g , " Thoreau w r i t e s ,
"After
" t h i s beach
i s sometimes strewn w i t h E a s t e r n wood from one end t o t h e
o t h e r , which, as it belongs t o him who s a v e s it, and t h e Cape
is n e a r l y d e s t i t u t e o f wood, is a godsend t o t h e i n h a b i t a n t s "
(IV, 58-59),
Even seaweed is g a t h e r e d by Cape r e s i d e n t s , who
u s e it f o r manure (IV, 10-11).
men f o r a g i n g a l o n g t h e beach.
Time and a g a i n Thoreau meets
F i n a l l y , Thoreau n o t e s t h a t
t h e sea s u p p l i e s new p l a n t s t o t h e l a n d ,
A s he does f r e q u e n t l y
i n h i s J o u r n a l , Thoreau s p e c u l a t e s on a mechanism o f s e e d
dispersal:
A man t r a v e l l i n g by t h e s h o r e n e a r t h e r e n o t
long b e f o r e u s n o t i c e d something g r e e n growing
i n t h e p u r e sand o f t h e beach, j u s t a t highw a t e r mark, and on app oaching found it t o be a
bed o f b e e t s f l o u r i s h i g v i g o r o u s l y , probably
from seed wash d o u t
t h e F r a n k l i n . Also
beets and t u r n i
up i n t h e seaweed used
f o r manure i n many p a r t s o f t h e Cape, T h i s
s u g g e s t s how v a r i o u s p l a n t s may have been
d i s p e r s e d o v e r t h e world t o d i s t a n t i s l a n d s
and c o n t i n e n t s , V e s s e l s , w i t h s e e d s i n t h e i r
c a r g o e s , d e s t i n e d f o r p a r t i c u l a r p o r t s , where
perhaps t h e y w e r e n o t needed, have been c a s t
away on desolate i s l a n d s , and though t h e i r c r e w s
p e r i s h e d , some of t h e i r s e e d s have been p r e s e r v e d , Out o f many k i n d s a few would f i n d a
s o i l and climate adapted t o them, --become
n a t u r a l i z e d and perhaps d r i v e o u t t h e n a t i v e
p l a n t s a t l a s t , and s o f i t t h e l a n d f o r t h e
h a b i t a t i o n o f man, I t is an ill wind t h a t
blws nobody any good, and f o r t h e time
lamen table shipwrecks may t h u s c o n t r i b u t e a
new v e g e t a b l e t o a c o n t i n e n t ' s s t o c k , and
d
prove on t h e whole a l a s t i n g b l e s s i n g t o
its i n h a b i t a n t s . O r winds and c u r r e n t s
might e f f e c t t h e same w i t h o u t t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n of man.
(IV, 166)
From a f e w chance o b s e r v a t i o n s Thoreau draws o u t t h e means
and e c o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f i n t r o d u c i n g new p l a n t s p e c i e s
t o a f o r e i g n environment.
These are t h e i n t r i c a t e r e l a t i o n s o f l i f e w i t h t h e sea
on Cape Cod.
The sea is b o t h f r i e n d and foe, b o t h l i v e l i h o o d
and d e a t h d e a l e r f o r the Cape.
Men and o t h e r organisms
s u r v i v e by r e a p i n g whatever bounty it p r o v i d e s and by t r y i n g
t o a v o i d i t s dangers.
Cape Cod i t s e l f o f f e r s much t h e same paradox: though a
s e v e r e environment, it s t i l l s u p p o r t s l i f e .
e x i s t e n c e . Of t h e former Thoreau
\
( o b s e r v i n g how v e g e t a t i o n e x p l o i t s a s l i g h t human
\
prime f a c t s o f Cap
writes
Wind and sand are
Cod
m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e Jnvironment) : "
. . . w e passed
through a
J'
graveyard, which a p p a r e n t l y was saved from b e i n g blown away
by i t s slates, f o r they enabled a t h i c k bed o f huckleberry
bushes t o r o o t themselves amid t h e g r a v e s " (IV,
148).
l a t t e r h e states:
The b a r r e n a s p e c t o f t h e l a n d would h a r d l y be
b e l i e v e d i f d e s c r i b e d . I t was such s o i l , o r
r a t h e r l a n d , as, t o judge from appearances,
no farmer i n t h e i n t e r i o r would t h i n k o f
c u l t i v a t i n g , o r even f e n c i n g , G e n e r a l l y , t h e
plowed f i e l d s o f t h e Cape look w h i t e and
yellow, l i k e a m i x t u r e o f s a l t and I n d i a n
meal. This is c a l l e d s o i l . A l l a n i n l a n d e r ' s
n o t i o n s o f s o i l and f e r t i l i t y w i l l be
confounded by a v i s i t t o t h e s e p a r t s , and he
w i l l n o t be a b l e , f o r some time a f t e r w a r d , t o
d i s t i n g u i s h s o i l from sand. ( I V , 36)
of
the
Finding t h e Clay Pounds a s l i g h t l y more f e r t i l e a r e a ,
Thoreau observes : ", ,
. this
f e r t i l i t y must be owing mainly
t o t h e abundance o f m o i s t u r e i n t h e atmosphere, f o r what
l i t t l e g r a s s t h e r e was w a s remarkably l a d e n w i t h d e w i n t h e
morning, and i n summer dense imprisoning fogs f r e q u e n t l y
l a s t till midday ,
. ," ( I V ,
165).
Thus he accounts for t h e
q u a l i t y o f t h e v e g e t a t i v e cover by t h e abundance o r d e a r t h
o f a g i v e n environmental f a c t o r ,
For t h e most p a r t , however,
t h e Cape is sandy and windy, w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t , a t best,
dwarfed trees grow,
Thoreau t a k e s p a r t i c u l a r n o t e o f these:
The trees w e r e , i f p o s s i b l e , rarer t h a n t h e
houses, e x c e p t i n g a p p l e trees, o f which t h e r e
w e r e a f e w small o r c h a r d s i n t h e hollows, These
narrow and h i g h , w i t h f l a t t o p s ,
t h e i r s i d e branches, l i k e huge
growing i n exposed s i t u a t i o n s , o r
and branching immediately a t t h e
q u i n c e bushes, They s u g g e s t e d
l i k e circumstances, a l l trees
would a t l a s t a c q u i r e l i k e h a b i t s o f growth,
I a f t e r w a r d s a w on t h e Cape many full-grown
a p p l e trees n o t h i g h e r t h a n a man's head;
one whole o r c h a r d , indeed, where a l l t h e f r u i t
could have been g a t h e r e d by a man s t a n d i n g on t h e
ground; b u t you could h a r d l y c r e e p b e n e a t h t h e
trees.
( I V , 32-33)
And p e r c e i v i n g s i m i l a r i t i e s i n environment, he adds l a t e r
concerning t h e s e groves : "You would f r e q u e n t l y t h i n k , from
t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e s u r f a c e , t h e d w a r f i s h trees and t h e
b a r b e r r i e s around, t h a t you w e r e on t h e t o p o f a mountain"
(IV,
129)
.
Thoreau is t h u s a c u t e l y aware o f t h e s h a p i n g
f o r c e o f t h e Cape environment on p l a n t v i t a l i t y and growth
and i t s resemblance t o a l p i n e c o n d i t i o n s .
Another common
form of v e g e t a t i o n t h a t i n d i c a t e s markedly the effect o f
t h e wind is p o v e r t y g r a s s :
I n summer, i f t h e p o v e r t y - g r a s s grows a t t h e
head o f a Hollow looking toward t h e s e a , i n
a b l e a k p o s i t i o n where t h e wind r u s h e s up,
t h e n o r t h e r n o r exposed h a l f of t h e t u f t i s
sometimes a l l b l a c k and dead l i k e an oven
broom, w h i l e t h e o p p o s i t e h a l f is yellow w i t h
blossoms, t h e whole h i l l s i d e t h u s p r e s e n t i n g
a remarkable c o n t r a s t when s e e n from t h e
p o v e r t y - s t r i c k e n and t h e f l o u r i s h i n g s i d e
(IV,
.
135)
Y e t a n o t h e r p l a n t upon which Thoreau remarks is beach g r a s s .
He observe t h a t it p r o v i d e s a r e c o r d o f t h e formation o f t h e
sand dune i n which it graws:
The g r a s s r o o t s i t s e l f v e r y f i r m l y , When I
endeavored t o p u l l it up, it u s u a l l y broke
o f f t e n i n c h e s o r a f o o t below t h e s u r f a c e ,
a t what had been t h e s u r f a c e t h e y e a r b e f o r e ,
numerous o f f s h o o t s t h e r e ,
hard, round s h o o t ,
how much t h e sand had
and sometimes t h e
dead s t u b s o f a p r e v i o u s s e a s o n w e r e p u l l e d
up w i t h it from s t i l l deeper i n t h e sand,
w i t h t h e i r own more decayed s h o o t a t t a c h e d , - s o t h a t t h e age o f a s a n d - h i l l , and i t s rate
o f i n c r e a s e f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s , is p r e t t y
a c c u r a t e l y recorded i n t h i s way, ( I V , 205-206)
Thus, beach g r a s s c h r o n i c l e s t h e s e v e r i t y o f i t s environment.
Perhaps t h e h o s t i l i t y o f t h e l a n d , however, is summed up i n
t h e f o l l o w i n g passage :
The s e a s h o r e is a s o r t o f n e u t r a l ground,
a most advantageous p o i n t from which t o
contemplate t h e world.
Creeping along
the e n d l e s s beach amid t h e sun-squaw1 and t h e
foam, i t o c c u r s t o us t h a t w e , t o o , are t h e
p r o d u c t o f sea-slime
...
.
