Literary technique
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A literary technique, literary device, or literary motif is an identifiable rule of
thumb, convention or structure that is employed in literature and storytelling.
Literary techniques are important aspects of an author's style, which is one of the five
elements of fiction, along with character, plot, setting and theme.
Literary devices refer to specific aspects of literature, in the sense of its universal
function as an art form which expresses ideas through language, which we can
recognize, identify, interpret and analyze. Literary devices collectively comprise the
art form’s components; the means by which authors create meaning through language,
and by which readers gain understanding of and appreciation for their works. They
also provide a conceptual framework for comparing individual literary works to
others, both within and across genres. Both literary elements and literary techniques
can rightly be called literary devices.
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[Edit] Annotated list of literary techniques
Name
Alliteration
Anthropomorphism
Type
Poetic
Personification
Notes
the repeating of consonant sounds.
a form of personification, taking humanlike characteristics to both living and
non-living objects.
Aphorism
a concise statement containing a
subjective truth or observation cleverly
and pithily written. Aphorisms typically
make extensive use of such devices as
alliteration, anaphora, and rhyme. The
aphorism is considered a compressed
poetic genre in itself.
Author surrogate
Character
a character who acts as the author's
spokesman. Sometimes the character
may intentionally or unintentionally be
an idealized version of the author. A
well known variation is the Mary Sue or
Gary Stu (self-insertion).
Back-story
Background
exposure
the story "behind" or "before" the events
being portrayed in the story being told;
past events or background for a
character that can serve to color or add
additional meaning to current
circumstances. Provides extra depth to
the story by anchoring it to external
events, real or imagined.
Bathos
a mood that overstates its own pathos or
drama.
Breaking the fourth
wall
when the author or a character addresses
the audience directly (also known as
direct address). This may acknowledge
to the reader or audience that what is
being presented is fiction, or may seek
to extend the world of the story to
provide the illusion that they are
included in it.
Chekhov's gun
Plot
the insertion of an object of apparent
irrelevance early on in a narrative, the
purpose of which is only revealed later
on in the story. See also foreshadowing
and repetitive designation.
Plot
is common in serials. A narrative line is
deliberately left unresolved, with the
intention that the audience returns to see
the resolution.
Cliffhanger
Conceit
an extended metaphor associated with
metaphysical poetry, designed to push
the limits of the imagination in order to
portray something indescribable.
Defamiliarization
technique of forcing the reader to
recognize common things in an
unfamiliar or strange way, in order to
enhance perception of the familiar.
Deleted affair
telling of a romantic relationship, but
not referred to in the current story.
Deus ex machina (a
machination, or act of Plot
god)
a plot device dating back to ancient
Greek theater, where the primary
conflict is resolved through a means that
seems unrelated to the story (i.e. a god
comes down out of nowhere and solves
everything, saving the character from
peril). In modern times, the Deus ex
machina is often considered a clumsy
method, to be avoided in order not to
frustrate readers or viewers.
Dramatic
visualization
"the representing of an object or
character with an abundance of
descriptive detail, or the mimetic
rendering of gestures and dialogue in
Descriptive
such a way as to make a given scene
'visual' or imaginatively present to an
audience". This technique dates back to
the Arabian Nights.[1]
Verfremdungseffekt
a technique popularized by 20th century
playwright Bertolt Brecht, in which the
Literary technique
audience is "alienated" or "distanced"
from the emotion of the play.
Epiphany
a literary work or section of a literary
work presenting, usually symbolically,
such a moment of revelation and
insight.
Epistolary novel
Literary genre
a novel in the form of a series of
documents, usually letters or e-mails
exchanged between the characters.
Classic examples include Pamela by
Samuel Richardson (1740), The
Expedition of Humphry Clinker by
Tobias Smollett (1771), Les Liaisons
dangereuses by Pierre Choderlos de
Laclos (1782) and Dracula by Bram
Stoker (1897).
Literary genre
fiction written in the form of, or about,
apparently real, but actually fake
documents. Examples include Robert
Graves's I, Claudius, a fictional
autobiography of the Roman emperor,
H.P. Lovecraft's Necronomicon, and the
Flashman series by George MacDonald
Fraser. The short stories of Jorge Luis
Borges are often written as summaries
or criticisms of books that in actuality
do not exist.
