The Opium Wars
BY ANDREW BRIASCO-STEWART
C H AP TE R 1
Introduction
1
The country known as China has had a long history filled with wars,
great achievements, new inventions, and other life altering events.
China started out with dynasties, then later in 221 BCE China was
ruled by emperors, and today China is a people's republic. Many
critical events in China’s history were wars. One war of note, dubbed
"The Opium Wars", actually consists of two wars. The first one
started in 1839 and ended around 1842 and the second one went
from 1856-1860. Both of these wars had many drastic effects on
China and around the globe. In this paper I want to focus on the first
of the two wars, also called the Anglo-Chinese War. I will explain the
cause of the first Opium War, the events of the first Opium War, and
the effects of the first Opium War on China.
1
C H AP TE R 2
Lead Up To The Opium Wars
A type of smuggling boat, used to get Opium into China
YEAR
IMPORTED
(CHESTS)
1773
1,000
1790
4,000
Early 1820
10,000
1828
18,000
1839
40,000
1865
76,000
1884
81,000
90000
72000
54000
36000
18000
Opium Imports (chests)
0
1773
1790
Early 1820
1828
1839
2
1865
1884
2
Starting in the mid-18th century (1756), in the
Qing dynasty, any foreigners who wanted to
trade with China were required to follow the
Canton System. This system restricted trade
with foreigners to the southern port of Canton
(Guangzhou). Foreigners who wanted to trade
"could only reside in the city [Canton] in a limited space, including their warehouses; they
could not bring their families; and they could
not stay there more a few months of the year."
Additionally foreign merchants could not contact Chinese officials, and there were no official
diplomatic relations between Western Countries and China, because the Emperor of the
Qing dynasty regarded trade as a tribute to his
A portrait of the Daoguang
Emperor Minning
2
The foreign traders were only allowed to interact with certain merchants, who grew quite
wealthy in the process.
3
person. Despite these restrictions, trade between China and European
Countries (mostly Britain) was very profitable, for both parties. As in
most tales however, a problem arose. Britain traded with China for porcelain, silver, and above all else tea. However, China only accepted payment
in silver, for China was self sufficient, and didn’t need anything else. The
problem arose in that since the dawn of the 18th century, Britain used
gold, so in order for them to be able to meet China's demands, they had to
purchase silver from continental Europe and Mexico. The British were seriously worried about silver draining out of Britain and into China. In response Britain turned to Opium.
3
4
S EC T I O N 1
The Opium Trade
Now opium was not new to China. It was introduced in the T’ang dynasty
by Arabs. At the time it was believed that opium had medicinal properties.
Britain started growing opium in India to trade to the Chinese instead of
silver. At first, in 1781, China allowed the import and trade of opium, and
Britain started exporting opium to China in large quantities. Over time,
the amount imported grew many times. The import of opium started to reverse the flow of silver: instead of into China, silver now flowed out of
China. In 1820, the Chinese government attempted to ban the opium
trade, but this only served to make merchants selling opium into smugglers. Opium continued to flow into China and tensions reached a turning
point in 1834. Previously, the British East India Company had a monopoly
2
2
An opium clipper was a type of ship used to
smuggle opium into China.
A common route taken by opium ships from India.
5
2
An opium factory in Patna, India (both)
The examining room where opium is
tested (up)
The packing room, where finished
opium is packaged for shipping (right)
on all opium imports into China, but in 1834 their monopoly broke, and
the subsequent flock of merchants to China selling opium drove the prices
to an all time low. The Emperor had two choices. Many people were calling for the complete legalization of the drug, because it would allow taxation of opium which would let the government potentially make a profit.
Others called for harsher restrictions and punishments. At last in 1839,
the Emperor opted for prohibition. To help him achieve this, he appointed
Lin Zexu as commissioner of Canton to deal with the problem of opium.
6
C H AP TE R 3
The First Opium War
2
2
A map of the Pearl River delta.