I t is a wild, rank p l a c e , and t h e r e i s no
f l a t t e r y i n it, Strewn w i t h c r a b s , horse-shoes,
and razor-clams, and whatever t h e s e a c a s t s up,
--a v a s t morque, where famished dogs may range
i n packs, and crows come d a i l y t o g l e a n the
pit?zance-which t h e t i d e l e a v e s them, The
c a r c a s s e s o f men and b e a s t s t o g e t h e r l i e s t a t e l y
up upon i t s s h e l f , r o t t i n g and bleaching i n t h e
sun and waves, and each t i d e t u r n s them i n t h e i r
beds, and tucks f r e s h sand under them. There is
naked Nature, --inhumanly s i n c e r e , w a s t i n g no
thought on man, n i b b l i n g a t t h e c l i f f y s h o r e
where g u l l s wheel amid t h e s p r a y , ( I V , 186-187)
o f any organism,
H i s p i c t u r e of Cape Cod shows t h e s t r u g g l e
f o r s u r v i v a l i n , and t h e a d a p t a t i o n s o f organisms t o , an
u n r e l e n t i n g environment.
Not s u r p r i s i n g l y , s i n c e they l i v e i n h a r s h surroundings,
''y
i
i n h a b i t a n t s of Cape Cod a r e e n t e r p r i s i n g i n t h e u t i l i z a t i o n
of t h e r e s o u r c e s they do have,
U n t i l it became uneconomical,
~p/oreau r e p o r t s , t h e y e x t r a c t e d s a l t from seawater (IV,
23).
they used t o k i l l g u l l s and s o n g b i r d s (PV, 71-72], and they
made t h e i r own c a n d l e s from b a y b e r r i e s ( I V , 102-103). Their
c u r r e n t u s e of r e s o u r c e s i n c l u d e s t h e h a r v e s t i n g o f clams on
the s h o r e (XV, 3 5 ) , t h e k i l l i n g o f s c h o o l s of b l a c k f i s h f o r
t h e i r o i l ( I V , 142-146), the g r w i n g of c o r n ( I V , 37-38),
t h e s u c c e s s f u l p l a n t i n g of p i n e s on otherwise b a r r e n t r a c t s
i n B a r n s t a b l e county ( I V , 22, 1 3 8 ) , the r a i s i n g o f c r a n b e r r i e s
i n swamps ( I V , 1 9 7 ) , and even the pruning of t r e e t o p s f o r
f u e l ( I V , 203).
writes:
O f t h e i r a g r i c u l t u r e i n g e n e r a l , Thoreau
It is s u f f i c i e n t l y remarkable t h a t any c r o p s
can be r a i s e d h e r e , and it may be owing, a s
o t h e r s have suggested, t o t h e amount o f
moisture i n t h e atmosphere, the warmth of M e
sand, and t h e r a r e n e s s o f f r o s t . ,
,
Probably t h e i n h a b i t a n t s a r e contented w i t h
s m a l l c r o p s from a g r e a t s u r f a c e e a s i l y
c u l t i v a t e d . I t is n o t always t h e most f e r t i l e
land t h a t i s t h e most p r o f i t a b l e , and t h i s
sand may repay c u l t i v a t i o n as w e l l as t h e
most f e r t i l e bottoms o f t h e W e s t ,
, Their
gardens a r e commonly l i t t l e p a t c h e s t h a t have
been redeemed from t h e edges o f t h e marshes
and swamps, ( I V , 39-40)
.
..
Thus, Thoreau r e p o r t s t h e e c o l o g i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s of o t h e r s
and p e r c e i v e s himself t h e phys i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s and advantages
o f t h e l a n d and t h e accommodation o f t h e i n h a b i t a n t s t o it.
O f course, Cape Codders have o f t e n abused t h e i r environ-
ment i n t h e p r o c e s s of f u l l y u t i l i z i n g its s c a n t r e s o u r c e s .
Thoreau r e p o r t s t h a t clams a r e n o t as p l e n t i f u l a s p r e v i o u s l y
and s t a t e s e x c e s s i v e g a t h e r i n g a s t h e main reason:
be,
.I- \
Probably me
CL rn-ground has been stirred too
Nevertheless, one man, who
frequently
,
e y fed p i g s w i t h them and
complained t h a t
t o l d m e t h a t h e dug and
s o made them sc
opened one hund ed and twenty-six d o l l a r s '
worth i n one w i n t e r , i n Trurow ( I V , 3 6 )
.
He observes t h a t , i n the p a s t , much e r o s i o n o f t h e Cape has
been due d i r e c t l y t o man:
"Formerly, t h e cows w e r e p e r m i t t e d
t o go a t l a r g e , and t h e y ate many s t r a n d s o f t h e c a b l e by
which the Cape is moored, and well-nigh s e t it a d r i f t
.,,
b u t now they a r e n o t p e r m i t t e d t o wander" ( I V , 209).
Indeed,
t h e government even pays f o r t h e p l a n t i n g of beach g r a s s t o
h a l t t h e s h i f t i n g sands (IV,
208).
Thoreau n o t e s t h e d e s t r u c t i o n
a s e a r l y a s 1770, of the o y s t e r s n a t i v e t o Massachusetts Bay,
probably due t o t h e p o l l u t i o n of decaying c a r c a s s e s of
b l a c k f i s h , which t h e Cape Codders had k i l l e d and
stripped of
their blubber ( I V , 82-83) , I n c i d e n t a l l y , w i t n e s s i n g such a
s l a u g h t e r o f b l a c k f i s h , Thoreau recommends t h a t t h e c o r p s e s
"might be made i n t o guano, and Cape Cod is n o t s o f e r t i l e t h a t
h e r i n h a b i t a n t s can a f f o r d t o do w i t h o u t t h i s manure, --to say
nothing of t h e d i s e a s e s t h e y may produce" (IV, 146).
Thoreau is t h u s keenly aware o f t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n o f
Cape Cod and i t s i n h a b i t a n t s .
H e warns a g a i n s t the tendency
t o e x p l o i t a t i o n b u t applauds a c o n s i s t e n t l y e f f i c i e n t ,
economical use o f r e s o u r c e s .
H e sees t h a t the q u a l i t i e s of
e f f i c i e n c y and s t a b i l i t y i n man, animal, and p l a n t p e r m i t
s u r v i v a l on Cape Cod.
One c r i t i c , however, c a s t i g a t e s Thoreau
f o r l a c k o f what amounts t o e c o l o g i c a l s e n s i t i v i t y .
Hinckley s t a t e s :
Edward
\\
2
I n brief, Thoreau never e t e r e d i n t o t h e l i f e
of h i s fellows, and ther o r e can n o t understand
t h e s o r t of environment h i c h i n f l u e n c e s a man's
l i f e , The Cape Codder depends on h i s n a t i v e s o i l
and h i s n a t i v e w a t e r s ; w i t h o u t t h e m , h e i s n o t ;
removed from them. even i n t h e mind o f a s t r o l l i n g
l i t t e r a t e u r , o r conceived a p a r t from them and n o t r a t h e r viewed a s a product o f them, and they a s
t h e f i t surroundings f o r him, he i s i n e v i t a b l y an
anomalous and misunderstood m i r a c l e . There is a
s n e e r i n a l l Thoreau's condescending c o n s i d e r a t i o n
of t h e n a t i v e Cape i n d i v i d u a l ; t h e r e is no word o f
approval o r genuine a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e l i f e o r
t h e people. 4
4
Edward B . Hinckley, "Thoreau and Beston: Two Observers
New England Q u a r t e r l y , 4 (1931), 2 2 1 ,
o f Cape Cod," -
While Thoreau may n o t be humanistic enough f o r Hinckley ( f o r
he does seem t o remain s c i e n t i f i c a l l y d e t a c h e d ) , by now
s u f f i c i e n t examples should have made c l e a r t h a t Thoreau
perceives q u i t e d i s t i n c t l y the ecologic i n t e r r e l a t i o n s
f u n c t i o n i n g on t h e Cape and he f u l f i l l s t h e g o a l s e t a t t h e
beginning of h i s book--"I
d i d n o t see why I might n o t make a
book on Cape Cod, a s w e l l a s my neighbor on 'Human C u l t u r e , '
I t is b u t a n o t h e r name f o r t h e same t h i n g , and h a r d l y a
s a n d i e r phase o f itw( I V , 3 ) .
Thoreau r e a l i z e s t h a t human
l i f e on Cape Cod is p o s s i b l e o n l y by i n t i m a t e involvement
w i t h n a t u r e and t h a t the Cape Codder i s moulded by t h i s
involvement,
A s John J, M c A l e e r p o i n t s o u t ,
On Cape Cod he found a people who w e r e , almost
o u t o f n e c e s s i t y , specimens o f l i f e a s it
should be when l i v e d i n c l o s e s t c o n c e r t w i t h
Nature,
o f t h e people is
...
formed by t h e
shifting
ocean which is
under them;
with
razor-sharp between them.
I n Cape Cod, then, through a n e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e ,
Thoreau sees t h e e s s e n t i a l drama of Cape life--the s t r u g g l e
f o r s u r v i v a l o f e v e r y organism i n t h a t environment,
By
p r e s e n t i n g the e c o l o g i c r e a l i t i e s of Cape Cod i n c o n j u n c t i o n
w i t h t h e account o f h i s t o u r , Thoreau g i v e s a u n i t y of v i s i o n
t o h i s book and g r a s p s t h e fundamental meaning o f t h e Cape,
~ o h nJ. McAleer
43 ( l 9 6 8 ) , 234.
"Thoreau ' s Epic ' Cape Cod, " Thought ,
"Chesuncook," t h e s t o r y of a moose h u n t i n g t r i p i n
Maine i n 1853, r e v e a l s a much d i f f e r e n t e c o l o g i c a l focus
from Cape Cod.