Character, Framing
a character whose fictional existence is
introduced within a larger work of
fiction, or a character in a story within a
story. Early examples include
Panchatantra and Arabian Nights. See
also frame story.
False documents
Fictional fictional
character
Flashback (or
analeptic reference)
general term for altering time
sequences, taking characters back to the
beginning of the tale, for instance.
A Flashforward
also called prolepsis, is an interjected
scene that takes the narrative forward in
time from the current point of the story.
Flashforwards are often used to
represent events expected, projected, or
imagined to occur in the future. They
may also reveal significant parts of the
story that has not yet occurred, but soon
will in greater detail. This can be seen in
the television series Lost.
Foreshadowing
Plot
hinting at events to occur later. Giving
an idea to what's going to happen in the
upcoming events. See also formal
patterning, repetitive designation and
Chekhov's gun.
Formal patterning
"the organization of the events, actions
and gestures which constitute a
narrative and give shape to a story;
when done well, formal patterning
allows the audience the pleasure of
discerning and anticipating the structure
of the plot as it unfolds". This technique
dates back to the Arabian Nights.,[1] and
is also used in Romeo and Juliet. See
also foreshadowing.
Frame story, or a
story within a story
Framing
where a main story is used to organize a
series of shorter stories. Early examples
include Panchatantra, Arabian Nights
and The Decameron. A more modern
example is Brian Jacques The Legend of
Luke.
Framing device
Framing
the usage of a single action, scene,
event, setting, or any element of
significance at the beginning and end of
a work.
Incluing
gradually exposing the reader to
background information about the world
in which a story is set. The idea is to
Setting::Background
clue the readers into the world the
exposure
author is building, without them being
aware of it such as Brave New World.
Opposite of Infodumping.
Infodumping (also,
plot dump)
where a concentrated amount of
background material is given all at once
in the story, often in the form of a
Setting::Background conversation between two characters,
exposure
both of whom should already know the
material under discussion. (The socalled "As you know, Bob"
conversation) Opposite of Incluing.
In medias res
Narrative hook
when the story begins in the middle of
an intense action sequence. Used a lot in
thrillers.
Irony
Juxtaposition
Leitwortstil
Magic realism
Contextual
a discrepancy between expectation and
reality. The three forms of irony are:
situational irony, where a situation
features a discrepancy between what is
expected and what is actualized;
dramatic irony, where a character is
unaware of pivotal knowledge which
has already been revealed to the
audience (the discrepancy here lies in
the two levels of awareness between the
character and the audience); and verbal
irony, where one states one thing while
meaning another. The difference
between verbal irony and sarcasm is
exquisitely subtle and oft contested, but
exists nonetheless. The concept of irony
is too often misunderstood in popular
usage. Unfortunate circumstances and
coincidences do not constitute irony
(nor do they qualify as being tragic).
See the Usage controversy section
under irony, and the term tragedy.
Contextual
when the author places two themes,
characters, phrases, words, or situations
together for the purpose of comparison,
contrast, or rhetoric.
Poetic
the 'the purposeful repetition of words'
in a given literary piece that "usually
expresses a motif or theme important to
the given story". This dates back to the
Arabian Nights.[1]
Literary genre
a form particularly popular in Latin
America but not limited to that region,
in which events are described
realistically, but in a magical haze of
strange local customs and beliefs.
Gabriel García Márquez is a notable
author in the style.
a word or phrase used in a figure of
speech in which an attribute of
something is used to stand for the thing
itself e.g. a HAND (replaces the term
helper/worker).
Metonym
Narrative hook
Narrative hook
opening of a story that "hooks" the
reader's attention so he or she will keep
reading.
Overstatement
exaggeration of something, often for the
purpose of emphasis (also known as a
hyperbole).
Onomatopoeia
Poetic
a word that sounds the same as, or
similar to what the word means. E.g.,
"boom" or "squish".
Oxymoron
Contextual
when two opposite terms are used
together.
Paradox
Contextual
A phrase which can not possibly exist
eg. "The best of times, the worst of
times." A Tale of Two Cities
Parody
Genre, Contextual
ridicule by overstated imitation, usually
humorous, such as MAD Magazine.