A statue of Lin Zexu,
found in Chatham Square in New York
City’s Chinatown.
7
S EC T I O N 1
Pretense To War
Lin Zexu was a morally outstanding per- 2
son and he detested the corruption and
chaos that opium caused. Even before he
was appointed imperial commissioner to
end opium in Canton, Lin sent a letter to
the Emperor detailing the systematic destruction of sources and equipment used
in the opium trade. Lin first tried to attack the problem from the Chinese side.
He arrested Chinese opium smokers and
dealers, hoping that it would limit the demand for opium, and thus reduce the
market for opium. Then in March 1839,
Lin announced that all opium trade was
over, and informed foreign merchants
that if they wanted to trade in Canton,
2
they had to sign a bond agreeing not to
trade in opium. Following this announcement, Lin blockaded the harbor of Canton and ordered all merchants to hand
over their current stock of opium. This is
when the British government became involved. Afterwards, the British East India
company's monopoly on opium broke
and Captain Charles Elliot was appointed
to look after British interests in Canton.
Lin's demand reached Captain Elliot,
8
A drawing of Lin Zexu in a
scholars robe
A drawing of Lin Zexu done
by a native artist, published
1843.
who conceded, ending the blockade. Once
Lin received the opium he publicly de2
stroyed it, drenching the opium in water,
salt, and lime which rendered the opium
useless. Lin then wrote a letter to Queen
Victoria (1819-1901), attempting to stop the
problem at the believed source. There is no
evidence of the letter reaching Queen Victoria.
Lin Zexu’s letter to Queen Victoria.
2
Lin Publicly destroying the opium. This process took a period
of 23 days. It involved breaking up the opium balls, dissolving
them in water, then adding lime and salt which created huge
clouds of smoke.
Tension reached a breaking point in 1839
when a group of sailors ashore in Kowloon
(who were presumably drunk) started a riot
that resulted in a vandalized temple and the
death of Lin Weixi. When it was time for a punishment, a problem arose. At the time, the Chinese judicial system was primitive and appalling to the British, as only one person held all
9
jobs (prosecutor, judge, jury, and
executioner). The British government and people living in China
wanted extraterritoriality, which
means that British people would
only be tried by British authorities.
So when the Chinese government
demanded that the sailors be
handed over for punishment, the
British refused. The sailors were
tried in Canton by British authorities, however once they reached
Britain they were immediately released. In light of this refusal Lin
Zexu banished the British from Canton and the British people retreated
to Hong Kong island. In response to
this, the British decided to use force
claiming their goal was to open
China to free trade. Some skirmishes followed, in which most battles the British won, but Lin reported it as a victory to the Emperor. Finally in June 1940, a British expeditionary force of 48 ships
arrived consisting of: "16 warships
mounting 540 guns, four armed
steamers, 27 transports, and a
troop ship".
“To my mind, [the] Opium War told
the Chinese people how much they fell
behind. And [it] let them look for the
ways to face the difficulties, which
means to develop the country. Without it, [the] Chinese didn't know
which position they were at that time.
It spread culture and thoughts from
the West. Of course, every coin has 2
sides, the war definitely brought some
destruction to the people”.
An opinion on The Opium War,
by Cici , a Chinese high school student
British ships around Canton
10
S EC T I O N 2
Hostilities
This force was under orders from Lord
2
Palmerson, and promptly blocked the
mouth of the Pearl River, which lead
from Hong Kong to Canton. It is important to note that at this time China still
had, in Britain's opinion, medieval
boats, while Britain had steam boats
from its industrial revolution. This gap
in technology is apparent in the casualties from each side. The British force
then proceeded up the river to Canton,
where instead of attacking the blockade
created by Lin, they set up their own blockade. Over many months both blockades existed. The British however, continued to
roam north of Canton with a portion of
their forces. Their goal was to convey their
ultimatum to the Emperor, as well as to
display their military prowess as a warning. The British continued along and after
occupying some ports, being unable to
find someone suitable to convey their message, the British decided to use a show of
force. The Battle of the Barrier lasted one
day. Lin had gathered a force to attempt
to drive the British from the port of Macao. In a preemptive assault, the British
11
Canton after British forces invade
“The Opium Wars is an example of
British Imperialism. It is also a
cruel war, because the British imported opium against Chinese will,
and forced many people to become
addicted to opium in order to continue favorable trade”.