F i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n t h e A t l a n t i c Monthly
f o r June, J u l y , and August o f 1858, the e s s a y c o n t a i n s
Thoreau's most e x p l i c i t a p p e a l f o r c o n s e r v a t i o n .
A s Sherman
Paul h a s suggested, t h e e s s a y a t t e m p t s t o answer t h e q u e s t i o n
" i f p r i m i t i v e n a t u r e and c i v i l i z a t i o n are contemporary i n
America, how should one use
nature?^^
Mentally comparing Maine t o Concord, Thoreau is p a r t i c u l a r
t o p o i n t o u t t h e d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s of t h e w i l d e r n e s s and man's
impact upon it.
Near t h e beginning o f "Chesuncook," f o r
example, Thoreau n o t e s how one p l a n t h a s extended i t s range,
because o f man, by d i s p o s s e s s i n g n a t i v e s p e c i e s : "The Canada
t h i s t l e , a n introduced p l a n t , w a s \ p e p r e v a i l i n g weed a l l t h e
b
way t o t h e l a k e , t h e r o a d s i d e i n m a y p l a c e s , and f i e l d s n o t
l o n g c l e a r e d , b e i n g d e n s e l y f i l l e d w i t h it as w i t h a c r o p , t o
J
t h e e x c l u s i o n o f e v e r y t h i n g e l s e " (111, 96).
On t h e o t h e r
hand, the t y p e o f v e g e t a t i o n t h a t Thoreau s e e s f o r t h e m o s t
p a r t s t i l l d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h e w i l d e r n e s s of Maine from longsettled territory:
"There w e r e a l s o whole f i e l d s f u l l o f f e r n s ,
now r u s t y and w i t h e r i n g , which i n o l d e r c o u n t r i e s are commonly
confined t o wet ground.
There were f e w flowers, even a l l o w i n g
f o r t h e l a t e n e s s o f the s e a s o n u (111, 96-97),
Thus, Thoreau
b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e s d i f f e r i n g p l a n t communities t o c o n t r a s t t h e
p r i m i t i v e f o r e s t o f Maine w i t h t h e i n r o a d s o f c i v i l i z a t i o n ,
The same consciousness o f change is e v i d e n t i n T h o r e a u t s
a c c o u n t o f t h e ways o f l i f e i n t h e woods.
A s i n "Ktaadn,
he n o t e s haw t h e l a n d is c l e a r e d f o r s e t t l e m e n t : the trees
f e l l e d and t h e n burned (111, 119-20);
and he admires t h e
n a t u r a l s t y l e o f p i o n e e r houses, made of whole l o g s w i t h
" l i c h e n s and mosses and f r i n g e s o f b a r k " (111, 139) s t i l l
c l i n g i n g t o them,
But i f one p i o n e e r ' s house accommodates
i t s e l f t o t h e w i l d e r n e s s , it is n e v e r t h e l e s s " t h e f i r s t r u d e
beginnings of a tm" (111, 144j and for-bodes t h e transformat i o n o f t h e landscape.
Thoreau r e p o r t s :
of a winter
They spoke o f
road t o t h e
would n o t
c o s t much,
steam
and s t a g i n g
doubted i f
same l a k e ,
t h e s h o r e s should be c l e a r e d and s e t t l e d ; as i f
t h e s e l a k e s and streams which e x p l o r e r s r e p o r t
n e v e r awaited t h e a d v e n t o f t h e c i t i z e n ,
(111, 144)
W i t h this
s e n s e o f impending d e s t r u c t i o n , Thoreau views man's
a c t i o n s i n t h e woods,
H e f i n d s grounds f o r h i s a n x i e t y a b o u t
t h e s u r v i v a l o f t h e environment i n t h e crass a t t i t u d e s o f ' t h e
h u n t e r s and lumbermen t h a t he meets,
He consistently contrasts
t h e n a t u r a l and t h e " c i v i l i z e d , " t h e l i f e o f t h e f o r e s t and
man's a c t i v i t i e s t h e r e ,
Though p a r t o f a s p o r t s m a n ' s moose hunting e x p e d i t i o n , a
c i v i l i z e d , a r t i f i c i a l i n v a s i o n o f t h e f o r e s t , Thoreau does
n o t accompany h i s f r i e n d s on f u r t h e r h u n t s once t h e y have
k i l l e d one moose and h e h a s examined it.
H i s specific
ecological observations concerning the animal a r e minimal,
A s i n "Ktaadn,
"
he mentions the increase in the moose
population from what it was t h i r t y years ago (111, 153-154),
though he does not t h i s time discuss' its cause,
He
p a r t i c u l a r l y points out, however, the favorite h a b i t a t of
moose and where they a r e most abundant--"a small bay, or
pokelogan, as it is called, bordered by a s t r i p of meadow,
o r separated from the r i v e r by a l o w peninsula covered with
coarse grass, wool-grass, e t c , , wherein they
.
, ,
eat
the
pads" (111, 109).
t
But Thoreau's g u i l
over h i s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the hunt
I
overrides h i s s c i e n t i f i c i n t e r e s t s , and he s t a t e s :
This afternoon 's experience suggested t o me
how base or coarse a r e the motives which
commonly carry men into the wilderness. The
explorers and lumberers generally a r e a l l
h i r e l i n g s , paid so much a day for t h e i r labor,
and a s such they have no more love f o r w i l d
nature than wood-sawyers have f o r fsrests
Other white men and Indians who come here a r e
for the most p a r t hunters, whose object is t o
s l a y as many moose and other w i l d animals a s
For one t h a t comes with a
possible,
pencil t o sketch or sing, a thousand come with
an axe or r i f l e , What a coarse and imperfect
use Indians and hunters make of Nature! No
wonder t h a t t h e i r race is so soon
exterminated, (111, 133)
.
...
I n "Chesuncook," a s the above passage shows, Thoreau approaches
Albert Schweitzer's philosophy of "reverence for l i f e . "
Thoreau is e x p l i c i t a few paragraphs l a t e r when he declares :
"krery creature is b e t t e r a l i v e than dead, men and moose and
pine t r e e s , and he who understands it a r i g h t w i l l r a t h e r
p r e s e r v e i t s l i f e t h a n d e s t r o y i t " (111, 1 3 5 ) .
O f course,
s u c h an o p i n i o n h a r d l y a g r e e s w i t h e c o l o g i c a l r e a l i t y and
is c o n t r a d i c t e d , moreover, by Thoreau himself when he a d m i t s :
" I c o u l d spend a y e a r i n t h e woods, ' f i s h i n g and h u n t i n g
j u s t enough t o s u s t a i n myself, w i t h s a t i s f a c t i o n " (111, 1 3 2 ) .
Thoreau is forced i n t o an extreme a p p e a l f o r p r e s e r v a t i o n ,
it seems, because o f t h e r u t h l e s s e x p l o i t a t i o n of r e s o u r c e s
t h a t he w i t n e s s e s .
Market h u n t i n g o f game, h u n t i n g f o r h i d e s
and f o r s p o r t , and e x t e n s i v e lumbering a l l t h r e a t e n the
existence of the wilderness,
Thoreau c o u n t e r s t h i s c o n c e n t r a -
t i o n on materialistic u k i l i z a t i o n of t h e Maine woods w i t h a
\
"a
claim f o r aesthetic u t i l i z a ion:
S t r a n g e t h a t s o f e w &er come t o t h e woods
t o see how t h e p i n e l i v e s and grows and
s p i r e s , l i f t i n g i t s e v e r g r e e n arms t o t h e
l i g h t , --to see i t s p e r f e c t s u c c e s s ; b u t
most are c o n t e n t t o behold it i n the shape
o f many broad boards brought t o market, and
deem t h a t i t s t r u e success! B u t t h e pine is
n o more lumber t h a n man is and t o be made
i n t o boards and houses is no more i t s t r u e
and h i g h e s t u s e t h a n t h e t r u e s t u s e of a
man is t o be c u t down and made i n t o manure.
(111, 134)
-
Lew D i e t z misses Thoreau's p o i n t when he s t a t e s : "What he
f a i l e d t o understand was t h a t t h e g r e a t p i n e s w e r e as m o r t a l
as he; t h e y w e r e even t h e n overmature and t h e i r y e a r s , a s
h i s , w e r e numbered,
"'Thoreau does n o t s i m p l y oppose t h e
c u t t i n g o f p i n e s ; he opposes man's shaping p r e s e n c e i n t h e
w i l d e r n e s s , even i f it o n l y h a s t e n s i n e v i t a b l e n a t u r a l changes ;
7 ~ e wD i e t z , T h e A l l e s a s h (New York: H o l t , R i n e h a r t , and
Winston, 1968), p , 162,
he opposes a n e x c l u s i v e l y economic view o f the landscape
and the d i s m i s s a l o f i t s o t h e r u s e s .