Genre
using forms and styles of another
author, generally as an affectionate
tribute, such as the many stories
featuring Sherlock Holmes not written
by Arthur Conan Doyle, or much of the
Cthulhu Mythos.
Pastiche
Pathetic fallacy
the reflection of the mood of a character
(usually the protagonist) in the
atmosphere or inanimate objects. A
good example is the storm in William
Shakespeare's King Lear, which mirrors
Lear's mental deterioration.
Pathos
or emotional appeal, one of the three
modes of persuasion in rhetoric used by
the author to inspire pity or sorrow in
the reader towards a character; pathos
typically does not counterbalance the
suffering of the target character with a
positive outcome, as in Tragedy.
Personification
Personification
the use of comparative metaphors and
similes to give living characteristics to
non-living objects.
Plot device
Plot
an object or character whose sole
purpose is to advance the plot. Usually
considered a sign of poor writing.
Plot
a change ("twist") in the direction or
expected outcome of the plot of a film
or novel. See also twist ending.
Poetic justice
Plot
when virtue is ultimately rewarded or
vice punished, often in modern literature
by an ironic twist of fate intimately
related to the character's own conduct.
Predestination
Plot
a paradox of time travel when a time
Plot twist
paradox
Quibble
traveler is caught in a loop of events that
"predestines" him or her to travel back
in time.
Plot device
one of many plot devices, is an
argument that the intended meaning of
an agreement holds no legal value, as
only the exact verbally specified
conditions are those which were agreed
upon. In one of the best known
examples, William Shakespeare used a
quibble in The Merchant of Venice:
Portia saves Antonio in a court of law
by pointing out that the agreement
called for a pound of flesh, but no
blood, and therefore Shylock can collect
only if he sheds no blood.
Repetitive designation Plot device
"repeated references to some character
or object which appears insignificant
when first mentioned but which
reappears later to intrude suddenly in
the narrative", a technique which dates
back to the Arabian Nights.[2] See also
foreshadowing and Chekhov's gun.
Self-fulfilling
prophecy
a prediction that, in being made,
actually causes itself to become true.
Early examples include the legend of
Oedipus, and the story of Krishna in the
Mahabharata. There is also an example
of this in Harry Potter.
Sensory detail
Descriptive
or imagery, sight, sound, taste, touch,
smell.
Side story
a form of narrative that occurs alongside
established stories set within a fictional
universe. Examples include
Mahabharata, Ramayana, Gundam,
Doctor Who and The Matrix.
Story within a story
Framing
where a story is told within another
story. An early famous example of this
is the Arabian Nights. See also frame
story.
Literary genre
a special form of interior monologue
characterized by leaps in syntax and
punctuation that traces a character's
fragmentary thoughts and sensory
feelings.
Stream of
consciousness
Symbolism
the applied use of symbols: iconic
representations that carry particular
conventional meanings.
Thematic patterning
"the distribution of recurrent thematic
concepts and moralistic motifs among
the various incidents and frames of a
story. In a skillfully crafted tale,
thematic patterning may be arranged so
as to emphasize the unifying argument
or salient idea which disparate events
and disparate frames have in common".
This technique dates back to the
Arabian Nights.[1]
Ticking clock
scenario
the threat of impending disaster. Often
used in thrillers where salvation and
escape are essential elements.
Tone
the overall attitude that an author
appears to hold toward the work—a
novel such as Candide makes fun of the
sufferings of its characters, while The
Sorrows of Young Werther takes its
protagonist's suffering very seriously.
Unreliable narrator
a technique in which the narrator of the
story is not sincere or introduces a bias
in the way he tells it and possibly
misleads the reader, hiding or
minimizing some events, characters or
motivations.
Plot device
Word play
when the nature of the words used
becomes an aspect of the work.
Writer's voice
a combination of the various structural
aspects of an author's writing style.