An opinion on The Opium War
by Clarissa, an American exchange
student
destroyed land defenses at the barrier, shot at old war ships in the harbor, and landed a force to destroy Chinese military stores. The difference in casualties is apparent here. The British suffered 4 wounded and
no-one killed. The Chinese suffered seven or eight deaths. Despite their
apparent loss, Lin reported the battle as a victory to the Emperor.
The British continued, and finally towards the end of August of 1840,
the British succeeded in getting their demands to the Emperor, who
promptly flew into a rage and removed Lin as commissioner of Canton.
He was, however, allowed to remain in Canton to help his successor. Qishan was Lin's successor, but he was even worse than Lin. In January of
1841 British forces invaded Canton and occupied the city. Qishan attempted negotiations and submitted a draft to the Emperor, who again
flew into a rage, and imprisoned Qishan and sentenced him to death, in
May of 1842. In light of these events, the British pressed their attack and
in August of 1842, after many battles in which the British steadily
moved forward, they arrived in Nanjing. 3,000 Chinese against almost
7,000 British solders, the outcome was inevitable. Realizing that the
British were in a prime position to cut off all trade between South China
and the north, the Em2
peror was forced to sign
Treaty of Nanjing. The
Treaty of Nanjing would
later become known as
the first unequal treaty.
“Nanking from the South-East”
After British forces gained control of Nanjing (Nanking)
12
C H AP TE R 4
The First Unequal Treaty
2
‘“The Signing and Sealing of the Treaty of Nanking in the State Cabin of H. M. S. Cornwallis, 29th
August, 1842”
Painted by Capt. John Platt’
13
S EC T I O N 1
The Treaty Of Nanjing
The Treaty of Nanjing was signed
2
on August 29, 1842, and the treaty
itself essentially contained 5 parts.
China would: 1. Open 5 ports for international trade, Amoy, Canton,
Ningpo, Foochow, and Shanghai. 2.
Pay Britain an indemnity of 20 million silver dollars, for damages, and
The bilingual pages in the Treaty of Nanjing, signed
destroying opium. 3. Cede Hong
on Aug. 29, 1842.
Kong to the British. 4. Abolish the
“I think [The Opium War is] soCohong Monopoly. 5. Adhere to a
mething [that had to] happen to
fixed custom duty on trade. The last
China at that period of
two parts of the treaty would eventutime. [The] Qing Dynasty
[in] China is so
ally severely damage China's econtraditional. Actually after
omy. The Cohong was the system of
[the] Tang & Song dynasty which
trade in place prior to the war, and
[was] the most powerful time to
without it trade was chaotic. Additionchina, it goes down. At the last dynasty China is so
ally the fixed custom duty forced
undeveloped because it close[d]
China to accept a fixed tax rate on imported goods; this led to diminished
value on things produced in China,
which was good for everyone except
China. One benefit that came out of
this treaty is that Shanghai, one of
the cities opened to international
trade, would grow into one of China's
major ports. Following the treaty of
14
Nanjing: "The British Supplementary Treaty of the Bogue (Humen), signed October 8, 1843, gave British citizens extraterritoriality (the right to be tried by British courts) and most-favored-nation status (Britain was granted any rights in
China that might be granted to other foreign countries)". Other countries including France and the US also pressured China into granting them the same rights.