I n the conclusion of "Chesuncook," Thoreau d e s c r i b e s t h e
fundamental ecology of t h e Maine woods and t h e e a s e w i t h
which man u p s e t s it:
Humbold t has w r i t t e n an i n t e r e s t i n g c h a p t e r
on t h e p r i m i t i v e f o r e s t , b u t no one has y e t
d e s c r i b e d t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h a t w i l d
f o r e s t which once occupied our o l d e s t townships,
and t h e tame one which I f i n d h e r e to-day- I t
is a d i f f e r e n c e which would be worth a t t e n d i n g
t o , The c i v i l i z e d man n o t only c l e a r s t h e land
permanently t o a g r e a t e x t e n t , and c u l t i v a t e s
open f i e l d s , b u t he tames and c u l t i v a t e s t o a
c e r t a i n e x t e n t t h e f o r e s t i t s e l f , By h i s mere
presence, almost, he changes t h e n a t u r e o f t h e
trees a s no o t h e r c r e a t u r e does. The sun and
a i r , and perhaps f i r e , have been introduced,
and g r a i n r a i s e d where it s t a n d s . I t h a s l o s t
i t s w i l d , damp, and shaggy look; t h e c o u n t l e s s
f a l l e n and decaying t r e e s a r e gone, and
consequently t h a t t h i c k c o a t o f moss which
l i v e d on them is gone too. The e a r t h is
comparatively b a r e and smooth and d r y . The most
p r i m i t i v e p l a c e s l e f t w i t h us a r e t h e swamps
where t h e s p r u c e s t i l l grows shaggy w i t h usnea,
The s u r f a c e o f t h e ground i n t h e Maine woods
is everywhere spongy and s a t u r a t e d w i t h moisture
I n o t i c e d t h a t t h e p l a n t s which cover t h e f o r e s t
f l o o r t h e r e are such a s a r e commonly confined t o
, ; and t h e p r e v a i l i n g a s t e r
swamps w i t h u s
t h e r e is A s t e r acuminatus, which with u s grows
(111, 167-68)
i n damp and shady woods.
.
. .
Thoreau p e r c e i v e s d i s t i n c t l y t h e p r o c e s s by which man can
change t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e f o r e s t simply by a l t e r i n g t h e
p r o p o r t i o n o f g i v e n environmental
factors.
The f o r e s t
community i n Maine, Thoreau sees, is s u s t a i n e d by an abundance
o f w a t e r , and human methods of c u l t i v a t i o n and c i v i l i z a t i o n
tend t o d i s s i p a t e such r e s e r v e s of water, r e s u l t i n g i n t h e
destruction of primitive nature.
While acknowledging t h a t t h e w i l d e r n e s s is n e c e s s a r y
" f o r a r e s o u r c e and a background, t h e r a w m a t e r i a l o f a l l
Thoreau wishes
our c i v i l i z a t i o n "
o f it i n i t s n a t u r a l c o n d i t i o n ,
Why should n o t w e ,
keep a p a r t
He a r g u e s :
..
have our n a t i o n a l
p r e s e r v e s , where no v i l l a g e s need be
d e s t r o y e d , i n which t h e bear and p a n t h e r ,
and some even of t h e h u n t e r race, may s t i l l
e x i s t , a d n o t be ' c i v i l i z e d o f f the face
o f t h e e r t h , ' --our f o r e s t s
,
not f o r
i d l e s p o t o r food, b u t f o r i n s p i r a t i o n and
o u r own t e r e c q e a t i o n ? o r s h a l l w e , l i k e
t h e v i l l a i n s , r u b them a l l up, poaching
on our awn n a t i o n a l domains? (111, 173)
!
. .
\
Conservation, then, is t h e focus o f "Chesuncook,"
account
t h e h u n t i n g t r i p , t h e comments
The
man ' s a c t i v i t i e s
i n t h e woods, a l l form p a r t o f a p l e a f o r p r e s e r v a t i o n of a
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sample o f w i l d e r n e s s .
perspective--his
Thoreau's e c o l o g i c a l
a l e r t n e s s t o man ' s impact upon t h e environment,
readily
prompts him t o make t h i s e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y d e f e n c e o f
wild A m e r i c a .
I n "Allegash and E a s t Branch," w r i t t e n d u r i n g t h e summer
o f 1857 b u t unpublished till 1865, Thoreau's e c o l o g i c a l
perspective fails t o give unity t o the essay,
H i s observa-
t i o n s range v a r i o u s l y from p l a n t d i s t r i b u t i o n t o lumbering
t o I n d i a n woodcraft.
Many o f Thoreau ' s e c o l o g i c p e r c e p t i o n s i n "Allegash and
E a s t Branch" concern t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of v e g e t a t i o n .
For
example, climbing M t . Kineo, he n o t e s t h e effects o f . l a t i t u d e
and a l t i t u d e on t h e growth o f p l a n t s :
The p l a n t s which c h i e f l y a t t r a c t e d our
a t t e n t i o n on t h i s mountain w e r e t h e mountain
c i n q u e f o i l ( P o t e n t i l l a t r i d e n t a t a ) , abundant
and i n bloom s t i l l a t t h e v e r y base, by t h e
w a t e r - s i d e , though it is u s u a l l y c o n f i n e d t o
t h e summits of mountains i n o u r l a t i t u d e
,
S p i r a n t h e a cernua, a t t h e t o p ; bunchberry
reddening a s w e a s c nded, g r e e n a t t h e b a s e
o f t h e mountain, r d a t t h e t o p
(111,
196)
e
.
. ...
Thoreau p e r c e i v e s t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s i n e l e v a t i o n correspond t o
differences i n latitude
plant grwth.
and a c c o u n t f o r v a r y i n g rates o f
H e a l s o observes t h a t many s p e c i e s of trees
grow i n clumps and t h a t man t a k e s advantage of t h i s p a t t e r n
of d i s t r i b u t i o n :
You d o n o t f i n d s t r a g g l i n g trees o f t h i s
s p e c i e s [ l a r c g h e r e and t h e r e throughout
t h e wood, b u t r a t h e r a l i t t l e f o r e s t o f
them. The, same is t h e case w i t h t h e w h i t e
and r e d p i n e s , and some o t h e r trees, g r e a t l y
t o Cle convenience of t h e lumberer.
They are
o f a s o c i a l h a b i t , growing i n ' v e i n s ,
'clumps,' ' g r o u p s , ' o r 'communities,' as t h e
e x p l o r e r s c a l l them, d i s t i n g u i s h i n g them f a r
away, from t h e t o p o f a h i l l o r tree, t h e
w h i t e p i n e s towering above t h e surrounding
f o r e s t , o r else t h e y form e x t e n s i v e f o r e s t s
by themselves.
(111, 231-32)
F i n a l l y , Thoreau r e c o r d s t h e abundance o f b e r r y b e a r i n g p l a n t s
on t h e c a r r i e s and t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e i r g r w t h t h e r e :
So s u r e l y as w e stepped o u t of t h e canoe and
s t r e t c h e d our l e g s w e found o u r s e l v e s i n a
b l u e b e r r y and r a s p b e r r y garden, e a c h s i d e o f
our rocky t r a i l around t h e f a l l s being l i n e d
w i t h one o r b o t h . There was n o t a c a r r y on
t h e main E a s t Branch where we d i d n o t f i n d an
abundance o f b o t h t h e s e berries, f o r t h e s e
w e r e t h e r o c k i e s t p l a c e s , and p a r t i a l l y
c l e a r e d , such a s t h e s e p l a n t s p r e f e r
(111, 305)
....
Thoreau t h u s c a r r i e s i n t o t h e Maine woods what is a c o n s t a n t
p r e o c c u p a t i o n i n h i s Journal--the
r e l a t i o n of a p l a n t ' s
h a b i t a t t o i t s growth.
Besides t h e p r o c e s s e s o w w i t h , Thoreau o b s e r v e s t h o s e
o f decay,
" I could
o u t l i n e s of l a r g e birches t h a t
had f a l l e n l o n g ago, col$apsed and r o t t e d and t u r n e d t o s o i l ,
by f a i n t yellowish-green l i n e s o f & a t h e r - l i k e moss, e i g h t e e n
i n c h e s wide and twenty o r t h i r t y feet long, c r o s s e d by o t h e r
similar l i n e s " (111, 224), he w r i t e s , t a k i n g n o t e of t h e
cycle of l i f e i n the forest.
A major p o r t i o n o f "Allegash and E a s t Branch," l i k e
Thoreau's o t h e r e s s a y s a b o u t t h e Maine woods, concerns man's
a t t i t u d e towards and impact upon t h e w i l d e r n e s s .
Observing
t h a t t h e l a k e s on which he i s canoeing have no n a t u r a l sandy
o r rocky s h o r e b u t only a b o r d e r o f dead trees, Thoreau
states t h a t t h i s is t h e r e s u l t o f damming t h e o u t l e t s o f
the lakes,
He expatiates:
They have t h u s dammed a l l t h e l a r g e r l a k e s ,
r a i s i n g t h e i r broad s u r f a c e s many f e e t ;
Moosehead, f o r i n s t a n c e , some f o r t y m i l e s
long, w i t h i t s steamer on it; t h u s t u r n i n g
t h e f o r c e s of n a t u r e a g a i n s t h e r s e l f . They
r a p i d l y run o u t of t h e s e immense f o r e s t s a l l
t h e f i n e r , and more a c c e s s i b l e p i n e timber,
and then l e a v e t h e bears t o watch t h e
decaying dams, n o t c l e a r i n g n o r c u l t i v a t i n g
t h e l a n d , nor making r o a d s , n o r b u i l d i n g
houses, b u t l e a v i n g i t a w i l d e r n e s s a s t h e y
found i t , I n many p a r t s , o n l y t h e s e dams
remain, l i k e d e s e r t e d beaver-dams
Think haw
much l a n d t h e y have flowed, w i t h o u t a s k i n g
N a t u r e ' s leave!
(111, 251-52)
.
Thoreau p r o t e s t s t h e r a p e o f t h e l a n d , t h e d i s r u p t i o n o f
t h e f o r e s t ecosystem f o r marketable lumber,
He is w i l l i n g
t o t o l e r a t e s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e w i l d e r n e s s b u t n o t simply i t s
d e s t r u c t i o n and n e g l e c t ,
t h e flooding, according
He r e p o r t s t h a t another r e s u l t o f
I n d i a n guide, is t h e f r i g h t e n -
i n g away o f t h e caribool (111, 259)
.