Adventure novel. A novel where exciting events are more important than
character development and sometimes theme. Examples:
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H. Rider Haggard, King Solomon's Mines
Baroness Orczy, The Scarlet Pimpernel
Alexandre Dumas, The Three Musketeers
Alexandre Dumas, The Count of Monte Cristo
Allegory. A figurative work in which a surface narrative carries a secondary,
symbolic or metaphorical meaning. In The Faerie Queene, for example, Red Cross
Knight is a heroic knight in the literal narrative, but also a figure representing
Everyman in the Christian journey. Many works contain allegories or are
allegorical in part, but not many are entirely allegorical. Some examples of
allegorical works include
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Edmund Spenser, The Faerie Queene
John Bunyan, The Pilgrim's Progress
Dante, The Divine Comedy
William Golding, Lord of the Flies (allegorical novel)
Herman Melville, Moby Dick (allegorical novel)
George Orwell, Animal Farm (allegorical novel)
Apologue. A moral fable, usually featuring personified animals or inanimate
objects which act like people to allow the author to comment on the human
condition. Often, the apologue highlights the irrationality of mankind. The beast
fable, and the fables of Aesop are examples. Some critics have called Samuel
Johnson's Rasselas an apologue rather than a novel because it is more concerned
with moral philosophy than with character or plot. Examples:
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George Orwell, Animal Farm
Rudyard Kipling, The Jungle Book
Autobiographical novel. A novel based on the author's life experience. More
common that a thoroughly autobiographical novel is the incluision of
autobiographical elements among other elements. Many novelists include in their
books people and events from their own lives, often slightly or even dramatically
altered. Nothing beats writing from experience, because remembrance is easier
than creation from scratch and all the details fit together. Examples of
autobiographical novels are:
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James Joyce, Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man
Thomas Wolfe, Look Homeward, Angel
Children's novel. A novel written for children and discerned by one or more of
these: (1) a child character or a character a child can identify with, (2) a theme
or themes (often didactic) aimed at children, (3) vocabulary and sentence
structure available to a young reader. Many "adult" novels, such as Gulliver's
Travels, are read by children. The test is that the book be interesting to and--at
some level--accessible by children. Examples:
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Mark Twain, Tom Sawyer
L. M. Montgomery, Anne of Green Gables
Booth Tarkington, Penrod and Sam
Christian novel. A novel either explicitly or implicitly informed by Christian faith
and often containing a plot revolving around the Christian life, evangelism, or
conversion stories. Sometimes the plots are directly religious, and sometimes
they are allegorical or symbolic. Traditionally, most Christian novels have been
viewed as having less literary quality than the "great" novels of Western
literature. Examples:
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Charles Sheldon, In His Steps
Lloyd C. Douglas, The Robe
Henryk Sienkiewicz, Quo Vadis
Par Lagerkvist, Barabbas
Catherine Marshall, Christy
C. S. Lewis, Perelandra
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G. K. Chesterton, The Man Who was Thursday
Bodie Thoene, In My Father's House
Coming-of-age story. A type of novel where the protagonist is initiated into
adulthood through knowledge, experience, or both, often by a process of
disillusionment. Understanding comes after the dropping of preconceptions, a
destruction of a false sense of security, or in some way the loss of innocence.
Some of the shifts that take place are these:
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ignorance to knowledge
innocence to experience
false view of world to correct view
idealism to realism
immature responses to mature responses
Examples:
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Jane Austen Northanger Abbey
Charles Dickens, Great Expectations
Stephen Crane, The Red Badge of Courage
Detective novel. A novel focusing on the solving of a crime, often by a brilliant
detective, and usually employing the elements of mystery and suspense.
Examples:
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Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, The Hound of the Baskervilles
Agatha Christie, Murder on the Orient Express
Dorothy Sayers, Strong Poison
Literary devices are common structures used in writing. These devices can be either
literary elements or literary techniques. Literary elements are found in almost every
story and can be used to analyze and interpret (e.g. protagonist, setting, plot, theme).
Literary techniques, on the other hand, constructions in the text, usually to express
artistic meaning through the use of language (e.g. metaphor, hyperbole).
Please note that sometimes certain terms can be defined interchangeably as either an
element or technique, depending on your interpretation. When analyzing works of
literature or poetry it is extremely helpful to know these terms and identify them in
the text. This allows for greater understanding and appreciation of the work!
Common literary elements:
Protagonist
The main character in a story, the one with whom the reader is meant to identify. The
person is not necessarily "good", but is the person whom the reader is most invested
in.
e.g. Holden Caulfield in The Catcher in the Rye
Antagonist
Counterpart to the main character/protagonist and source of a story's main conflict. It
may not even be a person (see Conflict below).