There was however, one thing that the treaty didn't address: Opium. So of
course, smuggling resumed, and additionally the Chinese dragged their feet in implementing the reforms in the treaty. Eventually, Britain got frustrated and
joined with France in 1846 for the Second Opium War. Along with China's economy suffering, foreign trade caused inflation, increased food shortages, and
many uprisings occurred. All of this lead up to the Qing dynasty's collapse in
1911.
4
4
A simple map of Hong Kong
Hong Kong’s location in China
15
C H AP TE R 5
Conclusion
3
A statue found at the entrance to the Opium War museum. The Museum is found
in Humen town, Guangdong, China.
The Opium War had many effects on China. Some were good, but most
were bad. The war was most noted for opening up China to foreign affairs
and trade. When I first decided to research the Opium Wars, I knew
nothing about the topic. I had thoughts all the way from a United Nations
meeting type event to the American revolution, in all its bloody glory.
What I discovered was something in between: there were many nonfighting events, but in the end it did all boil down to military power, in
which Britain clearly outclassed China. After studying this topic, I'm
shocked by the length Britain would go to in order to "open China" as they
claimed. I think there were other options for achieving the same goal, but
peacefully. In conclusion the Opium Wars affected China in many ways,
and had many causes, events, and consequences.
16
C H AP TE R 6
Bibliography
International Anti-Opium Association. The War Against Opium. Tientsin: Tientsin
press ltd, 1922. E-Book.
https://openlibrary.org/works/OL10724600W/The_war_against_opium_cthe_Internat
ional_Anti-Opium_Association_Peking
King, C.W. Opium Crisis. London: Suter, 1983. E-Book.
https://openlibrary.org/works/OL15877253W/Opium_crisis
Parker, Edward, Harper. Chinese account of the Opium war. Shanghai: Kelly &
Walsh, ltd, 1888. E-Book
https://openlibrary.org/books/OL23286287M/Chinese_account_of_the_Opium_war
"A Letter to Queen Victoria." History of World Trade Since 1450. Ed. John J.
McCusker. Vol. 2. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2006. 837-838. World History
in Context. Web. 14 Apr. 2016.
http://libraries.state.ma.us/login?gwurl=http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/whic/PrimarySo
urcesDetailsPage/PrimarySourcesDetailsWindow?failOverType=&query=&prodId=W
HIC&windowstate=normal&contentModules=&display-query=&mode=view&display
GroupName=PrimarySources&limiter=&currPage=&disableHighlighting=false&displ
ayGroups=&sortBy=&search_within_results=&p=WHIC%3AUHIC&action=e&catId=&
activityType=&scanId=&documentId=GALE%7CCX3447600448&source=Bookmark&
u=mlin_m_wayhs&jsid=275d693a3ce8d16cb52da67e9983ec9c
"The First Opium War Begins: March 18, 1839." Global Events: Milestone Events
Throughout History. Ed. Jennifer Stock. Vol. 2: Asia and Oceania. Farmington Hills,
MI: Gale, 2014. World History in Context. Web. 8 Mar.2016.
http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/whic/ReferenceDetailsPage/ReferenceDetailsWindow?fa
ilOverType=&query=&prodId=WHIC&windowstate=normal&contentModules=&displ
ay-query=&mode=view&displayGroupName=Reference&limiter=&currPage=&disabl
eHighlighting=false&displayGroups=&sortBy=&search_within_results=&p=WHIC:UH
IC&action=e&catId=&activityType=&scanId=&documentId=GALE|KPVNQV14793871
2&source=Bookmark&u=mlin_m_wayhs&jsid=6af8a36874bd45d560e21aec25680a7c
Peter. C. Perdue. "The First Opium War." MIT. MIT Visualizing Cultures. 14 April
2016. http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/21f/21f.027/opium_wars_01/ow1_essay01.html
"First Opium War" World Public Library. 14 April 2016.
Lovel. Julia. "The Opium Wars: From Both Sides Now" History Today. Volume 62, Issue 6, June 2012. 14 April 2016.
http://www.historytoday.com/julia-lovell/opium-wars-both-sides-now
17