Thus, Thoreau r e c o r d s
I
t h e ecological ramifications o f an e x p l o i t a t i v e treatment of
nature.
H i s contempt f o r t h e p l u n d e r e r s o f n a t u r e is e v i d e n t
i n h i s account o f logging p r a c t i c e s :
The w i l d e r n e s s e x p e r i e n c e s a sudden rise of
a l l h e r s t r e a m s and l a k e s , She feels t e n
thousand vermin gnawing a t t h e base o f h e r
n o b l e s t trees. Many combining d r a g them o f f ,
j a r r i n g over t h e r o o t s of t h e s u r v i v o r s , and
tumble them i n t o t h e n e a r e s t stream, till,
t h e fairest having f a l l e n , they scamper off t o
ransack some new w i l d e r n e s s , and a l l i s s t i l l
a g a i n , I t i s as when a m i g r a t i n g army o f m i c e
g i r d l e s a f o r e s t o f p i n e s , The chopper f e l l s
trees from t h e same motive t h a t t h e mouse
gnaws them, --to g e t h i s l i v i n g . , , H e
speaks of a ' b e r t h 1 of timber, a good p l a c e
f o r him t o g e t i n t o , j u s t as a worm might,
.
(111, 2 5 2 )
Thoreau f i n d s t h e same d i s r e g a r d f o r t h e v a l u e o f t h e
w i l d e r n e s s i n t h e behavior o f t h e game wardens, whose j o b
is t o r e g u l a t e t h e h u n t i n g o f moose:
, , , t h e moose wardens a r e n o t v e r y
p a r t i c u l a r , I heard q u i t e d i r e c t l y o f one
who b e i n g asked by a w h i t e man going i n t o
t h e woods what he would s a y i f he k i l l e d
a moose, answered, ' I f you b r i n g m e a
q u a r t e r of it, I guess you won't be
troubled.'
H i s d u t y being, a s h e s a i d ,
only t o prevent t h e ' indiscriminate '
s l a u g h t e r o f them f o r t h e i r h i d e s . I
sunnose t h a t he would c o n s i d e r it an
i z i s c r i m i n a t e s l a u g h t e r when a q u a r t e r
was n o t reserved f o r h i m s e l f , Such a r e
the p e r q u i s i t e s of t h i s o f f i c e . (111, 231)
<-
A l l man's a c t i o n s a f f c t t h e w i l d e r n e s s ,
o f the magnitude of *ooding
They need n o t be
l a k e s o r d i v e r t i n g the flow of
rivers through c a n a l s \4111, 270) i n o r d e r t o change t h e f a c e
of nature.
made by men
Thoreau t e l l s of how odd appears a c l e a r i n g ,
f o r growing hay, i n t h e middle of t h e f o r e s t :
"This u n n a t u r a l l y smooth-shaven,
s q u a r i s h s p o t , i n the
m i d s t of t h e otherwise u n i n t e r r u p t e d f o r e s t , only reminded
u s how uninhabited t h e country was, , , , Such, s e e n f a r o r
n e a r , you know a t once t o be man's work, f o r Nature never does
it" (111, 258).
Thoreau is a c u t e l y aware of any a l t e r a t i o n
i n the f a b r i c of nature,
H e sees man's shaping presence i n
t h e Maine woods and d u l y makes r e p o r t o f it,
But J o e P o l i s , Thoreau's I n d i a n guide, is t h e c e n t e r
o f Thoreau's i n t e r e s t i n "Allegash and E a s t Branch."
Though
Thoreau r e c o r d s some I n d i a n wood l o r e , he is c h i e f l y i n t e n t
on probing I n d i a n c h a r a c t e r .
H i s account o f t h e I n d i a n ' s l i f e
i n and use of n a t u r e i s sketchy,
Of course, he r e p o r t s t h a t
J o e makes a more thorough use o f n a t i v e p l a n t s than does t h e
white man.
Joe o f f e r s t o make t e a from a d i f f e r e n t p l a n t each
day, naming creeping snowberry, Labrador t e a , and hemlock
l e a v e s a s p o s s i b l e i n g r e d i e n t s (111, 227-28).
Joe t e l l s Thoreau
of e d i b l e p l a n t s , such a s l i l y r o o t s from which a soup may
be made (111, 209, 317).
H e a l s o claims t o know "some
medicinal u s e f o r e v e r y p l a n t C ~ h o r e a acould show him"
(111, 259) and proves h i s c l a i m when Thoreau tests him.
Nor are t h e I n d i a
medicine, f o r J o e
i d e n t i f i e s which
o f n a t u r e l i m i t e d t o food and
o t h e r woodcraft.
He
best f o r s t i t c h i n g b i r c h
b a r k t o make a canoe (111, 225); he l i s t s the game he h a s
hunted and l i v e d on i n t h e woods (111, 203); h e makes a
s u g a r bowl from b i r c h b a r k (111, 224).
A l l these incidents
a t l e a s t show t h e I n d i a n ' s f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h n a t u r e and
d i s t i n g u i s h him from t h e w h i t e man.
But t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s
are t o o few t o g i v e f u l l t h e m a t i c u n i t y t o t h e e s s a y .
qualities--his
Joe's
l a c k o f s t o i c i s m , h i s enthusiasm f o r woodcraft,
h i s s e n s e of humor, and h i s s o c i a b i l i t y - - t a k e
precedence.
Thoreau's i n q u i r y i n t o t h e I n d i a n ' s p e r s o n a l i t y , n o t h i s
r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h h i s environment, is what s u s t a i n s "Allegash
and E a s t Branch.
"
T h i s l a s t Maine Woods e s s a y , t h e n , i n a d d i t i o n b r i e f l y
t o mentioning a few e c o l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s among t h e p l a n t s
o f t h e f o r e s t and t o commenting once a g a i n on man's c o u r s e o f
destruction there, presents a cursory p i c t u r e o f t h e Indian's
harmony w i t h n a t u r e , While Thoreau ' s e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e
c a p t u r e s t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e I n d i a n ' s u s e and t h e
w h i t e man's abuse of t h e w i l d e r n e s s , t h i s remains a s u b s i d i a r y
theme i n h i s p o r t r a i t of t h e I n d i a n ,
"The Succession of F o r e s t T r e e s , " an a d d r e s s g i v e n to
-
r
t h e Middlesex A g r i c u l t u r a l S o c i e t y and p u b l i s h e d i n t h e New
York Tribune f o r
e c o l o g i c a l paper
c t o b e r 6, 1860, is Thoreau's preeminent
\
A s Kathryn Whitford h a s a l r e a d y c o n s i d e r e d
it e ~ t e n s i v e l ~
however,
,~
it w i l l be d e a l t w i t h b u t b r i e f l y
here.
B a s i c a l l y , t h e e s s a y concerns t h e means by which one
s t a n d o f p i n e r e p l a c e s oak i n a woodlot, o r v i c e v e r s a ,
when one o r t h e o t h e r genus i s c u t down.
Thoreau s t a t e s
t h a t t h e trees grow from s e e d s d i s p e r s e d i n v a r i ous ways :
I have no t i m e t o go i n t o d e t a i l s , b u t w i l l
s a y , i n a word, t h a t w h i l e t h e wind is
conveying t h e s e e d s of p i n e s i n t o h a r d woods
and open l a n d s , t h e s q u i r r e l s and o t h e r
animals a r e conveying t h e s e e d s of oaks and
w a l n u t s i n t o t h e p i n e woods
.(V, 190)
...
Thoreau p o i n t s o u t how t h e s e e d l i n g s b e n e f i t a t f i r s t from
t h e s h e l t e r o f t h e mature trees, b u t how c o m p e t i t i o n between
them i a t e r k i l l s the seedlirqs, unless the d d e r trees cf a
d i f f e r e n t s p e c i e s a r e c u t d w n (V, 1 9 2 ) .
Time and a g a i n he
d w e l l s on t h e i n t i m a t e r e l a t i o n of animals, a b i o t i c environment, s e e d s , and f u l l g r w n t r e e s i n e f f e c t i n g t h e s e r e c i p r o c a l
t r a n s i t i o n s i n t h e f o r e s t community.
Of c o u r s e , as Whitford
states, "The whole l e c t u r e i s open t o t h e charge o f oversimplification
. . . . But
a l l t h e c o n d i t i o n s and m o d i f i c a t i o n s
o f t h e p a t t e r n o f change would have burdened t h e l e c t u r e w i t h
*K. Whitford, pp. 291-306, d i s c u s s e s how Thoreau t h o u g h t
s u c c e s s i o n o c c u r s , t h e advantage of s u c h knowledge, and whether
t h i s and Thoreau's o t h e r o b s e r v a t i o n s on woodlots d e s e r v e t h e
t i t l e e c o l o g i c a l . She compares Thoreau' s s t a t e m e n t s on success i o n t o a modern t r e a t m e n t of t h e s u b j e c t and concludes t h a t
t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s a r e r e a d i l y apparent.
t o o much d e t a i l ,
many q u a l i f i c a t i o n s .
ls9
Thoreau's
Journal, however, skws t h a t he w a s aware o f t h e s u b t l e
c o m p l e x i t i e s i n t h i s p r o c e s s of secondary s u c c e s s i o n ,
What
is noteworthy about "The Succession of F o r e s t T r e e s " is t h a t
it is Thoreau's most s u s t a i n e d e c o l o g i c a l s t u d y , d e r i v e d from
independent r e s e a r c h , and shows c l e a r l y h i s a p p r e c i a t i o n o f
t h e i n t r i c a t e interweaving of t h e f o r c e s o f n a t u r e .
"Autumnal T i n t s " a l s o shows a t i t s c o r e a keen use o f
ecolog i c o b s e r v a t i o n .