Plot
Sequence of events in the story.
Setting
Time and place in which the story occurs.
Conflict
A struggle between opposing forces which drive the story. This is what keeps the
reader reading! The outcome of the story is usually a resolution of the conflict. The
opposing force does not have to be a person. The basic types of conflict are: Man vs.
Self, Man vs. Man, Man vs. Nature, Man vs. Society or Man vs. Machine.
Climax
The dramatic high of the story. Right before the climax is the turning point, usually
where something goes wrong. The climax then ensues and comes to a resolution. A
resolution does not necessarily mean the problem has been solved; only that the high
point has ended.
Motifs, Themes and Symbols
A motif is a recurring important idea, structure or image; it differs from a theme in
that it can be expressed as a single word or fragmented phrase. e.g. comparing a
person's stages of life to seasons of the year.
A theme usually must be expressed as a complete sentence. A theme is a main
universal idea or message conveyed by the piece. e.g. Little Red Riding Hood's theme
may be "Don't talk to strangers".
A symbol is an object, colour, person, character or figure used to represent abstract
ideas. A symbol, unlike a motif, must be tangible or visible.
Mood
The atmosphere or emotional condition created by within the setting. Mood refers to
the general sense or feeling which the reader is supposed to get from the text and is
not necessarily referring to the characters' state of mind.
Point of view
The identity of the narrator's voice, the point of view from which the reader sees the
story. It may be first person (there is no narrator) or third person (the story is told by a
character or direct observer in the story).
Common literary techniques:
Allegory
Where an entire story is representative/symbolic of something else, usually a larger
abstract concept or important historical/geopolitical event (e.g. Animal Farm is an
allegory of Soviet totalitarianism).
Alliteration
The repetition of consonant sounds, usually used consecutively in the same sentence
(e.g. Silly Sally saw sixty slithering snakes).
Anthropomorphism
Where animals or inanimate objects are portrayed as people. (e.g. in Animal Farm the
animals can talk, walk, and interact like humans).
Deus ex machina
Latin for "God out of the machine", this term describes the primary conflict being
solved out of nowhere, as if God or a miracle could only solve the complex conflict.
Dramatic irony
Where the audience or reader is aware of something important, of which the
characters in the story are not aware. Situational irony is different in that the readers
are not aware; the results are unexpected and mocking in relation to what was
expected (the usual use of the term irony). Verbal irony is an expression that is
opposite of what it is intended to mean (e.g. the Ministry of Love is actually a place of
torture and brainwashing in the novel 1984).
Exposition
When an author interrupts a story in order to explain something - usually to provide
important background information. An exposition can also be essential information
which is given at the beginning of a play or short story, about the plot and the events
which are to follow.
Foil
A character who is meant to represent characteristics, values or ideas which are
opposite to another character (usually the protagonist).
Foreshadowing
Where future events in a story, or perhaps the outcome, are suggested by the author
before they happen. This suggestion can be made in various ways such as a flashback,
an object, or a previous minor situation which reflects a more significant situation
later on. This sort of warning sign can also be called a red herring.
Hyperbole
A description which uses exaggeration or extremes to convey emphasize a
characteristic; e.g. "I told you a thousand times!" does not mean the person has been
one thousand times.
Metaphor vs. Simile
A metaphor is direct relationship where one thing IS another (e.g. "Juliet is the sun").
A simile, on the other hand, is indirect and usually only likened to be similar to
something else. Similes usually use "like" or "as" (e.g. "Your eyes are like the
ocean").
Parallelism
The use of similar or identical language, structures, events or ideas in different parts
of a text.
Pathetic fallacy
When the mood of the character is reflected in the atmosphere (weather) or inanimate
objects.
Personification
Where inanimate objects or abstract concepts are given human thoughts, actions,
perceptions and emotions. E.g. "The moon danced mournfully over the water" - you
see that a moon cannot actually dance or with mourning, therefore it is being
personified in order to create artistic meaning.
Repetition
When a specific word, phrase, or structure is repeated several times, usually in close
proximity, to emphasize a particular idea.
STANDARD GREEK THEATRE LAYOUT
The three main components of a Greek theatre are the theatron, orchestra, and skene.