Pub1 ished posthumously i n t h e A t l a n t i c
Monthly f o r October 1862, t h e e s s a y c o n t a i n s e c o l o g i c a l
comments on t h e p r o c e s s e s o f l i f e and d e a t h f o r trees and
leaves.
Thoreau p r a i s e s t h e r e d maple f o r f u l f i l l i n g i t s
f u n ct i o n s i n n a t u r e :
It has f a i t h f u l l y discharged t h e d u t i e s o f a
maple t h e r e , a l l w i n t e r and summer, n e g l e c t e d
none o f i t s economies, b u t added t o i t s
s t a t u r e i n t h e v i r t u e which belongs t o a
maple, by a s t e a d y growth for s o many months,
never having gone gadding abroad, and is
n e a r e r heaven t h a n it w a s i n t h e s p r i n g . I t
h a s f a i t h f a l l y husbanded i t s s a p , and a f f o r d e d
a s h e l t e r t o t h e wandering b i r d , h a s long s i n c e
r i p e n e d its s e e d s and committed them t o t h e
winds, and has t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f knowing,
perhaps, t h a t a thousand l i t t l e well-behaved
maples a r e a l r e a d y s e t t l e d i n l i f e somewhere.
(V, 260)
D e s p i t e t h e p r e c i o u s language, which is intended t o draw o u t
p a r a l l e l s w i t h human l i f e f o r t h e maple, t h e p a s s a g e does
g i v e some i d e a o f i t s e c o l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s - - i t s
and i t s means of d i s p e r s i n g seed.
use a s h a b i t a t
Thoreau's r e f l e c t i o n s on
f a l l i n g l e a v e s are more e x p l i c i t l y e c o l o g i c a l , concerning
'K.
Whitford, p. 297.
,
t h e cycling of n u t r i e n t s :
But Nature is n o t c l u t t e r e d w i t h them; s h e i s
a p e r f e c t husbandman; s h e s t o r e s them a l l .
Consider what a v a s t c r o p is t h u s a n n u a l l y
shed on e a r t h ! T h i s , more t h a n any mere
g r a i n o r seed, is t h e g r e a t e s t h a r v e s t o f t h e
y e a r . The trees a r e now r e p a y i n g t h e e a r t h
w i t h i n t e r e s t what t h e y have taken from i t ,
They a r e d i s c o u n t i n g . They a r e a b o u t t o add a
l e a f ' s thickness t o t h e depth of the s o i l ,
This i s t h e b e a u t i f u l way i n which Nature
,
W e are a l l t h e r i c h e r
g e t s h e r muck
f o r t h e i r decay. I a m more i n t e r e s t e d i n t h i s
crop than i n t h e English g r a s s a l o n e o r i n
t h e corn. I t p r e p a r e s t h e v i r g i n mould f o r
f u t u r e c o r n f i e l d s and f o r e s t s , on which t h e
earth fattens,
. ..
But t h e y s t i l l l i v e i n t h e s o i l , whose
f e r t i l i t y and b u l k t h e y i n c r e a s e , and i n t h e
f o r e s t s t h a t s p r i n g from it. They s t o o p t o
rise, t o mount h i g h e r i n coming y e a r s , by
s u b t l e chemistry, climbing by t h e s a p i n t h e
trees; and t h e s a p l i n g ' s f i r s t f r u i t s t h u s
shed, transmuted a t l a s t , may adorn its
crown, when, i n a f t e r y e a r s , it h a s become
t h e monarch of t h e f o r e s t , (V, 268-69)
T h o r e a u g s understandiing o f t h e importance of ieaf f a i i is
profound.
H e g r a s p s t h e magnitude o f t h e e v e n t b o t h i n terms
,
of t h e q u a n t i t y o f o r g a n i c matter involved and t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s
f o r f u t u r e growth t h a t it e n t a i l s .
The a p p l i c a b i l i t y of t h e s e n a t u r a l p r o c e s s e s a s symbols
o f t h e way human l i f e should be, of c o u r s e , i s a l l t o o
obvious.
The s e l f - f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e maple, t h e c o l o r f u l
demise o f t h e l e a v e s , w i t h t h e s u g g e s t i o n o f r e b i r t h , are a l l
meaningful f o r man, b u t Thoreau develops t h e s e meanings v e r y
overtly.
Of t h e l e a v e s , f o r example, he b a l d l y s t a t e s : "They
t e a c h us how t o d i e " (V, 270)- H i s clumsy a t t e m p t t o e x t r a c t
a lesson from h i s ecological perception only t u r n s the
l a t t e r i n t o an exemplum, instead of a compelling symbol
f o r men.
I n addition, while an e c o l o g i c a l discussion of f a l l i n g
leaves is c e n t r a l t o "Autumnal T i n t s , " Thoreau's e c o l o g i c a l
perspective is generally absent i n the rest of the essay.
Indeed, a s Leo S t o l l e r s t a t e s , "Description, phenology, and
mys ticum a r e woven together i n varying proportions and with
1A
d i f f e r i n g empnases t o produce a whole,"'"
Thoreau's ecologic
observations, while important, do n o t unify the essay--they
simply h i g h l i g h t one p a r t .
I n "Wild Apples, " a more cons i s t e n t ecological perspective
tends t o predominate, though Thoreau ' s o v e r t moralizing again
mars t h e essay.
F i r s t published posthumously i n t h e A t l a n t i c
Monthly f o r November 1862, "Wild Apples" provides a n a t u r a l
h i s t o r y of the wild apple t r e e .
Thoreau discusses, i n turn,
i t s h i s t o r y , species, growth, f r u i t , appearance, harvesting,
and d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
Two themes t h a t recur throughout the essay
a r e the apple t r e e ' s a b i l i t y t o survive and i t s i n t e r r e l a t i o n s
w i t h the r e s t of nature,
Thoreau begins t h e essay by s t a t i n g :
" I t is remarkable
how c l o s e l y the h i s t o r y of the apple t r e e is connected with
t h a t of man" (V, 290).
A s Sherman Paul points out,
". . . he
'O~eo S t o l l e r , "A Note on Thoreau's Place i n the Historv
of Phenology, " I s i s , 47 ( l 9 5 6 ) , 180.
a s s o c i a t e d t h e a p p l e w i t h t h e h i s t o r y of man's u s e o f
nature ,
.,.
ltl1
Frun a n c i e n t t i m e s t o h i s own day, Thoreau
relates, man has used and p r a i s e d t h e a p p l e .
Even the f i r s t
i n h a b i t a n t s of Europe a t e t h e f r u i t , and men introduced it
i n t o t h e new l a n d s t h e y s e t t l e d .
Thoreau observes:
I t m i g r a t e s w i t h man, l i k e t h e dog and h o r s e
and cow: f i r s t , perchance, from Greece t o
I t a l y , thence t o England, t h e n c e t o America;
and o u r Western emigrant is s t i l l marching
s t e a d i l y t w a r d t h e s e t t i n g sun w i t h t h e
s e e d s o f t h e a p p l e i n h i s pocket, o r perhaps
a few young t r e e s s t r a p p e d t o h i s load.
f o r when man m i g r a t e s , he c a r r i e s w i t h him
n o t only h i s b i r d s , quadrupeds, i n s e c t s ,
v e g e t a b l e s , and h i s v e r y sward, b u t h i s o r c h a r d
a l s o , (V, 292-93)
. ..
S p e c u l a t i n g on t h e s o u r c e and course o f d i s p e r s a l o f t h e
a p p l e tree, Thoreau shows t h a t man's movements a s s i s t t h e
i n v a s i o n o f new t e r r i t o r y by a whole range o f s p e c i e s .
I n t h e case o f t h e a p p l e t r e e , i t s i n v a s i o n o f North
America proved b e n e f i c i a l f o r many n a t i v e animals.
Thoreau
d i s c u s s e s a t l e n g t h haw t h e tree is u t i l i z e d f o r food and
s h e l t e r by both l i v e s t o c k and w i l d l i f e :
The l e a v e s and t e n d e r twigs are an a g r e e a b l e
food t o many domestic animals, as t h e cow,
h o r s e , sheep, and g o a t ; and t h e f r u i t is sought
a f t e r by t h e f i r s t , a s w e l l a s by t h e hog. Thus
t h e r e a p p e a r s t o have e x i s t e d a n a t u r a l a l l i a n c e
between t h e s e animals and t h i s t r e e from t h e
first.
Not only t h e I n d i a n , b u t many indigenous
i n s e c t s , b i r d s , and quadrupeds, welcomed t h e
a p p l e tree t o t h e s e s h o r e s . The t e n t c a t e r p i l l a r
...
saddled h e r eggs on t h e very f i r s t twig t h a t was
formed, and it has s i n c e shared h e r a f f e c t i o n s
w i t h t h e w i l d cherry; and t h e canker-worm a l s o
i n a measure abandoned t h e e l m t o feed on it.
A s it grew apace, t h e b l u e b i r d , r o b i n , cherryb i r d , k i n g b i r d , and many more came with h a s t e
and b u i l t t h e i r n e s t s and warbled i n i t s
boughs, and s o became orchard-birds, and
m u l t i p l i e d more than ever. I t was an e r a i n t h e
h i s t o r y of t h e i r race. The downy woodpecker
found such a savory morsel under i t s bark t h a t
he p e r f o r a t e d it i n a r i n g q u i t e round t h e
tree, before he l e f t it, --a t h i n g which he
had never done b e f o r e , t o my knowledge. I t
d i d n o t take t h e p a r t r i d g e long t o f i n d o u t
how s w e e t i t s buds w e r e , and every w i n t e r eve
s h e flew, and s t i l l f l i e s , from t h e wood, t o
pluck them, much t o t h e farmer's sorrow. The
r a b b i t , too, was n o t slow t o l e a r n t h e t a s t e
of i t s twigs and bark; and when t h e f r u i t was
ripe, the s q u i r r e l half rolled, half carried
it t o h i s hole; and even t h e musquash c r e p t
up t h e bank from t h e brook a t evening, and
g r e e d i l y devoured it, u n t i l he had worn a
p a t h i n t h e g r a s s t h e r e ; and when i t was
frozen and thawed, t h e crow and t h e jay w e r e
g l a d t o t a s t e it o c c a s i o n a l l y , The owl c r e p t
i n t o t h e f i r s t apple t r e e t h a t became hollow,
and f a i r l y hooted with d e l i g h t , f i n d i n g it
j u s t t h e p l a c e f o r him; so, s e t t l i n g down i n t o
it, he has remained t h e r e ever s i n c e , (V, 293-94)
But t h e apple tree is n o t s i m p l y t h e v i c t i m o f e x t e n s i v e
p a r a s i t i s m o r the p a s s i v e h o s t i n a commensal r e l a t i o n s h i p .
Dispersed by b i r d s o r c o w s , a s Thoreau notes, i t s seeds
compete s u c c e s s f u l l y w i t h those o f o t h e r t r e e s ,
Even on t h e
rocky s o i l of t h e Easterbrooks Country, "they s p r i n g up wild
and b e a r w e l l t h e r e i n t h e midst of p i n e s , b i r c h e s , maples,
and oaks" (V, 299), Thoreau w r i t e s approvingly.
The
a c c l i m a t i z a t i o n of the apple tree t o North America is complete:
Here on t h i s rugged and woody h i l l s i d e has
grown an apple t r e e , n o t p l a n t e d by man, no
r e l i c of a former orchard, b u t a n a t u r a l
growth, l i k e t h e p i n e s and oaks, ~ o s ft r u i t s
which w e p r i z e and use depend e n t i r e l y on
o u r care. Corn and g r a i n , p o t a t o e s , peaches,
melons, e t c , , depend a l t o g e t h e r on o u r
p l a n t i n g ; b u t t h e a p p l e emulates man ' s
independence and e n t e r p r i s e , I t i s n o t
s i m p l y c a r r i e d , as I have s a i d , b u t , l i k e
him, t o some e x t e n t , it h a s migrated t o t h i s
New World, and is even, h e r e and t h e r e ,
,
making i t s way amid t h e a b o r i g i n a l trees
(V, 300-01)
.
,
.
As t h e comparison of t h e w i l d a p p l e ' s t o man's endurance
i n d i c a t e s , Thoreau tries t o make t h e t r e e ( t o use Sherman
P a u l ' s words) "a symbol o f t h e v i r t u e o f t h e w i l d , o f t h e
' s p i r i t e d f r u i t ' o f h i s l i f e i n n a t u r e . " I 2 To t h i s end
Thoreau traces t h e d i f f i c u l t s t a g e s i n growth of a specimen
w i l d a p p l e tree.
Dispersed by c a t t l e on rocky s o i l , "One
o r two o f t h e s e Cseeds]
o t h e r a c c i d e n t s ,- - t h e i r
, perhaps,
s u r v i v e t h e drought and
v e r y b i r t h p l a c e defending them
a g a i n s t t h e encroaching g r a s s and some o t h e r dangers, a t
first!?(TI,
3031,
But annually m e n b r a m e upon the young
t r e e , f o r c i n g it i n t o a p e c u l i a r form of growth:
. .
,
p u t t i n g f o r t h two s h o r t twigs f o r e v e r y
one c u t o f f , it s p r e a d s o u t l o w a l o n g t h e
ground i n t h e hollows o r between t h e r o c k s ,
growing more s t o u t and scrubby, u n t i l it
forms, n o t a tree a s y e t , b u t a l i t t l e
pyramidal, s t i f f , twiggy mass, a l m o s t as
s o l i d and i m e n e t r a b l e a s a rock.
They
[such bushes a r e more l i k e t h e scrubby f i r
and b l a c k s p r u c e on which you s t a n d , and
sometimes walk, on t h e t o p s o f mountains,
where c o l d is t h e demon t h e y contend w i t h ,
t h a n a n y t h i n g e l s e . (V, 303-04)
5
...
12paul, p . 410, a l s o claims t h a t t h e w i l d a p p l e is a
p e r s o n a l symbol f o r Thoreau of h i s own l i f e , b u t such a n
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is p o s s i b l e o n l y by r e c o u r s e t o b i o g r a p h i c a l
information--the meaning is n o t suggested by t h e e s s a y i t s e l f .
~ h o r e a u ' scomparison w i t h mountain v e g e t a t i o n i s a p t ; i n
b o t h c a s e s an environmental f o r c e , whether animate o r
inanimate, c a u s e s a phenotypic change i n a p l a n t .
The
wild a p p l e , however, e v e n t u a l l y surmounts i t s environmental l i m i t a t i o n :
The cows c o n t i n u e t o browse them t h u s f o r
twenty y e a r s o r more, keeping them down and
compelling them t o s p r e a d , u n t i l a t l a s t t h e y
are s o broad t h a t t h e y become t h e i r own fence,
vhefi SPP in*~ rori shoot, which t h e i r f o e s
c a n n o t r e a c h , d a r t s upward w i t h joy: f o r it h a s
n o t f o r g o t t e n i t s h i g h c a l l i n g , and b e a r s i t s
own p e c u l i a r f r u i t i n triumph,
, Now, i f you have watched t h e p r o g r e s s
o f a p a r t i c u l a r shrub, you w i l l see t h a t it is
n o l o n g e r a simple pyramid o r cone, b u t t h a t o u t
o f i t s apex t h e r e r i s e s a s p r i g o r two,
growing more l u s t i l y perchance t h a n an orchardtree, s i n c e t h e p l a n t now d e v o t e s t h e whole of
i t s r e p r e s s e d energy t o t h e s e u p r i g h t p a r t s ,
I n a s h o r t t i m e t h e s e became a small t r e e , a n
i n v e r t e d pryamid r e s t i n g on t h e apex of t h e o t h e r ,
s o t h a t t h e whole h a s now t h e form o f a v a s t
hour-glass,
The s p r e a d i n g bottom, h a v i n g s e r v e d
i t s purpose, f i n a l l y d i s a p p e a r s , and t h e generous
tree p e r m i t s t h e now harmless cows to come i n
and s t a n d i n its shade, and r u b a g a i n s t and redden
its t r u n k , which h a s grown i n s p i t e o f them, and
even t o t a s t e a p a r t of i t s g r u i t , and s o d i s p e r s e
t h e seed,
Thus t h e cows create t h e i r own shade and food;
and t h e tree, i t s hour-glass b e i n g i n v e r t e d , l i v e s
a second l i f e , as it were.
(V, 305-06)
..
.
Onto t h i s t a l e of t h e w i l d a p p l e t r e e ' s s t r u g g l e f o r s u r v i v a l
and f i n a l c o e x i s t e n c e with o t h e r organisms, Thoreau c l u m s i l y
g r a f t s a human meaning.
"What a l e s s o n t o man! " he exlaims;
So are human b e i n g s , r e f e r r e d t o t h e h i g h e s t
s t a n d a r d , t h e c e l e s t i a l f r u i t which t h e y
s u g g e s t and a s p i r e t o b e a r , browsed on by
f a t e ; and only t h e most p e r s i s t e n t and
s t r o n g e s t g e n i u s defends i t s e l f and p r e v a i l s ,
s e n d s a t e n d e r s c i o n upward a t l a s t , and d r o p s
i t s p e r f e c t f r u i t on t h e u n g r a t e f u l e a r t h .
P o e t s and p h i l o s o p h e r s and statesmen t h u s
s p r i n g up i n t h e c o u n t r y p a s t u r e s , and o u t l a s t
t h e h o s t s o f u n o r i g i n a l men.
(V, 307)
.
The m o r a l i z i n g is a l l v e r y t r a n s p a r e n t .
Beside t h e v i v i d
e c o l o g i c a l account o f t h e w i l d a p p l e , T h o r e a u t s a t t e m p t t o
t r a n s f o r m it i n t o a symbol is p a l e .
The tree a p p r o p r i a t e l y
r e p r e s e n t s t h e w i l d n e s s and v i t a l i t y o f n a t u r e , b u t t h e
a p p l i c a t i o n t o man is somewhat s t r a i n e d .
Thoreau f a i l s
s u f f i c i e n t l y t o i n t e g r a t e h i s n a t u r a l and s p i r i t u a l f a c t s .
A f t e r commenting on t h e e f f e c t s o f wind and temperature
on t h e r i p e n e d f r u i t , Thoreau concludes t h e e s s a y by p o i n t i n g
o u t man's d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e w i l d a p p l e ,
Thoreau n o t e s t h a t
"temperance reform and t h e g e n e r a l i n t r o d u c t i o n o f g r a f t e d
f r u i t " (V, 321) c a u s e e x i s t i n g trees t o be c u t down and
reduce t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f new ones.
Thus t h e w i l d a p p l e ,
though able t o surmount o t h e r environmental p r e s s u r e s , f a c e s
e x t i n c t i m a t t h e hands o f man, t h e same hands t h a t c a r r i e d
its
domesticated f o r e b e a r s t o North A m e r i c a .
Though Thoreau tries t o l i n k t h e w i l d a p p l e w i t h t h e
w i l d n e s s o f t h e human s p i r i t , h i s e s s a y remains c h i e f l y a
c e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e t r e e ' s a b i l i t y t o endure.
"Wild Apples, "
which d r a m a t i z e s t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n o f one s p e c i e s w i t h i t s
environment, a t t e s t s t o T h o r e a u t s knowing e c o l o g i c a l
perspective.