The theatron, or “watching place,” was the curved audience seating area. The
orchestra, or “dancing place,” acted as the performance area for the chorus. In the
middle of the orchestra usually sat a stone altar to Dionysus. While theatres have had
a theatron and orchestra since their inception, the third main part of the theatre, the
skene, or stage building, did not appear until later. At Athens, the skene was not added
until 458 BC. The roof of the skene was known as the theologeion, meaning “god
speaking,” hinting that it was used for the appearance of gods.
Other theatre components and devices include the proskene, paradoi, ekkyklema and
mechane. The stage which appeared in front of the skene was known as the proskene.
Debate exists concerning the date at which the proskene became a part of the theater.
Many believe it existed in the fifth century, which supports the increasing role of
actors over the chorus; however, no plays of that period suggest evidence for a stage,
nor do they show such a great distinction between chorus and actor that a physical
structure is required to separate them. The paradoi were passageways at the front of
the orchestra by which actors made their entrances and exits. The ekkyklema and
mechane were both devices, believed to be used since the fifth century, which could
be seen as means of producing “special effects.” The ekkyklema was a wheeled
platform, which, when rolled out from the central door in the skene, could represent a
scene taking place inside. The mechane was a crane anchored into place behind the
skene. It was made up of pulleys, a wooden beam, and a harness that could be used to
give the impression of characters flying or being suspended in air.
References
Ley, Graham. A Short Introduction to the Ancient Greek Theater. Chicago: The
University of Chicago P, 1991.
Storey, Ian C., and Arlene Allan. A Guide to Ancient Greek Drama. Malden:
Blackwell, 2005.
Taylor, David. The Greek and Roman Stage. London: Bristol Classical P, 1999.
Webster, T.b.l. Greek Theatre Production. 2nd ed. London: Methuen and Co. LTD,
1970.
The Theatron
The earliest Greeks who attended performances probably sat on the grass or stood on the
hillside to watch the goings-on. Soon there were wooden benches. Later, the audience sat
on benches cut from the rock of the hillside or made of stone. Some prestigious benches
towards the bottom might be covered with marble or otherwise enhanced for priests and
officials. (These front rows are sometimes called proedria.) The Roman seats of prestige
were a few rows up, but they came later.
Seats were arranged in curving (polygonal) tiers, as you can see, so that the people in
the rows above could see the action in the orchestra and on stage without their vision
being obscured by the people beneath them. The curve followed the shape of the
orchestra, so where the orchestra was rectangular, as the first may have been, the seats
facing the front would be rectilinear as well, with curves to the side. (Thorikos, Ikaria,
and Rhamnus may have had rectangular orchestras.) This isn't too different from the
seating in a modern auditorium -- except for being outside.
To get to the upper seats, there were stairs at regular intervals. This provided the
wedge formation of the seats that is visible in ancient theaters.
The viewing area of the Greek theater is called the theatron, whence our word
"theater" (theatre). Theatron comes from a Greek word for viewing (the ceremonies).
The Greek theaters also excelled in acoustics, so the people up high on the hill could
hear the words spoken. Some ancient Greek theaters are still used for concerts
because of their superior acoustics.
The Theater at Ephesus may have Hellenistic origins, but it was expanded by the Roman emperors Claudius,
Nero, and Trajan It is said that the Apostle Paul delivered a sermon in the Theater of Ephesus. Its diameter is 145
m and its height is 30 m.
The Theater of Ephesus was used until the 5th century, although it was damaged by earthquakes in the 4th. The 1st
permanent scene building at the Theater of Ephesus was built around 300 B.C. The Theater of Ephesus is back in
use.
Sources for all pages:
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Didaskalia - Introduction to Greek Stagecraft
Dilke, O.A.W., "The Greek Theatre Cavea," The Annual of the British School at Athens, Vol. 43, (1948), pp. 125-192
Dilke, O.A.W., "Details and Chronology of Greek Theatre Caveas," The Annual of the British School at Athens, Vol. 45, (1950), pp. 2062
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Jona Lendering - Ephesus
Sacred Sites - Theater of Ephesus
The Greek Theater and Its Drama, by Roy Caston Flickinger
Tomlinson, Richard Allan, "Theatres (Greek and Roman), structure" The Oxford Classical Dictionary. © Oxford University Press 1949,
1970, 1996, 2005.