T h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , s e r v i n g t o focus Thoreau's o b s e r v a t i o n s
o f n a t u r e , is an important u n i f y i n g f e a t u r e o f many of h i s
w r i t i n g s i n the 1850's.
While Thoreau's ecology o c c a s i o n a l l y
succumbs t o h i s o t h e r i n t e r e s t s , such a s t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e
I n d i a n , i n "Allegash and E a s t Branch," o r t r a n s c e n d e n t a l
p h i l o s o p h i z i n g , i n "Autumnal T i n t s , " i n g e n e r a l it l i n k s h i s
nature observations i n t o a coherent p a t t e r n .
Almost
c o n s i s t e n t l y Thoreau i s a t t r a c t e d by t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f an
organism, u s u a l l y man, and i t s environment.
The s t r u g g l e
f o r s u r v i v a l , t h e h o s t i l i t y o f n a t u r e , t h e d e s t r u c t i o n of
t h e landscape, t h e s e a r e h i s r e c u r r i n g themes.
On t h e whole
less i n t e r e s t e d i n s p i r i t u a l correspondences t h a n i n unders t a n d i n g t h e workings of n a t u r e , Thoreau p r o b e s t h e e s s e n c e
o f wildness--elemental,
animal, and human.
With h i s e c o l o g i c a l
p e r s p e c t i v e , h i s i n t e r r e l a t i n g e y e , Thoreau l o o k s f o r o r d e r
i n nature--and
f i n d s it.
Conclusion : Ecology and Thoreau
The o r i g i n , development, and consequences of Henry
Thoreau's e c o l s g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e have been explored i n t h e
preceding pages,
Perhaps a review and d i g e s t o f t h e
argument w i l l d i s t i n g u i s h v i v i d l y i t s v a r i o u s t h r e a d s .
In
b r i e f , t h e movement is from e s s a y s marked by i n t e r m i t t e n t
e c o l o g i c o b s e r v a t i o n s t o whole books informed by a n e c o l o g i c a l
perspective.
'In t h e 1 8 4 0 ' s t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s m is t h e shaping f o r c e
on Thoreau's w r i t i n g .
Encouraging a n e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e
w i t h t h e concept o f o r g a n i c u n i t y , t h e philosophy a l s o
undermines such a p e r s p e c t i v e w i t h i t s i d e a l i s t i c emphasis.
The r e s u l t is t h a t i f Thoreau n o t e s a f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p
i n n a t u r e he tries t o make a s p i r i t u a l correspondence o u t of
it.
N a t u r a l f a c t s flower s y m b o l i c a l l y i n t o s p i r i t u a l t r u t h s .
In essays like "A Walk t o Wachusettw o r
"A
Winter Walk" and
-
i n h i s f i r s t book, A Week on t h e Concord and Merrimack R i v e r s ,
Thoreau s l i g h t s t h e v a l u e o f h i s e c o l o g i c p e r c e p t i o n s , however
elementary they may a c t u a l l y be, f o r understanding n a t u r e i n
f a v o r of drawing o u t from them t r a n s c e n d e n t a l meanings,
Only
i n "Ktaadn, " where Thoreau c o n f r o n t s t h e m a t e r i a l i t y o f t h e
w i l d e r n e s s , does he d e a l w i t h man and n a t u r e i n c h i e f l y
e c o l o g i c a l terms.
But if t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s m p r e o c c u p i e s Thoreau i n t h e
1 8 4 0 ' ~s c~i e n c e p r e o c c u p i e s him i n t h e 1 8 5 0 8 s , Concerning
Thoreau's n a t u r e s t u d i e s , Arthur E k i r c h states:
I n h i s s t u d y of t h e ways o f n a t u r e Thoreau
w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t r i g u e d by i t s i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s , t h e degree of harmony
e x h i b i t e d , and t h e methods by which n a t u r e
conserved i t s e l f , Though he b e l i e v e d t h a t
t h e world was young and possessed o f g r e a t
w e a l t h , he w a s i n d i g n a n t t h a t h i s fellow
men c a l l o u s l y exploited and u p s e t i t s
n a t u r a l b a l a n c e by t h e i r wanton d e s t r u c t i o n
o f b e a u t y y d w i l d l i f e a s w e l l as p h y s i c a l
resources.
I n c r e a s i n g l y throughout t h e decade, i n books l i k e Cape Cod
and i n e s s a y s Pike "Chesuncook" and W i l d Apples," Thoreau
l o o k s a t n a t u r e w i t h a sharpened e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e ,
These works b o t h show a deepened understanding o f t h e
p r o c e s s e s o f n a t u r e , t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n o f organisms and
environment, and e i t h e r l a c k symbolic dimension o r s u b o r d i n a t e
it t o a material view of t h e world.
Indeed, Cape C o d is a n
e c o l o g i c a l drama i n which Thoreau c o n c e n t r a t e s on t h e means
of l i v i n g , f o r man and o t h e r organisms, i n a h o s t i l e
environment;
"Chesuncook" is a p l e a f o r p r e s e r v a t i o n of t h e
w i l d e r n e s s , backed by a n e l u c i d a t i o n o f t h e ways o f l i f e
there,
D i s p l a c i n g t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s m , Thoreau's e c o l o g i c a l
p e r s p e c t i v e e x e r t s a formative f o r c e on b o t h h i s themes and
l i t e r a r y t r e a t m e n t of n a t u r e ,
' ~ r t h u r A. Ekirch, Jr., Man and Nature i n America (New
York and London: Columbia Univ. Press, 1963). p. 65.
Only i n Walden does Thoreau b a l a n c e between h i s
t r a n s c e n d e n t a l and e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s .
Though
o r i g i n a t i n g i n h i s t r a n s c e n d e n t a l p e r i o d , Walden was
tempered by Thoreau's e x p e r i e n c e s a t t h e pond and h i s
subsequent i n t e r e s t i n s c i e n c e .
of v i s i o n :
The r e s u l t is a s y n t h e s i s
an e c o l o g i c a l account of l i f e i n t h e woods and
a symbolic drama of s p i r i t u a l renewal.
Although t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s m and ecology have been
c o n t r a s t e d i n t h e p r e c e d i n g remarks, t n i s does n o t mean
t h a t Thoreau e v e r abandoned one f o r t h e o t h e r o r t h a t h i s
s t r e s s i n g o f e i t h e r is p a r t i c u l a r l y v a l u a b l e i n i t s e l f .
echo Perry M i l l e r ,
To
"Thoreau w a s b o t h a T r a n s c e n d e n t a l i s t
and a N a t u r a l H i s t o r i a n . "2 N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e movement i n
Thoreau's w r i t i n g is away from t r a n s c e n d e n t a l p r e a c h i n g t o
a n e c o l o g i c a l awareness o f how n a t u r e o p e r a t e s , and it
r e a c h e s i t s apogee i n h i s most s c i e n t i f i c r e p o r t , "The
Succession o f F o r e s t Trees, " where he e x h i b i t s t h e f r u i t s
of p e r s o n a l r e s e a r c h and y e a r s o f t h i n k i n g e c o l o g i c a l l y .
An e c o l o g i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e , then, i s p r e s e n t i n v a r y i n g
d e g r e e s throughout Thoreau ' s n a t u r e and t r a v e l w r i t i n g , h i s
e a r l y works c o n t a i n i n g i s o l a t e d e c o l o g i c p e r c e p t i o n s and h i s
l a t e r ones being s t e e p e d i n a knowledge of t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n ships t h a t e x i s t i n nature.
2 ~ e r r vM i l l e r ,
oma antic ism, "
New
(Miller's i t a l i c s )
I f symbolic d e p t h i s l o s t a s
"Thoreau i n t h e Context o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l
England Q u a r t e r l y , 34 (1961), 159
.
Thoreau's e c o l o g y grows, t h e n i t is r e p l a c e d by v i t a l
p i c t u r e s o f n a t u r e ' s workings,
i n l i t e r a r y v a l u e is d e b a t a b l e .
Whether t h e r e is a d e c l i n e
C e r t a i n l y Walden, which
f u s e s symbolism and ecology, is Thoreau's most s u c c e s s f u l
piece.
A s f o r h i s later writings,
t h e m a t i c coherence and
complexity a r e a t l e a s t t h e p r o d u c t s o f Thoreau's e c o l o g i c a l
perspective,
95
L i s t o f Works C i t e d
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-
Anderson, C h a r l e s .
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Halt, R i n e h a r t , and Winston, 1 9 6 8 ,
Deevey, Edward S , "A Re-examination of Thoreau's Walden,"
Q u a r t e r l y Review o f Bioloqy, 1 7 (1942), 1-11.
-
-
D i e t z , Lew, The A l l e q a s h ,
Winston, 1968.
New York: H o l t , R i n e h a r t , and
--
E k i r c h , Arthur A, Man and N a t u r e i n Ameri pa
London: Columbia Univ, ~ r e s s F 1 9 6 3 .
New Y n r k a n d
Emerson, Ralph Waldo. The Complete Works, Ed, Edward Waldo
Emerson. Boston and New York: Houghton M i f f l i n , 1903, I.
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-
Harding, Walter, The Days of Henry Thoreau, New York: A l f r e d
A. Knopf, 1965.
Hinckley, Edward B, V h o r e a u and Beston: Two Observers of
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Hyman, S t a n l e y Edgar. "Henry Thoreau i n o u r Time." Thoreau:
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-
Lewis, R. W. B, The American Adam: Innocence, Traqedy, and
--
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-
T r a d i t i o n i n t h e N i n e t e e n t h Century, Chicago: Univ.
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-
Nash, Lee Marten, "Ecology i n t h e W r i t i n g s of Henry David
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